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Europe andthe theFarEurope of Trivialisation Discursive Framing Threat Framing ofthe Discursive Islamist in In requirementsArts for fulfilment ofthe partial thedegreeofMasters of Department ofInternational Relations and European Studies Reconciling PerceptionReconciling and Facts Central Yasmin Schinasi Romeu Supervisor: Paul Roe Word count: 16,883 Budapest, Hungary European University Submitted to 2015 By
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CEU eTD Collection white westerners communitie Muslim on has this that implications important the highlight to seeks initial statement Spai Norway, label. threat has been not disregarded and down t to threat biggest the as terrorism Islamic strands i.e. Orientalism, 9/11, Civilisational threat and Quality and Quantity, have helped These depict strands. discursive four to according constructed been has terrorism 9/11, since that asmorality tacticanyfree being andof issuesdefined. when The basis of this thesis resides on Timothy Shanahan’s argument that should terrorism be seen
To demonstrate this demonstrate To n and the UK the and n
as all countries show evidence of all four assumptions. Furthermore this thesis .
, the media narrative for narrative media the , , has been has ,
analysed and evaluated. The findings clea findings The evaluated. and analysed - played, played, so that it is no longer worthy of the “terrorist” Abstract he
west vis west i
four European countries namely France, namely countries European four - à - vis the far the vis
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the thesis argues rly prove the prove rly s as well as well as s - right CEU eTD Collection evensmile difficult inthe most stages ofit. ups the with dealt have who Miller Kelsey and Zarb Frank Anshba, Rustam Ratliff, Josh to goes mention special A experiences. shared many have I whom with and understanding and supportive been have who CEU at friends m I Finally valuable. most been has help whose Iris, and support whose Marta friend encouragement close have made it possible my for me to cope and with this intense year,mother alongside my sister my to grateful am I presented. were many the in help immense of been also have Toth Zsuzsanna particular in and department Writing Academic The research. my to greatvalue of were coursematerial have made this thesis possible. I would also like to thank Nick Sitter whose general advice and all I must extend my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Paul Roe whose patience and guidance ThereI are many who tothank need for their help andsupport throughout project. this First of Acknowledgements
and downs of the process, and who have made me made have who and process, the of downs and ii
ust thank all my fellow class fellow my all thank ust
drafts and ideas that that ideas and drafts - mates and mates CEU eTD Collection Bibliography A Conclusion Chapter 3 Chapter 2 Chapter 1 Introduction Acknowledgements Abstract Table ofContents ppendices 3.7 Implications3.7 3.6 Furtherfindings 3.5 Relatingthefar depictions to 3.4 QuantityQuality and 3.3 Threat civilisation to 3.2 The 9/11 3.1 Orientalism 2.6 Discourse Analysis 2.5 Relatingto the far perceptions 2.4 Quality thespectacleIslamic and of quantity: terrorism 2.3 Threat against civilisation: thewestern to and values State 2.2 The 9/11effect:forms new“them” of“us” vs. “them”2.1 Orientalism: “us” vs. 1.4 The far Lone1.3 resistance,wolf, leaderless Jihad leaderless 1.2 1.1 Terrorisma tactic as The four terrorism waves ofmodern
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CEU eTD Collection 23 2013): 2 (2010):173 no2 3 Terrorism, on Studies Security 1 cann it reason, this for Perhaps years. many for terrorists by i.e. onesorthey ev work small invery now groups large in working of instead that and tactics shifted merely have terrorists the that be Al that and worked, have tactics the prevent similar attacks and to destroy organisations like Al extremists Islamic by perpetrated that particular in terrorism, accompany definition,for doingbiasesallows for the and misinterpretations. so that which it, of view Shanahan’s takes thesis this Instead, equally. everyone by interpreted futile is terrorism defining Moreover, meansauthor advance in noted be must It contributions. relevant and to attempt to put this paper into perspective, the author will disc written about terrorism, particularly in beenthe last years.fifteen So, to narrow the background and has Much not. Probably one? controversial more a there Is Relations? International Introduction
Jeffrey Simon, JeffreySimon, Timothy
lone wolf tactic. terrorism should be seen for what it is, a tactic, and that no moral discussions should should discussions moral no that and tactic, a is, it what for seen be should terrorism After 9/11 After realm the within term debated and contested more a present, at there Is Terrorism. - 24 Shanahan, “Betraying a certain corruption of mind: how (and how not) to define ‘terrorism’”, Critical Critical ‘terrorism’”, define to not) how how (and mind: of corruption certain a “Betraying Shanahan,
this paper does paperdoes this
Lone Wolf Terrorism: Understanding the Growing Threat Growing the Understanding Wolf Terrorism: Lone Western
,
the main priority for most western governments and governments western most for priority main the 2
A tactic that has become more popular recently but, which has been used
Europe , attempt not
as there is no definition that will satisfy everyone or that will be be will that or everyone satisfy will that definition no is there as
,
as the US and Canada were not within the scope of this thesis. this of scope the within not were Canada and US the as - Qaeda is no longer a longer no is Qaeda to defineterrorismto en alone, and largeralone, independentlyany en organisation of - 174
1
. that when referring to the to referring when that s
- M
Qaeda. It may well be that some of strong as strong any have already established that that establishedalready any have uss some of the more interesting
( ot be identified as the fifth in in fifth the as identified be ot . Much has been attempted to attempted been has Much . Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, PrometheusBooks, Amherst,N.Y.:
it used to be. It may also also may It be. to used it state
leaders 1
west has been been has states , the , of
CEU eTD Collection Press,1999): University PA: Open 8 7 6 will be ofthe chapter page first hence the alone, chapter the on isnumbering based theBA)her page wheredid author the professor wasa Bentley(as published was thebook before byauthor the Counter Right Preventing response: Masking “Recognition Bentley, Michele 5 4 2004) 3 the why and terrorism in engage they violent inherently and backward barbaric, inferior, as Arabs the of always had a negative view of the Middle East and the Arab people is what Edward Said and later Ziauddin Sardar suffer the that is answer simple The strong. so is terrorism Islamic on focus the why wonders especially acts negl has it that terrorists Islamic on focused so become has deserves. Pete Simi and Michele Bentley have sug far the Norway, after even Yet this. prove where 2011, of summer the in Norway in terrorists and white supremacists continue to pose far the of has now become more relevant because self are they that fact theanarchicis; anti wave, the Rapoport’s
Edward Said, Edward Muslims). (or “fearofIslam” mean the to thought isgenerally Islamophobia Bentley,4 Simi,252 Note”. A Research Terror? Supremacist Simi, White “Why Study Pete 36,184 Simon, David
s
Rapoport, Rapoport, - from Islamophobia. from T the to duewesterncountries to threat main the arenow wolvesargue lone that Experts Radicalisation Critical Perspectives Radicalisation h - e concept of islamophobia islamophobia of concept e right have right Four W Four
Orientalism
committed bycommitted the The Four Waves Of Modern Terrorism Modern Of FourWaves The
aves of aves
- done so done radicalised, home radicalised,
(New York: Vintage Books,1979):5 Vintage York: (New 7 Modern T Modern
14,26
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colonial wave, new the o ay years. many for
far - right errorism can be broken down down broken be can , ed , west recently - . (London: Routledge, 2014) Note: Bentley’s chapter was read was read Bentley’schapter Note: 2014) Routledge, (London: . grown and act alone act and grown . 6 a right a
is justified in its fear of it. The second explanation explanation secondThe it. of fear its in justified is If takes one be to those assumptions true, thenone - ih hs eevd uh es teto ta it than attention less much received has right , 2 3 call call
