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Casual Encounters: Constructing Sexual Deviance on Craigslist.Org a Dissertation SUBMITTED to THE Casual Encounters: Constructing Sexual Deviance on Craigslist.org A Dissertation SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BY Chelsea Reynolds IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Kathleen Hansen May 2017 © Chelsea Reynolds, 2017 Acknowledgments I am grateful for everyone who supported me as I pursued my Ph.D. in mass communication at the University of Minnesota. Many thanks to my father, Robert Reynolds, who reminds me how lucky I am to teach, research, and write. Much love to my brother, Ethan Reynolds, whose positivity is contagious. Endless appreciation for my step-parents, Brenda Reynolds, John Ward, and Dana Ward, who entertain my academic monologues during holiday dinners. I am most indebted to my mother, who taught me that hard work and tenacity pay off. Four years after losing her battle with breast cancer, she motivates me every day. I raise my glass to those friends who saw me through the past five years: My ladies — Meagan Manning, Sara Cannon, Ruth DeFoster, Mikki Van Epps, and Yena Yoo- Bordwell; the Ph.D. candidates in the Department of Cultural Studies and Comparative Literature — Niels Niessen, Brendan McGillicuddy, Thorn Chen, Lyes Benarbane, and Andrea Gyenge; my colleagues and confidants from the School of Journalism and Mass Communication — Nora Paul, Susan LoRusso, Stephen Bennett, Anna Popkova, Ben Miller, Casey Carmody, Rodrigo Zamith, Brett Johnson, and Sarah Cavanah; and those closest to my heart, near and far — Evan Kleekamp, Kristan Lieb, Stefan Bellm, Iavora Vlaycheva, Nicole Oran, and Gabriel Fried. The next round is on me. I am indebted to the faculty and staff at the School of Journalism and Mass Communication, especially Angie Rehn and Jennifer Welsh, without whom I would have never navigated university bureaucracy. My gratitude for Drs. Al Tims, Marco Yzer, Seth Lewis, and Jennifer Williams, who showed confidence in me when I needed it most. And many thanks to my committee members, Sid Bedingfield, Amy O’Connor, and Laura Gurak, who have overseen this project from proposal to completion. Thank you. Finally, praise the academic gods for my advisors, Kathleen Hansen and Shayla Thiel- Stern, who in their turns provided compassion and guidance in equal measure. For as long as I research and teach, I will repeat to myself Kathy’s mantra: “Onward.” - CJR i Dedication For my mother, Petricia S. Ward, 1957 - 2012. ii Abstract Despite the prevalence of dating websites and hookup applications, mass communication scholars have largely ignored news coverage of sex in the digital age. Research about online sexuality has built on early theories of cyber identity, in which the Internet was conceptualized as a great emancipator. Online, it was argued, people could explore “disembodied” sexualities with little interference from offline reality. This dissertation builds a research line that investigates journalistic discourse about online sexuality using more than a decade of coverage of Craigslist sex forums as a case study. It also examines user activity on Craigslist sex forums, testing dominant theories of online identity. For journalists, Internet-mediated sexuality represents a compound moral threat. Since 2003, national U.S. newspapers have consistently identified the classified ads website Craigslist as a hotbed for sexual deviants — people whose sexual interests mainstream culture deems immoral or even illegal. Newspaper journalists call on police and government sources to frame Craigslist users as prostitutes, violent criminals, and cheating politicians. By relying on elite sources, news media surveil social deviance for the public. This is an outcome of normative reporting practices. Representational scholars have argued that media made by marginalized groups will provide more nuanced narratives than the mainstream press. But in stories about Craigslist sex forums, alternative media reproduce stigma about online sexuality. Popular LGBTQ and feminist online magazines describe Craigslist sex forums as catalysts for illegal and immoral activity. They sometimes privilege sex workers’ voices and cover the experiences of sexual minorities, but they contribute to the same deviance-defining discourse about Craigslist sex forums as does the mainstream press. Media across the ideological spectrum police social deviance and reinforce cultural norms — online and off. Mass media surveillance of online sexuality encourages people to surveil their own behavior online. Ads on Craigslist sex forums reflect dominant cultural norms about sex despite posters’ attempts to explore their “unusual” fantasies. The Craigslist Casual Encounters forum provides a productive outlet for people to fantasize about