Proc Soc Antiq Scot, 134 (2004), 17–51 PHILIPS & BRADLEY: DEVELOPER-FUNDED FIELDWORK | 17

Developer-funded fieldwork in Scotland, 1990–2003: an overview of the prehistoric evidence

Tim Phillips* & Richard Bradley*

ABSTRACT The paper is in two parts. The first presents a digest of the prehistoric evidence recovered by developer-funded archaeology between 1990 and 2003 and compares it with the results of projects funded by Historic Scotland. The second reflects on the wider significance of this material in relation to past and present research on Scottish prehistory and its implications for the archaeology of Britain and Ireland.

PART ONE independent commercial archaeological units have conducted this fieldwork. There have also Tim Phillips been several hundred field surveys undertaken The National Planning Policy Guideline for in advance of afforestation and linear schemes Archaeology and Planning (NPPG5) states: such as road building and pipelines. The Scottish archaeological units have an The primary policy objectives are that they enviable record of publication of their most [archaeological remains] should be preserved important excavations, but the full extent and wherever feasible and that, where this proves not content of this work has never been quantified. to be possible, procedures should be in place to ensure proper recording before destruction, and Because of the requirements of planning subsequent analysis and publication. (Scottish legislation, destruction or damage to the known Office 1994, para 4) body of standing monuments is limited. This report aims to provide an overview of the This document goes on to advise that the planning prehistoric evidence revealed by this work and authorities should, ‘ensure, where appropriate, to consider it in relation to the results of more that the prospective developer arranges for an ‘traditional’ archaeology. archaeological assessment and, if necessary, It is possible to conduct such a survey because a field evaluation’ (para 25). These guidelines of two requirements of the Scottish system. A have ensured that archaeology has become part copy of the report detailing any fieldwork is sent of the planning process, with the developer to the National Monuments Record for Scotland being responsible for funding any necessary (NMRS), part of the Royal Commission on the work. This has been the case for nearly 15 years Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland and has resulted in a large number of watching (RCAHMS), based in Edinburgh, and held in briefs, evaluations and excavations across their library. At a practical level, this means that Scotland. Indeed, the number of contract field all the material can be consulted in one place. projects increased more than threefold between A summary, sometimes with site photographs 1990 and 2000 (Carter 2002, 870). Generally, and plans, is almost always published in an