Moreover
because it has existed throughout all four t four all throughout existed has it because Islamic terrorists have been using it, terrorists (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, Press, University Georgetown DC: (Washington, - wing extremist killed seventy killed extremist wing gested that the reason for this a threat to the Orientalism, which argues that the . Ziauddin . - left wave and thereligiousleft wave wave. - wing Extremism And Radicalisation”. In Radicalisation”. And wingExtremism , experts also claim that right that claim also experts , into four different strands. differentfour into ected all other for other all ected Deviant Behaviour Deviant 4 Sardar, Sardar, . Although . west
, thus . 8
, Orientalism 5 This would explain why explain would This numbered 1 numbered
and the terrorist attacks
const the
31 no3 (2010): 252 (2010): no3 31
ructing ms of terrorism, terrorism, of ms lone wolf tactic wolf lone
is that the (Philadelphia, (Philadelphia,
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CEU eTD Collection 10 Pride”. National 9 instead. h vis west the according to the time. any at anywhere far the of think constantly not do people and have, Islamists that fear of levels the instil to able been not have they because Finally, civilisation. same the to threat a not are they hence and “Islamic” not are they because case second the in of Orientalism because by MadridLondon. of York, thetraumas and New virulence with which they are perpetrated. createsThis a permanent of sense fear, exacerbated The last assumption is based on the amount an existential threat to its territorial integrity and more importantly radic reasons. religious and cultural for but ideological, for not world Muslim the fight will Huntington’s on based is explanation evil to Islam equated presentsrhetoric it has explains, a Islamic which languageterrorism toevil.AsSalaita links it of choice careful a Through 2001. after Administration Bush the by initiated Orientalism Essentially effect. 9/11 the as here presented is
Steven Salaita, “ Salaita, Steven as led to an exclusion of the far the of exclusion an to led as
Samuel al Islamists seeking to create a Caliphate under Islam under Caliphate a create to seeking Islamists al Ironically these explanations do not seem to apply to right to apply to seem not do explanations these Ironically
Huntington, “The Clash Of Civilizations?” Civilizations?” Of Clash “The Huntington, - à - CR: The New Centennial Review New Centennial The CR: vis the far the vis Beyond Orientalism And Islamophobia: 9/11, Anti 9/11, Islamophobia: And Orientalism Beyond se se discursive strands
9
western culture and norms, becaus norms, and culture western s and they are not from the Middle East and therefore, not violent by violent therefore,nature, Eastnot and theMiddle theyare notfrom hs th This - right, which has indeed been disregarded. It further argues that this this that argues further It disregarded. been indeed has which right, ince everyone fears evil, everyone should fear Islam. The third third The Islam. fear should everyone evil, fears everyone ince
ss rus ht ic 91, errs hs en constructed been has terrorism 9/11, since that argues esis - right as right , hence depicting Islamic terrorism as the biggest threat to The
6 no2 (2006):249 no2 6 a Clash of Civilisations of Clash of form of terrorism and terrorism of form Foreign Affairs Foreign attacks committ 3
it is an aggravated and modern form of of form modern and aggravated an is it
-
Arab Racism, And The Mythos Of Of TheMythos And Racism, Arab e they are they e 72 no3 (1993):32 no3 72 ic Sharia law, the the law, Sharia ic , ed in the name of Islam, and the
not evil. As for the third cas third the for As evil. not - right as being able to strike strike to able being as right , which claims that the that claims which , to to - has wing terrorists. In terrorists. wing its its core values and beliefs. westerner relabelled relabelled - 33
west s and so part of of part so and s it
see extremism s this this s the case the 10
With west as e,
CEU eTD Collection a countries rea the containing discourse the of analysis and research far the to apply not do they why and entail chapter next right of threat potential the and tactic wolf lone the of dangers the both The author t west the for possible been has it how out find to is author the of intention the that remember keyto equally, then it needs to reconsider so to create a secure environment for its citizens and wants to build a system that treats all people exaggerated. If the Isl the of dangers the whyto as reasons the and discourse the understand far the trivialising no longeras seen terrorism. exaggeratingIslamicthreat, isdownplaying but the thatof thefar if most, that show British analysedwhen newspapers bothright will be reporting context. US a in issue this at looked already have media. he are implication be.can and section for each assumption, where how the findings relate to them
to over to , as well as
Since not all western media could be covered, this thesis will on focus Europe as many In an attempt to do all the above, this thesis will be set out in the fo the in out set be will thesis this above, the all do to attempt an In the of “obsession” This to Inorder follow begin - exaggerate the Islamic terrorist threat vis threat Islamic terrorist the exaggerate gives s thereafter s how how they may apply to s
by discussing the literature that has been covered, with a particular focus on - prove
west right, has important implications. It is for this reason that is crucial to to crucial is that reason this for is It implications. important has right, not ealdepaaino ht h ordfeet assumptions different four the what of explanation detailed a
all all wants to avoid events like those seen in Oslo and the above, the the theories the . Chapter three three . Chapter
west
the author will look at the discourses prevalent in western in prevalent discourses the at look will author the
me of its actions and assumptions towards terrorism. It is terrorism Islamic with - right. A brief explanation of the methods used in the in used methods the of explanation brief A right. Islamic terrorists. This is are deal
present. We will find that find will We present. 4 s
with the findings of the analysis and analysis the thefindings of with The main French, Norwegian, Spanish and Spanish Norwegian, French, main The - à - vis the far the vis sons for the choices of sources sources of choices the for sons ,
at the expense of neglecting and neglecting of expense the at - wing and Islami wing and
followed followed by - right thepointwhere to is it - is what given this, and right,
discussed. not only is the media media the is only not Utøya being arethreat amic - wing terrorists. The The terrorists. wing llowing manner: manner: llowing a
section section on how sts incidentssts to in 2011, wants
A subsequent
mean and mean contains and and CEU eTD Collection of thisthesis, the Finally,evaluated. and which section section
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the effe the
the implications of the findings, and specific examples will be dis be will examples specific and findings, the of implications the cts on the findings on right on findings the on cts
conclusion
suggestions for
will
attempt to summarise the main points and findings findings and points main the summarise to attempt 5
f uture research - wi ng terrorism, if any. There is There any. if terrorism, ng .
cussed cussed then a
CEU eTD Collection 14 13 Approach'. ( 12 11 moral as it deem already we terrorism to it associating by because, necessary not is it of morality actual the Analysing wrong. morally is committed act the that implying already are we label, constructed un Shanahan This thesis connotation moral terrorism of definition a why is This implications. and consequences of fighter belief or the needs and desires of the person, definitions the byand be can others misleading and Schmid and Merari Silke, referencing targets goals, ideology, as such criteria 1.1 Terrorism as Chapter 1 Dordrecht: Springer, 2012):15. Shanahan 174. 2012):15. Springer, Dordrecht: Simi, Shanahan, 187 Shanahan, 173 Shanahan Spaaij, Ramon cetbe rte ta fr the for than rather acceptable,
ly incorrect and no further evaluation is needed 252 . ” This has been the case in the past and past the in case the been has This ” Ramon Spaaij, by terrorism describe to sought have Many s . Terrorism And Political Violence Political And Terrorism
12 , n Bdy argue Badey and .