kink, non-monogamy, race, and sexuality. But it also reflects the politics of its white male user base. Sexism, homophobia, and gendered logics saturate the forums. Offline stigmas about sexuality bleed into online sexual expression. This dissertation theorizes the role of normalizing judgment in determining media representations of online sexuality. It offers perspectives from journalism sociology and cultural studies to help explain why media paint Craigslist sex forums as spaces that foster illegal and immoral sex. The dissertation concludes that online sexuality must be added to definitions of deviance in news. It problematizes theories of representations of sexuality by alternative media, and it demonstrates that online sexuality is deeply intertwined with offline identity. Keywords: Critical Discourse Analysis, Cultural Studies, Journalism, New Media, Sexuality, Sociology of News, Stigma iii Table of Contents List of Tables ……………………………………………………………………….. v List of Figures ………………………………………………………………………. vi Epigraph …………………………………………………………………………….. vii Introduction …………………………………………………………………………. 1 Chapter 1: Defining Deviance in Journalism and Sexuality Research ……...………. 9 Chapter 2: Critical-Qualitative Discourse Analysis ………………………………… 32 Chapter 3: U.S. Newspaper Coverage of Craigslist Sex Forums, 2003-2016 ............ 48 Chapter 4: LGBTQ and Feminist Coverage of Craigslist Sex Forums, 2005-2016 … 99 Chapter 5: User Activity on Casual Encounters Personal Ad Forums, 2003-2016 …. 146 Discussion and Conclusions ………………………………………………………… 201 Tables ……………………………………………………………………………….. 220 Figures ………………………………………………………………………………. 227 Bibliography ………………………………………………………………………… 228 Appendix A: Newspaper Articles Sampled ……………………………...………….. 240 Appendix B: LGBTQ and Feminist Online Magazine Articles Sampled …..………. 272 Appendix C: Craigslist Casual Encounters Ads Sampled ……………………….…. 285 iv List of Tables Table 1 - Coverage by Newspapers 2003-2016 ………………………………....... 220 Table 2 - Newspaper Coverage by Time Period ……………………...................... 220 Table 3 - Topics in Newspaper Coverage 2003-2016 ……………………………. 221 Table 4 - Sex Crimes and Sex Work in Newspaper Coverage 2003-2016 ………. 221 Table 5 - Sex Worker-Related Terms in Newspaper Coverage 2003-2016 ……… 222 Table 6 - Pimp-Related Terms in Newspaper Coverage 2003-2016 ……………... 222 Table 7 - Trafficking-Related Terms in Newspaper Coverage 2003-2016 ………. 222 Table 8 - Law and Regulation in Newspaper Coverage 2003-2016 ……………… 223 Table 9 - Scandal in Newspaper Coverage 2003-2016 ………………………........ 223 Table 10 - Online Dating Culture in Newspaper Coverage 2003-2016 …………... 223 Table 11 - Coverage by LGBTQ + Feminist Media 2005-2016 ………………….. 224 Table 12 - LGBTQ + Feminist News Coverage by Time Period …………………. 224 Table 13 - Topics in LGBTQ + Feminist News Coverage 2005-2016 …………… 225 Table 14 - Online Dating Culture in LGBTQ + Feminist News Coverage 2005-2016 …………………………………………………………….. 225 Table 15 - Orientation Terminology in LGBTQ + Feminist News Coverage 2005-2016 …………………………………………………………….. 225 Table 16 - Sex Worker-Related Terms in LGBTQ + Feminist News Coverage 2005-2016 …………………………………………………………….. 226 Table 17 - Pimp-Related Terms in Feminist News Coverage 2005-2016 ………... 226 v List of Figures Figure 1 - A Qualitative Coding Model for Critical Discourse Analysis ................. 227 vi Epigraph “Suddenly, it seemed like every other person showed up for his no-strings blow job with a switchblade.” - The Onion, February 2011 vii INTRODUCTION During the years between its 1995 launch as a Bay Area events listserv and its maturation as the world’s top classified ads website, Craigslist acquired a reputation for depravity. Media initially covered Craigslist as “the Web bulletin board where millions of people buy and sell stuff” (Walker, 2006). But by 2009, sex, violence, and scandal saturated reportage. Just weeks after law enforcement successfully pressured Craigslist to remove its Erotic Services forum from the site, headlines mythologized a “Craigslist Killer” linked to three sex workers’ murders in Boston. The New York Times referred to Craigslist as the “erotic underbelly of society” (Quenqua, 2009), while the Chicago Tribune called it “the Internet's version of a seedy street corner, a largely unregulated hotbed of prostitution that allowed easy access to illegal sex" (Mitchum & Garcia, 2009). By describing Craigslist sex forums as prurient spaces and by framing Craigslist users as sexual criminals, journalists worked as agents of conservative ideology. The message was clear: “If it’s just a sex crime it isn’t a story. But if a listing on Craigslist was involved, it’s a big story” (Arrington, 2010). This dissertation, Casual Encounters: Constructing Sexual Deviance on Craigslist.org, intervenes in debates about sexual
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