hence 13 To use the most common analogy, “ analogy, common mostthe use To – -
174, Badey, 95 174, Understanding Lone Wolf Terrorism: Global Patterns, Motivations and Prevention and Motivations Patterns, Global Wolf Terrorism: Lone Understanding
According of terrorism within the field the within terrorism of Understanding the terrorist threat
adopt a
must be employed, one employed, be must tactic
T s imothy
S
o him to hanahan’s definition because it s - 96
,
ut rgty ta b dfnn troim s moa and immoral as terrorism defining by that rightly, quite Shanahan and Thomas Badey ,
three main issues arise: firstly, by attributing the terrorist terrorist the attributing by firstly, arise: issues main three
state c isl, e nvtby allow inevitably we itself, act
inaccurate
10 n 10 , these are just assumptions constructed and interpreted interpreted and constructed assumptions just are these ,
Thomas
and motivations, however, as Simi as however, motivations, and or definingorganisation it, so as to suit their interests o1 (1998): 90 (1998): o1 that looks at the act merely for what it is, a tactic. a is, it what for merely act the at looks that of International Relations (IR) Relations International of 6 Badey, 'Defining International Terrorism: APragmatic Terrorism: International 'Defining Badey,
.
indeed continues to be so be to continues indeed 11 one man’s terrorist is another man’s another is terrorist man’s one
taking i taking . - 14 107
In this way,
eeks nto consideration different sets of of sets different consideration nto ,
among
to analyse terrorism states
o cran da t be to ideas certain for others, others, have argued that
which , and and leaders can label leading to a to leading
vary according to according vary points out points
rids us of us rids as as a
freedom variety
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any . CEU eTD Collection 18 17 16 15 be to believed who groups mainly were These Ireland. in IRA the and Algeria in FLN the many other countries. The second wave, is the anti expa which which terrorism, Anarchic of that is wave first The manner: following nevertheless waves different the between overlap some is there that and broad too perhaps are they that of general criteria that several organisations meet have affected more than one nation and so had implications international no means thefirs evidence first is typeit or ofterrorism, but history throughout seen have we Rapoport’s 1.2 morality, but strands different the between differentiating to on that if we fight evil, all means deemed necessary to some allow this terrorism. as categorised be therefore cannot and permissible morally an exclusive, is grounds are interests own their what on based and perpetrators the to according differently acts similar
Ibid., 47 Ibid., 46 Rapoport, 187 Shanahan, 90 Badey, Ibid., . 15 The four four The of waves
been a number of waves of number a been This, Shanahan says, leads to the second issue, which is that defining terrorism on moral Amid - 50
nded throughout Europe, affecting Spain, Italy and the United Kingdom among Kingdom United the and Italy Spain, affecting Europe, throughout nded contribution - they provide us with a solid basis solid a with us provide they
69 on
vrtig ht a be witn n h different the on written been has that everything
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Spaaij, Spaaij, Jeffrey 47 Rapoport, Lone w Lone es. , ,
fall under this
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. Brigate Rosse Brigate
21 “Islamic terrorism” olf,
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Terrorist Groups And New Tribalism And Groups Terrorist
. Naturally, groups such as Al as such groups Naturally, .
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is ht ae mil o rlgos ol / ideologies / goals religious on mainly based that
category. organisations ) in Italy and the still present still the and Italy in ) ,
would be the third, and again many European nations were victims were nations European many again and third, the be would
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Al what the fifth wave is or y of its own. However, as I as However, own. its of y This will be the most most the be will This referred to sometimes to referred - strategy , - Qaeda Qaeda . (Abingdon, Oxon [England]: Routledge, 2010) Routledge, [England]: Oxon (Abingdon, . 8 Qae and and hence is crucial in any post 9/11
da, those linked to it and and it to linked those da, .
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CEU eTD Collection 32, Spaaij 18, Simon, 28 27 26 25 24 Press, 23 199 Press,2009): University 22 Simon and Michael recommend experts many as agendas, political international individuals, these by perpetrated to berapidly increasing 10) Unabomber” in the US, it seen have we history throughout many note, lone wolf terrorism i the Charlieattack Hebdo of this are the London 2005 bombings, the murder of soldier Lee Rigby in defe and agreement ideology in but group any by ordered necessarily not terrorism, of in line Resistance calls a “leaderless resistance” trend, in his book i small also but and adapted further, much as it tends to do. Now, we do not only fear groups and organisations to create a Caliphate Islamicunder
BBC News, BBC 1 Michael, 103 Spaaij, Ibid., J. Forest Michael, George 2008. Milelli J.P. and G. Kepel 26
2012):1 are
382 with those W
. only 23 The Terrorism Lectures Terrorism Lectures The ith L ith
.
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In the case Islamic of terrorism, this is known as “leaderless jihad” These are mainly 116 'Lone Wolf' Terror Threat Warning' February 7, 2012 7, Warning'February Threat 'LoneTerror Wolf' a few W terrorism becoming a common tendency common a becoming terrorism W
ndependent cells and so called lone w lone called so and cells ndependent Lone Wolf Terror And The Rise of Leaderless Resistance Leaderless of Rise The WolfAnd Terror Lone
of some extremist movements or terrorist organisation,
have have written extensively on how the threat posed by lone wolves is growing
examples. And examples.
. David 27 s
in Paris seen earlier this year seenin Paris In(2015) among earlier this many fact,others. as Al Qaeda In Words In Own Its Qaeda Al individual (
Santa Ana, CA: Nortia/Current, 2012) 111 2012) CA:Ana, Nortia/Current, Santa Copeland Copeland in 1999 in the UK and Peter Mangs in Sweden (2009 s not a new tactic, far from it, i the
Sharia ,
. as old a tactic as it may be, it is now 25 west
s In
or small group
iiul such dividuals law may ne may . 22 9
Lone Wolf Terror And
Yet, since after 9/11, terrorism has developed ed to re to ed
(Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard ofHarvard Press Belknap Mass: (Cambridge, olves (LWs), in what George Michael Michael George what in (LWs), olves s , whose beliefs and ideology might be
, - as http://www.bbc.com/news/uk , with more and more attacks being attacks more and more with , think its status in both in status its think
e Ka Ted . t is as old as terrorism itself and 28
(
Nashville: Vanderbilt University University Nashville: Vanderbilt vr h ls ye last the Over
czynski, czynski,
The Rise Of Leaderless and and who commit a 2013 in London and
trend nw a “The as known 24
, and examples
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BBC News, BBC al. et Sherwood Harriet Ibid,. 41 Simon 50 Spaaij, (1949 Fuchs Franz 49 Spaaij, Simi,255 37 Spaaij, earlier) (booksas noted Spaaij and Simon Michael,
returning
are in turn w turn in are - knowledge weapons and explosives. of There is a set of criteria of set a is There leaving . September 29, 2014 September29, . -
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31 'Lone Wolf' Terror Threat Warning'. Threat 'LoneTerror Wolf'
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lt from fighting abroad, where they will have been radicalised and will have have will and radicalised been have will they where abroad, fighting from
pose, e pose, - houghSpaaij argues, as this 2000) wasright of Austriananterrorist 2000) - join hat make this tactic tempting for tempting tactic this make hat
“Schoolgirl Jihadis: The Female Islamists Leaving Home To Join Isis Join Fighters”. To LeavingHome Islamists Female The Jihadis: “Schoolgirl - isis specia - http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/29/schoolgirl iraq 30
36 35
and perhaps
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since the since .
32 .
37 Cases such as that of Franz Fuchs, Franz of that as such Cases
Individuals of the threat that lone wolves, lone that threat the of for has this, Counter
west 10 may true true be ofsome, isnot ofall it 38
- is seeing how many of its citizens are citizens its of many how seeing is Terrorism Strategy (CONTEST) Strategy Terrorism - characteristics and hence poses different different poses hence and characteristics wing, xenophobic ideology who assassinated who ideology xenophobic wing, that could pose a threat to western nations cists and
radical individuals radical been slightly overlooked . 29
The problem seems to be to seems problem The
right the same way organisations are organisations way same the different to group terrorism group to different - wing extremists particularly th particularly 33
to employ to who suffered fromsuffered who - jihadis . (London: Home (London: . .
al Initially, and - female ,
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gnstos uh s h K Ku Klan Klux Ku the as such rganisations These sources by these authors are fully referenced throughout and when addressing specific claims each of each specificclaims when addressing and throughout fully are referenced authors these bysources These Ibid, 29 Ibid, 36 Simon, The far The
184. Vidhya Ramalingam, “ Vidhya Ramalingam, 184. they tend to be self Right
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ere Eatwell George Nevertheless, theyNevertheless,
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h explanation explanation h or or the lone wolf tacticthe wolf lone Pete , - NSU radicalised and can therefore be more unpredicta
, have managed to plan and commit violent attacks in almost everyalmost in attacks violent commit and plan to managed have waves ’s 39 their knowledge in these fields olish olish group named Old Threat, New Approach: Tackling the Far the Tackling Approach: New Threat, Old
.
( the as suitable more becoming is tactic this why is which 41 Simi Nationalsozialistischer Untergrund tasks
These are the main features of a tactic a of features main the are These ,
are: these what of They are empowered by the media and especially the the especially and media the by empowered are They such as either, Vidhya - minded people and it provides information on weapons, t errs or terrorism st
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m ing groups as for example for as groups ing 11 Ramalingam onitoring,
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an alingam reminds us, reminds alingam ted earlier, suggests a direct link between link direct a suggests earlier, ted -
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no CEU eTD Collection sapiens http://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/jan/31/terrorism 93 exception of Breivik,Anders most right Islamic their terrorism, techniq see people byhow judging repulsion, and creates that spectacle sadistic a is it that ensure They watch. others They have passer run was He fe instils what are attacks, the of yearthis (2015) there was a shooting in Denmark, all committed by earlier Londonand in murdered brutally was soldier a 2013 in Stockholm, in up himself blew home Isla exploded. be could scene similar a later year A people. 200 over killed which Madrid, in bombs of number a for responsibility soil. US on ever attack worst the in 9/11 in believe that this is the form of terrorism most threa terrorists, the level of anddestruction the show Islamiststhat t lives of number Islam,the of name the in perpetrated attacks of number The interpretations. than rather evidence hard on based mainly one practical and pragmatic more 2.4
Yuval N. Harari, “Yuval Noah Harari: The Theatre Of Terror”. Of Terror”. Theatre The Harari: “Yuval Noah Harari, N. Yuval mic terrorism as the main enemy mic asthe terrorism Quality and and quantity:Quality the - . - grown byes to record them them record to byes
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cells cells taking place in several European c seen , after which after , whilst covered in blood in covered whilst
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do do not just kill and ensure that - . January 31, 2015, 2015, . January31, respond . Islamists. disproportionate disproportionate ” Almost Almost 3000 people died , are what lead people to caused many to view to many caused Al , ue worksue - yuval - The viciousness aken by Islamic by aken Qaeda - eye for an eye an for eye noah . 93 - harari
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98 Breivik himself talked of his admiration for for admiration his of talked himself Breivik
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25
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CEU eTD Collection https://www.europol.europa.eu/latest_publications/37 99 white a to label same the giving then middle white, inherent are terrorists them. to environments white Since such environment, so they cannot be all those “repugnant” things that the Arab world embodies. W educated. w into culture the is that they seem not to apply. 2.5 threat the to “putting on a show”, then it would seem rational and obvious to conclude that this is the biggest ( activity far to opposed forcesaccuracy, question the usto inevitably This, extremists. as but terrorists, as categorised being not are they because data right by perpetrated attacks terrorist that means This
Europol,. “ Europol,. Relating tothe perceptions investigated asright right The issue with all the above mentioned strands in relation in strands mentioned above the all with issue The as Islamists by committed are attacks most that shows data the all roughly if So,
financing, p financing, In the case of the 9/11 effect, the situation is not dissimilar. not is situation the effect, 9/11 the of case the In EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report 2007 Trend and Situation Terrorism EU - wing violence and other politically motivated crimes are mainly mainly are crimes motivated politically other and violence wing west hite - westerner – class individuals. If the “others” (i.e. Muslims) are evil and therefore terrorists, thereforeterrorists, and evil are Muslims) (i.e. “others” Ifthe individuals. class -
right terrorists, and that most arrests are in connection with with connection in are arrests most that and terrorists, right these are only found apparently . But thedata is . accurate? westerner hich these people were born were people these hich
ropaganda, etc.), and Islamic extremists are better and instilling fear and and fear instilling and better are extremists Islamic and etc.), ropaganda, ly evil then it might be difficult to apply the apply to difficult be might it then evil ly d nt rw p n bar in up grow not do s s who become extremists were extremists become who s - In the case of Orientalism this seems obvious because, the problem wing extremismwing
far reliability importantly,most and ofthe data. thebias - right westerner ?
. (bold for emphasis, not in the original) not in emphasis, for (bold and not as terrorist as not offences and 26 in the Middle E
would come to mean that they are inherentl are they that mean to come would , or the count the or , ” (The Hague, Netherlands: Europol,2007): 35 35 Europol,2007): Netherlands: ”Hague, (The ai, akad n ihrnl violent inherently and backward baric, - wing individuals, may not show on the the on show not may individuals, wing supposedly ry where the where ry ast –
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t George George Islamic nessed - State r
is with any Islamic attack, shooting at teenagers at shooting attack, Islamic any with Finally, and with regards to the theatrics, one can argue that attacks perpetrated by perpetrated attacks that argue can one theatrics, the to regards with and Finally, t Apparently, . But even here, one
o n o uh s hy poe them. oppose they as much so in oo argue that .
ation Actors,” 100 Hough, “American Terrorism And The Christian Identity Movement: A Proliferation Threat From Threat AProliferation Movement: Christian Identity The And Terrorism “American Hough,
men being burnt alive, or men or alive, burnt being men fundamentalists
This is essentially what the Caliphate is
se tobelabelled that are alien so. and a rebirth a and
he does not apply to the far the applyto not does wo critiques wo Int. J. Appl. Psychoanal. Studies Psychoanal. Appl. J. Int. west the amount of right he
Mangs and McGee hated immigrants. This immigrants. hated McGee and Mangs says todefend,says and thatit right
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could wing because if “we” are with Bush then “we” are not with the terrorists must be made be must here the governing system will change and where the white race race white the where and change will system governing the here
e Christian Identity Movement (CIM) Movement Identity Christian e world
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radicals have been more discreet or have been less att less been have or discreet more been have radicals multicultural argue
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which sees which being beheaded being :
3 no1 (2006): (2006): no1 3 first Islamic Sharia law, and hence can b can hence and law, Sharia Islamic 27
or religion of freedom value which societies
does not ly, that ly, rii ws anti was Breivik more . Far . , only those Islamic who in cold blood and detonating a bomb in in bomb a detonating and blood cold in
- difficult to tag as evil whilst it is much 83 these right individuals, individuals, right solely
in broad day light, day broad in profe changing. T
terrorism as an existential threat threat existential an as terrorism individual
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CEU eTD Collection 101 Orientalism (a) discourse. method appropriate pub broader the of opinion the influences and main source see To the theories 2.6 the greatest threat a has what indeed are combined, when especially pose of of evil. From there we move o could be interpreted as a more intense version of Orientalism, where long Islam becomes the blame would Orientalism misconceptions of of the account Said’s not. is terrorism wing right while is, it way the depicted being is terrorism Islamic why explain to order in reasons assumptions look him. Oslo central
Muller, “Breivik: ‘Sí, Volvería A Hacerlo' Volvería ‘Sí, “Breivik: Muller, culture Discourse Analysis ing 101 d
by Islamic fundamentalists
As has been mentioned previously, one o one previously, mentioned been has As ab described interpretations The
how certain images are cr are images certain how So yes So at , religion and values. Finally the data Having previously analysed in detail what the four different explanations, namely: namely: explanations, different four the what detail in analysed previously Having it closely it described above are what has led to s of information fors ofinformation thepublic . , can apply right to As noted earlier, noted As ,
, generally and broadly all strands seem to excuse white excuse to seem strands all broadly and generally b T (b) .
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n to the civilisational threat that Islam poses to the -
see that there are grey are there that see à he himself suggested that Al that suggested himself he - wing terrorists - vis the Middle East and the Arab world. The post 9/11 rhetoric
is not just a perception, but eated and constructed, the constructed, and eated , ” (c) (c)
ove, show how different experts have found different found have experts different how show ove,
C must bemust vlstoa threat ivilisational
28 and theatrics
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CEU eTD Collection http://www.sintef.no/globalassets/project/nexus/01 102 case Breivik the on report Norwegian the Press France Agence Figaro, sections ofthe population t or newspapers read widely be these that was sources, of selection the for criterion important Another ideology. political of regardless terrorism Islamic of depiction the in pattern a existed there if see to include excluded were their views (be from it the right ortheleft) adhere orwhich t balanced as well as less predictable, those media whichoutlets are known beto very radical in make to order In them. to shown and reported is what by they have a strong influence on how people see certain situations and figures, as they are gu because also but access, Selecting à terrorism. demonstrate down show just of evaluating terrorism of spectacle - vis thefar
Rapport Fra 22.Juli Fra 22.Juli Rapport - playing
In addition to sources such as such sources to addition In The analysis liberal and conservative and liberal Sources that Investigating how the media and politicians report and depict Islamic terrorism vis terrorismIslamic depict andreport politicians and media the Investigatinghow -
right is thereforerightappropriate is method. the that how
. However, However, . other threats other these messages and portrayals and messages these the existence of these discourses are what mak arewhat discourses theseexistence of the
prevalent prevalent - focus Kommisjonen abloids, because these are the ones that, to some extent, influence extent, some to that, ones the are these because abloids,
entail and what the characteristics are, we can move on to the process the to on move can we are, characteristics the what and entail many read many . es the
and the implications thereafter implications the and these are in western discourse especially on newspapers and written press, not foronly its broad
newspapers or . Oslo: NOU August 13 2012 2012 August NOU Oslo: 13 .
so as to ensur to as so the Norway Post Norway the
the press, whether it be printed or online. This online. or printed be it whether press, the The Times, The Independent The Times, The
were evaluated too evaluated were -- selected report
are very present very are 29 e
a wide variety of ideas and most importantly, most and ideas of variety wide a - 22 ,
- some range from range july
- gjorv
relevant gover relevant . This method for analysing will
the . - o some sortof extremist ideology In particular In . commision 102 , but also but ,
analysis of the discourse more discourse the of analysis centre es the es
Some of the counter the of Some , El País, El Periódico, Le Le Periódico, El País, El , - west - left, to centre to left, how they how nment reports such as such reports nment , this thesis this
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CEU eTD Collection 2008 Macmillan, Palgrave Hampshire: (Basingstoke, 104 103 2011. July 22, on attacksBreivik by terrorist the after Government summary_english_version.pdf UK. necessary but useful, only not is analysis of type this undertaking when culture, the with familiarity tha language understand a in were or Norway), with (as press and outlets media main their of versions English had either which countries be to had they reasons, practical a believed author the si (i.e. years 15 last the in far and Islamic both experienced per and third they look to is goal beingFirstly,all these discussed. countries are conside selected at random but rather because they met a set of conditions that were linked to the issue Kingdom. United the and Spain Norway, France, namely western be to deemed countries Selecting viewed and portrayed. the how understand us help can too they been as consulted, also have public general the to accessible and governments by published strategies
Iver Iver Spainpost
were democratic Neumann, 'Discourse Analysis'.In 'Discourse Neumann, Unfortunately, it has not been possible due to time constraints to evaluate all those all evaluate to constraints time to due possible been not has it Unfortunately,
104 countries
- Franco era Franco to
and the author has resided or spent long periods of time in France, Spain an Spain France, in time of periods long spent or resided has author the and
as ot motn requir important most haps
a high level (as with English, Spanish and French). Neumann argues that that argues Neumann French). and Spanish English, with (as level high a at the discourse in the in discourse the at
to ensure that press and speech were
more balanced and informed reporting would exist. Finally, and for for and Finally, exist. would reporting informed and balanced more . nce 9/11). The reason for this this for reason The 9/11). nce An investigation on law enforcement reaction was conducted by the Norwegian by Norwegian the was conducted reaction enforcement law on Aninvestigation
. This thesis will thesis This . - right terrorism (whether the attacks were successful or not) not) or successful were attacks the (whether terrorism right Qualitative Methods In International Relations: A A Guide Pluralist Relations: International In Methods Qualitative west , this choice seems obvious. obvious. seems choice this , ement ):64 30
focus on four western European countries European western four on focus was that they be countries which have have which countries be they that was red
different types of terrorism are being being are terrorism of types different was that in having experienced both, both, experienced having in that was
to be mostly mostly free and uncensored These western nations, and since nations, western the
have It was important that important was It ,
naturally te uhr could author the t ,
not been been not 103 . The d thed , ,
CEU eTD Collection 105 further which after to, led conclusions countries different and sources different the of analysis the used by right tha earlier, forward put argument the follow to as so cells, byIslamicfundamentalists. McG Ri attacks in Norway by right Sweden, in Mangs Peter the lone wolf context. in specifically terrorism, of types both at specifically looks which thesis this of objectives the right and Islamic both by perpetrated recent. is event the when it, reaction, and has it a greater impact onthe audience whoare more and sensitive susceptible to post in Reporting others. in also but countriesown their in just not attacks keyreported sources these be to information the keep still but texts of number the delimit to order in so limit, word and constraints time the given
g Listed in chronological order. chronological Listed in b y in London in May 2013 by two Islamic ex Islamic two by 2013 May in London in y ee ee for - It must be noted be must It challenging very be to going was countries these all for sources these all Consulting atta building a bomb in November 2013 and the Charlie Hebdo attacks in January 2015 ck environments is in fact very fact in is environments ck
will bewill reached - wing terrorists. Furthermore, the coming section will reveal the findings to which
The
that all the events looked at were those perpetrated by LW’s or small or LW’s by perpetrated those were at looked events the all that - an
incident wing fanatic Anders Breivik in July 201
analysed relevant and useful, and relevant analysed 105 .
Islami
The incidents selected are either successful or failed attacks attacks failed or successful either are selected incidents The
s siie obr in bomber suicide c looked at include - wing lone wolf terrorists. T terrorists. wolf lone wing
relevant, as it highlight it as relevant, 31
tremists, the arrest of far of arrest the tremists, : the assassination of
a deci a Stockholm in in Stockholm t it is a trend, and that it that and trend, a is it t sion was made was sion his of course is in line with with line in is course of his 1, the murder of soldier Lee s
the December 2010, the the 2010, December media’s immediate media’s - two immigrants by two immigrants by right
to look at how how at look to
soldier is wid
Ryan Ryan ely
CEU eTD Collection indicated. 106 the General politicians reader the and section, this in affiliation implications the what and mean results are. consequences the what of overview an giving before genera some far of depiction prevalent. particularly is it whether evaluated, and separately and for each reader. the of task the facilitate to as so sections bechapterwill ofcoursedivided into onthewill focus results and findingsthemselves, which those interpretations. ambiguous or confusing clarify to lead can which to expressions included is meaning its and terminology specific of explanation brief A these reasons developed have experts that theories of number a to as so governments, demonstrate that western and media western by terrorism Islamic of portrayal the Chapter 3
Several translations will follow in the next section, note that all were done by the author unless otherwise otherwise unless author were the by all done that note section, next the in willfollow translations Several state This chapter will go over the results and findings that t that findings and results the over go will chapter This As men
remarks will apply to all four countries, when referrin when countries, four all to apply will remarks or source in question or source inquestion
belong to belong l comments on the findings the on comments l – help
tioned in the previous chapter the author Depictions Islamof -
right extremism right the exaggeration of the radical Muslim threat can indeed be justified through threat beMuslim indeed through justified can theradical of exaggeration the
explain explain why right It is worth noting worth is It , or or ,
an an which the different media outlets sup outlets media different the which attempt
will bewill alluded to.
will also be indicated be also will wil -
should understand it to mean to it understand should wi l be made the following the ic terrorismic ng terrorism is being neglected and even down
after which, which, after 32 to show, based on the data and sources retrieved
106
E through time. This analysis analysis This time. through
, when referring to political inclination o inclination political to referring when , ach of the four theories will be dealt with with dealt be will theories four the of ach the findings the T
vis
. he effects (if any) that it has on the the on has it that any) (if effects he engaged in the endeavour of analysing There will be a few paragraphs with with paragraphs few a be will There - à - vis thevis far port or more closely adhere to. to. adhere closely more or port he research process has led has process research he g to a specific specific a to g will be summarised briefly summarised be will
the differe the
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CEU eTD Collection h January2015, Happen” Never Will It Showed LondonAnd InParis Protests 109 2010, 108 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2015/01/07/actualidad/1420636136_108346.html 2015, January8, Con La Libertad’” Podrá Terrorista Barbarie http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2013/05/22/internacional/1369249294.html 107 are “throw Charlie Hebdo old with place backward a theory. O their in make Said and Sardar that claims the to connected directly are course, they were saidbe to barbaric and onlyBreivik one, where was called a fanatic. of speaking suicide Swedish the religious fanatics, both act”. “barbaric a as event the describing the For themselves.used journalists instance, after and by politicians the This term isconsistently barbaric as themselves, perpetrators the and Muslims, radical by perpetrated attacks terrorist aspects, obvious more the of terms In too. of the Orientalist view o 3.1 ttp://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/news/sun_says/6248518/The
T HisSon Osama”. Called Bomber “UK Hughes. Simon and France, Anthony 2013, Espantoso'' May25, Barbarie ActoDe Un 'Es “Cameron: Mundo,. El Charlie Charlie Hebdo O heSun,. http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/news/3275023/UK rientalism
There is also reference, whether explicit or implicit, to the fact that the Middle East is East Middle the that fact the to implicit, or explicit whether reference, also is There ex good and evidenceclear find we Europeanmedia, in rhetoric the Lookingat - “The Islamist Barbarians Sought To Crush Freedom Of Speech Yesterday. Last Night’s Moving Night’sMoving Last Yesterday. Speech Of Crush Freedom To Sought Islamist Barbarians “The backs backs from the Middle Ages” who “live by an outdated code”.
right
events, events,
- wing terrorism, in fact the author the fact in terrorism, wing
and the Lee Ri
bomber.
The Sun the n the surface of the language and the deeper meaning of certain phrases
- Daily Mail fashioned and outdated traditions and beliefs. When reporting the the reporting When beliefs. and traditions outdated and fashioned 108
makes makes clear remarks to t Both these terms (barbaric and fanatic) are rarely used when used rarely are fanatic) and (barbaric terms these Both g by
attacks, attacks, David Cameron was and 107 The Sun
Islamic extremists are extremists Islamic we see we 33
used this term when referring to
that in general most newspaper describe newspaper most general in that was unable to find any examples where examples any find to unable was - bomber hat effect, stating that the perpetrators - Sun - - called Says.html . El Pais,. “Hollande: ‘Ninguna ‘Ninguna “Hollande: Pais,. El
also - quoted quoted on the Spanish press The Sun The his - . son regularly
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CEU eTD Collection Islamist http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/11330479/We 114 www.lexisnexis.com/hottopics/lnacademic 113 http://hemeroteca.lavanguardia.com/preview/2013/05/23/pagina 112 http://hemeroteca.lavanguardia.com/preview/2011/07/24/pagina 111 freedoms.html http://www.dailymail.co.uk/debate/article 110 killone just is(a jihadist child, a journalist), because“jihadists kill what thatis theymatter do”,not goes who hesay does onto then thatit 2015 January in Paris in attacks the discussing of their character.exampleofthiswas foundin An the that suggest to orientalist The Said. Edward to back straight us leads course of which place, Iraq or Somalia. insists and conflicts, worse Africa’s of some in sees one that terrorism Middle East is in shooting Breivik right by describing their andsurprise East. Middle the is, that etc.) backward (uncivilised, is Europe what of opposite the are that places in a civilised, modern Europe place take would incident an such that is it shocking how notes it when explicit, less perhaps Padraig Reidy, “We Must Stop Blaming Ourselves For Islamist Terror”. Terror”. Islamist For BlamingOurselves Stop Must Reidy,“We Padraig AFP,. Seguros"'. Estareis '"Nunca Ramos, Rafael Gemma Saura, “Terror EnNoruega”. “Terror Saura, Gemma “ DailyMail,.
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terror.html "World leaders, media groups condemn 'barbaric' media groupscondemn leaders, "World This last idea is one that is widespread among all the countries analysed. In fact,whe In analysed.countries the allwidespread among that is oneis idea last This - wing extremists, we read lines such as “this looks like Baghdad” in the aftermath of aftermath the in Baghdad” like looks “this as such lines read we extremists, wing
that incidents of this nature are something one witnesses in places like Pakistan, Pakistan, like places in witnesses one something are nature this of incidents that .
Daily M Daily a recurring pattern 113 .
west This obviously leads us back to the Middle East being depicted as a violent
ail comment ail Utø
believes that Muslims are violent by nature, that it is an inherent trait inherent an is it that nature, by violent are Muslims that believes ya. 111 incredulity an society,
: A Murderous Attack On Western Freedoms” January 8. 2015, 2015, 8. January Freedoms” Western AttackOn A Murderous : R , ltn dah voec ad osqety errs t the to terrorism consequently and violence death, elating La Vanguardia La La La Vanguardia - 2901368/DAILY .
La Vanguardi La
110 at certain terrorist attacks, including those perpetrated
thereby suggesting that such situations only arise in . 114 34 . July 23, 2011, 2011, .July 23,
Paris attack." January 7, 2015, January7, attack." Paris and describing the describing and
a - compares the MAIL . May 23, 2013, .2013, May23, The Telegraph - - 3/91958834/pdf.html 6/87243885/pdf.html?search=oslo - COMMENT 112 -
must The Telegraph The and AFP is even more specific more even is AFP and Lee Ri , where thejournalist, when - - stop murderous perpetrators, argues that that argues perpetrators, g - blaming . by attack
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CEU eTD Collection that threatIslamicthe downplayevendisregardand weterrorist potential andfundamentalists 3.7 immedia reported wereBritain outside even Islamists, involving those all whereasarrest, his after days was also blatantly obviou some sort they that suggesting by excused are sometimes and doubt the of benefit the given norms and culture western to threat a as are notportrayed inthe same way, thatthey seen as are not eviland thatthey are also seen not right on has this that Islamicterro depict helps which all them of Whether one is more prevalent than the other is difficult to say, it is others, (perhaps because and violent more is it that belief to come have people how and terrorism Islamic to the idea of civilisations clashing Finally, witheach other. we thespectacle thelinkto see of in culture and how religion and difference in norms are a differences the on s judgement and comments are present Also evil. as to referred constantly acts Islamic are and their where terrorists veryexplicitly, sometimes effect, 9/11 with the post Muslims where terrorist are depicted as inherently violent, Orientalism as backward and barbaric. We also see a with conne connection a show phrased are comments certain way discourse of Implications The above findings The tely.
of mental disorder. The coverage that the media gives to one as opposed to the other
findings discussed above have severe implications
western media, and that terrorism has been constructed in accordance to them.
Which leads us leads Which
- wing terrorists is also clear. The research and analysis showed that they they that showed analysis and research The clear. also is terrorists wing
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CEU eTD Collection 158 bomb 2014, 157 156 155 teenagers, McGee, than younger though even Hamza, and Mohommod obvious. seems treatment in difference the different, were brothers the by committed acts the although home his raided therefore and McGee was and prison in years East Middle the in camp training a attended having and jihad, of name the in beheadings of videos of possession Muslim two charged with terrorism and was said to be merely “an immature teenager”. hell to down drag to imm hatredtowards his on commentsand weapons of drawingsof full EDL flags. flag, swastika a under beheaded being people of videos included earlier mentioned in bomb nail a found “terrorism” exclusively“Islamic almost tomean terrorism”. potential threatsth because miss may agencies intelligence and enforcement law that Secondly not. or Islam of name give different treatment to people who commit similar acts, based on whether they do so in the right Charge”. Terror Avoids Making Nailbomb For Jailed “Soldier Dodd, Vikram Defen English German, “Two German, Simi, - . 156 wing terrorism actually presents. actually terrorism wing http://www.theguardian.com/uk
252 police after 2013 November late in Manchester in arrested was McGee Ryan Soldier
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h brother is house, alongs house, is . McGee was sentenced to two to sentenced was McGee . - right islamophobic protest movement. protest right islamophobic eir attentionset is elsewhere.
s,
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, had dressed up as KKK member This means firstly that firstly means This suspected 4 6
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CEU eTD Collection 161 160 159 groups have conflict the of sides different The measures same those using be making abroad. fight to far the to applied longer no it that so way, exclusive and specific a such in transformed been has symbolism terrorists. So, taken from Shanahan’s viewpoint, where a supposedly neutral term lacking m right that Europol, by earlier were underestimated avoid been teenagers. The report insinuates that had law enforcement been mor an up follow no was There persuaded, farm the in used be to was fertiliser the said Breivik it. about him questioned briefly and purchase the of aware made were police the internet, the wou that bomb make to as so Poland from online fertiliser bought also He radical. quite seemed ideas his commit, to sought he acts the about explicit never was he although and blogs and rooms chat suggested the at earlier arriving police by only not and stopped, been have could Breivik that was conclusion main The case. the in enforcement law by taken actions the to regards
Ibid., 11,16 Ibid., 11,13,16 Ibid., Fra Rapport
Thirdly the next The it
illegal to join ISIS or by threatening by or ISIS join to illegal then
ed. 159
22.Juli 22.Juli
160 when in fact he had recently rented the farm in order to plan the attacks there. attacks the plan to order in farm the rented recently had he fact in when
) ld later kill eight kill later ld
but even before even but They keep keep They - example takes us back to the Breivik the to back us takes example It also suggests that perhaps, the focus was elsewhere and elsewhere was focus the perhaps, that suggests also It right. west – Kommisjonen, Kommisjonen,
vis
This can be seen by looking at Government reactions to those leavingthose to reactions Government at by looking seen be can This - is changing the term terrorism to mean Islamic terrorism. It was stated à - vis others. d in July 2012 Breivik killed seventy killed Breivik 2012 July in d trying to prevent Mus prevent to trying -
wing attackers are being categorised as extremists instead of of instead extremists as categorised being are attackers wing for
people in Oslo. Through the monitoring and surveillance of surveillance and monitoring the Through Oslo. in people 16 the
individuals who have joined the Russia the joined have who individuals 161 attacks
occurred 47 to withdraw to
with nationalistic and right and nationalistic with lims from going to going from lims . Breivik was present in many far many in present was Breivik . he owned and law enforcement law and owned he case . A report came out in 2012 in out came report A . their passport their - seven e attentive, this
fight abroad by either either by abroad fight
people, most of them of most people, s. N s. - Ukraine conflict. conflict. Ukraine that some threats some that - wing ideologies ideologies wing obody seems to seems obody could sad (as island
-
were right right have with oral oral the the
CEU eTD Collection europeans Ft.Com/Beyondbrics 162 terrorism. far the by perpetrated acts certain considering stopped even have we worse, is What societi far the neglect we threat terrorist ISIS. In fact, Kuzio reported that there are more Europeans joining this conflict, than there are joining wh returnees,radicalise potentially canwhich
Taras Taras 162 es at risk a risk at es h ipiain ad osqecs r cer nuh b eagrtn te Islamic the exaggerating by enough, clear are consequences and implications The
Kuzio, “Far More Europeans Join Separatists In Donbas Than Isis In Syria”. Blog. Blog. Isis InSyria”. Than Donbas In Separatists Join Europeans “Far Kuzio, More Are - join
- they separatists . March 27, 2015, 2015, 27, March . nd seeing how one man murders seventy murders man one how seeing nd not potential terrorists too? Perhaps terrorists too? theynot potential are potentialextremists. just
- in - donbas
- than http://blogs.ft.com/beyond - right and find ourselves giving unequal treatments, outing treatments, unequal giving ourselves find and right - isis - in - syria/ o will have also been trained in trainedbeen also have will o 48 .
- brics/2015/03/27/guest - seven
people in only a few hours. few a only in people - post
use - far - of more weapons. - right as right -
CEU eTD Collection 163 seem all Michael, extent lesser a to and Bentley,Mudde Simi, terrorism. Islamic on focus the the to poses terrorism right that danger the of reality the was many, by made contributions the from clear particularitieso from the author’s conviction in terms of the great threat that lone wolf terrorist pose, due to the Terrorism Modern of Waves Four terr wolf lone perhaps that suggested was it time, of periods different covered have that terrorism of types the over going When term. should be seen as tactic, and moral considerations should not be allowed for when defining the literature that has contributed to the field of IR, by agreeing with Shan the findings that have been revealed. The author first began by reviewing the broader terrorism instead. extremism the of exclusion an to biggest threat to the west vis constructed Conclusion
Rapoport I to was thesis this of goal main The t would be wise to recapitulate quickly the assumptions that have been established and
in accordance in
f the strategy, which make it challenging to tackle and prevent. What was alsowas What prevent. and tackle to challenging it make which strategy,the f
Obviously has this seriousfor consequences many.
west far
- to right as right , and the fact that it has been down been has it that fact the and , - à a set of discursive strands
- vis the far , 163 a form
a strong trend in between waves. This suggestion stems suggestion This waves. between in trend strong a - right orism could be if not the fifth wave in Rapoport’s Rapoport’s in wave fifth the not if be could orism of terrorism, which seems to have been been have to seems which terrorism, of demonstrate 49 , whose threat is being
, which which portray
that since 9/11, terrorism has been been has terrorism 9/11, since that - played and disregarded d disregarded and played
ahan’s ahan’s idea that terrorism disregarded.
Islamic terrorism as the T his has led relabelled - ue to to ue wing wing CEU eTD Collection the was Norway barbaric. and evil as Muslims radical describing and depicting of terms in The UnitedKingdom perhaps was the country showed greater that ofthis,especially evidence The findings clearly s had occurred, to see if the ways in which the two distinct types were portrayed actually differed. right and attacks terrorist Islamic both after UK the and Norway Spain, newspapemain The nations. European western four in fear Al that to threat a not were they because thesis acknowledged that these assumptions, could not possibly apply to right createcommitted are with whichthey ferocitythe and by committed Muslims attacks of numberpeacefully. the Finally, that coexist Muslim world are incompatible. Their cultures and religions being so different that they cannot a face we that idea the Thirdly, threat. biggest the for bad and evil is Islam ea it find that claims which Orientalism, westerner at looked we First it. to danger biggest the as terrorism expla to as so justifications the construct Islamic the terrorism way it has been, so that we believe it to be the greatest threat to neglecting the far of expense the at Islamists on focus their shifted have governments western that agree to west To prove that this was the case, the author engaged in the task of analysing the discourse has this why comprehend to attempt an In sy to link it to terrorism. The 9/11 effect, which goes a bit further and insinuates that insinuates and further bit a goes which effect, 9/11 Theterrorism. to it link syto svrl supin wr cniee. oe xet hd led pt forward put already had experts Some considered. were assumptions several , s have long seen theArabs have seen world long and backward asbarbaric, inherently violent andso - Qaeda and ISISQaeda have. and its culture and beliefs. Also because they have not managed to instil the level the instil to managed not have they because Also beliefs. and culture its - right. westerner upported upported the argument that all four strands are present in western media.
n h the why in s born in civilised, democratic and peaceful nations, hence were hence nations, peaceful and democratic civilised, in born s west , hence Islamic terrorists are the worse form of evil and the and evil of form worse the are terrorists Islamic hence ,
s
an west
extremely high sense of fear in the population. This thepopulation. This fear in of extremely sense high
50 id i ese ad aua t cnie Islamic consider to natural and easier it finds Clash of Civilisation of Clash
happened, and how it has been possible to possible been has it how and happened, rs and press were evaluated for France, France, for evaluated were press and rs s , where the the where , - wing terrorist attacks attacks terrorist wing - wing extremists west
and the the and CEU eTD Collection European other make to and question the Will weapons. of use the in skills acquired newly with and radicalised potentially return, conflict citizens those when crucial be will counter importantlytoward more and terrorism, toward position its reconsider far the that threat of level the account, as well as the variety of points made by Bentley, Hough enforcement and intelligence services were focusing their attention elsewhere. Taking this into westerner benefi trial, awaiting those or arrest surveillance, under those and of treatment punishments unequal to led has It too. individuals some of radicalisation the to led has with “ob In had. has and has this that implications and consequences the at looking was Islamic ones were constan depending on who had committed them. Right Moreover, there were inconsistencies in the amount of attention and follow an ill, mentally were they that with suggestions excused somewhat were doubt, the of benefit the given often were extremists wing right to given treatment the centre or liberal extremists. Nevertheless, all the different sources from all four countries, whether conservative, Islamic describing when language of use its with caution greatest the showed which country Islamicextremists t s biu tha obvious is It next, the task, first the was outlets media most in present narratives the Establishing west . n, n N in And, s.
take actionISIS? thewaythose leaving hasfight it done with towith - states left, showed clear signs of adhering to these as these to adhering of signs clear showed left,
any should be studied and analysed too, in order to see if the pattern as as pattern the if see to order in too, analysed and studied be should , the , ra, t e t te et o seventy of death the to led it orway, mr rsac ad netgto ae edd o nwr h above the answer to needed are investigation and research more t tly being reported even if simply to add a small details to the update. further predictions or generalisations. Potentially the discourse in discourse the Potentially generalisations. or predictions further - wing terrorist was very different to that given to Islamists. Right Islamists. to given that to different very was terrorist wing west - right still presents, the author wonders whether the whether wonders author the presents, still right
has alienate has
who have joined the different sides of the Russia the of sides different the joined have who d d were referred to in less disagreeable ways. ways. disagreeable less in to referred were d 51 -
wing incidents were often overlooked, whereas and marginalise and
d sumptions. On the other hand, hand, other the On sumptions.
, Mudde, and Simi, that show - Muslim communities, which communities, Muslim seven
people, because law law because people, - ups of the incidents - terrorism. This terrorism. west ig white ting
- sessing” Ukraine
should should - -
CEU eTD Collection their counter societies. As discussed earlier, perhaps western leaders need to alter their priorities and modify far the trivialising of expense the at been unfortunately has This danger. other no is there think us makes that way a in pose comes to terrorism we have allowed the in bias clear a is there That themselves. for speak revealed findings the that say to fair is it Nevertheless, everything. cover to able stay. right the how at look to interesting be might It past? the in strategy this used who those copying extremists Islamic not Are around? way far the given yet, Islamists, of those resembled Breivik by used tactics the because perhaps or terrorist Islamic an be would found, was the Breivik case. Maybe this was because initially most people thought the attacker similar tendencies in their very portrayal of Islamic show terrorism vis evaluated countries western four the that though, undertaken research the from obvious seems does It continent. the throughout consistent is thesis this by revealed
The pos The - terrorism strategies. terrorism sibilities for research are endless and it is evident that this thesis has not been not has thesis this that evident is it and endless are research for sibilities
- right’s e right’s - ih ad down and right
state xpertise in the LW strategy, should it not be not it should strategy, LW the in xpertise
leaders leaders and media outlets to construct the threat they west - wing has or can evolve and whether it is here to to here is it whether and evolve can or has wing 52
-
playing the threat that it poses to western western to poses it that threat the playing against the Muslim society Muslim the against - à - vis the extreme right. The only exception , and that when it it when that and , the the other other CEU eTD Collection YEAR YEAR Islamicmay be arrests*Forascategorised religiously 2011 were and all 2013the motivatednot terrorism, 2. Appendix https://www.europol.europa.eu/latest_publications/37 Europol.europa.eu, extremist. **Note thatsome ofthe right Islamic.may be attacks*For 2011wereas andcategorised religiously 2012the all motivatednot terrorism, 1.F Appendix
2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2013
Arrests relationtheEU2006 in toterrorist activity TERRORISTS ISLAMIC ATTACKS BY TERRORISM ISLAMIC FORARRESTS a
iled, foilediled, terrorist successful and
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incidents do not include those labelled thatcountries incidents as not do *216 *112 201 257 159 179 110 187 *6 *0 A 1 3 1 0 4 1
ppendices WING TERRORISM FORARRESTS RIGHT TERRORISTS** RIGHT ATTACKS BY 53
- WING attacks theEU(2006 in
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**3 - - - 10 22 44 15 2013 Sat) |Sat) Europol'. 5 1 0 1 2 1 0 4 0 1 1
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