* Dept of Archaeology, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AB 18 | SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 2004 annual report of all the fieldwork carried out This information was entered into a database in a particular year, Discovery and Excavation consisting of two ‘tables’. The first records all in Scotland (DES). This is published within a the development-related fieldwork conducted few months of the project taking place. This between 1990 and 2003, as listed in DES. can be compared to the unsatisfactory situation All these projects have been funded, or part- in England where there is no central repository funded, by commercial developers. They also for the reports. They are held by the local and include major road schemes funded by the regional Sites and Monuments Records and Scottish Office/Executive Roads Directorate Urban Archaeological Databases in nearly 100 but managed through Historic Scotland, and locations spread across the country (Bradley development work funded by local authorities. & Phillips, forthcoming). Annual summaries The projects are listed as ‘prehistoric’, ‘Roman’, ad are published in some counties and regions, ‘medieval’, ‘post-medieval’ (up to 1800), but there is no national published report apart or ‘negative’ for projects where no evidence from a retrospective list: Gazetteer of Archaeo- was found from any of these phases. This logical Investigations in England (BIAB database can be used as a reference tool for 1997–2003). This contains a very brief summary investigators researching other archaeological of the fieldwork and lacks explanatory site plans periods apart from prehistory. The second table contains more detailed information about the and photographs. Full academic publication in prehistoric evidence. Further information is parts of England is also limited or non-existent. given in four fields detailing the prehistoric period (Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age, Iron Age, or ‘Prehistoric’ where the exact dating is METHODOLOGY uncertain), a description of the features found, the artefacts recovered and any additional notes. Firstly, the NMRS in Edinburgh was visited by This database is now held by Historic Scotland. Tim Phillips in 2003 as part of Richard Bradley’s AHRB-funded project on British and Irish prehistory. All the reports in its holdings were RESULTS consulted. Any parts that contained evidence of prehistoric activity were photocopied, includ- The results of this review are summarized in ing site plans. Secondly, each volume of DES Table 1. The bulk of the fieldwork consisted between 1990 and 2003 was consulted, which of watching briefs and evaluations, followed identified work and some projects that were by field surveys and excavations. This reflects not represented amongst the reports held in the planning process, where limited exploratory Edinburgh. All developer-related fieldwork work only leads to full-scale excavation if was highlighted, and the archaeological periods particularly important remains appear to be represented in each project. This information present. Very few excavations have produced was checked against unpublished data supplied entirely negative results. Relatively less by Historic Scotland. The fieldwork projects archaeological evidence has been revealed included in the sample were all developer- by the watching briefs and evaluations, yet funded watching briefs, evaluations, excavations this work is important in defining areas with and field surveys. Desk-based assessments were little archaeological material. The amount of not included. The field surveys carried out by the prehistoric evidence compares well with the commercial units relate mainly to afforestation, evidence from the medieval period. Indeed, and linear projects. These were among the prehistory is well represented amongst the material collected. targeted excavations, giving the highest number PHILIPS & BRADLEY: DEVELOPER-FUNDED FIELDWORK | 19 in the sample. The amount of evidence that is parts of the Firth of Forth (illus 2). Some of these recognizably ‘Roman’ is very low. Many sites relate to afforestation in what are marginal areas occupied during the earlier first millennium ad today. Thus, they are in different zones from the may be without recognizable ‘Roman’ artefacts. main areas of development that have involved The highest values are represented by the post- excavation. To some extent this complements medieval evidence. the work represented by illus 1, but the actual The location of fieldwork projects involving methodology is different, for the field surveys actual intervention (watching briefs, evaluations reveal signs of past human activity that are and excavations) shows a distinctive pattern visible on the surface. The major gaps in this (illus 1). The major cities and towns of work are in the south-eastern Scottish Borders, Scotland are plainly visible, as is the line Fife, Angus and the north-east. Also under- of the M74 motorway in the south-west. It represented are areas inland from the west coast must be stressed that this is not a distribution of Argyll and Highland, the interior of northern map of archaeological finds but shows where Sutherland and Caithness, and much of Dumfries development has taken place. It should also be & Galloway. In the Northern and Western Isles, noted that a watching brief, an evaluation and, there have been many coastal surveys related to in some cases, a larger excavation may all have the threat of erosion to archaeological features, taken place on the same site, each generating but these have been funded by Historic Scotland a separate event record. Much of the work has rather than developers. This distribution map can been in urban areas, especially watching briefs be compared to the locations of the RCAHMS and evaluations, concentrated through the surveys conducted between 1987 and 2002 central belt from Glasgow to Edinburgh and (Stevenson 2002, fig 3). In southern Scotland the along the southern coast of the Firth of Forth. Royal Commission Surveys have been carried Other concentrations are along the Ayrshire out in large parts of Dumfries & Galloway and coast, through Fife and Angus, and along the in smaller areas of the Scottish Borders Council southern shore of the Moray Firth. The major area. In central and eastern Scotland, large areas gaps are the Northern and Western Isles, the have been surveyed to the south and east of west coast, much of the Highland Council area, Edinburgh, across Perth & Kinross and along the Grampian Mountains, the interior of south- Strathdon. Smaller areas of the north-east and west Scotland and, to a lesser extent, inland Highland have also been covered. south-eastern Scotland. The results from the second table of the The locations of field surveys are con- database (the prehistoric evidence) are sum- centrated in the Central Highlands, the west marized in the following sections. They are dealt coast, Lanarkshire and Ayrshire and around with under the headings of Mesolithic, Neolithic,

Table 1 Developer-funded Fieldwork in Scotland 1990–2003

Post- Fieldwork Total Prehistoric Roman Medieval medieval Negative

Watching Brief 920 72 13 97 127 660 Evaluation 913 116 40 202 202 463 Excavation 203 92 25 65 60 19 Field Survey 388 91 2 70 264 99

Total 2424 371 80 434 653 1241 20 | SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 2004

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Illus 1 Location of developer-funded excavations, evaluations and watching briefs in Scotland 1990–2003. Note that, due to the number of projects in urban areas, not all of these are illustrated by a single symbol PHILIPS & BRADLEY: DEVELOPER-FUNDED FIELDWORK | 21

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Illus 2 Location of developer-funded field surveys in Scotland 1990–2003 22 | SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 2004

Bronze Age, and Iron Age and ‘Later Iron Age’ have attempted to develop predictive models which includes the Roman period. The final of where Mesolithic sites could be expected section is entitled ‘Prehistoric Evidence’ and within a particular landscape (Mithen 2001, ch relates to projects where the material recovered 6). These are based on the characteristics of the was dated as ‘prehistoric’ but not assigned to known sites. a specific phase. Radiocarbon dates have been Evidence for Mesolithic activity has been calibrated to 2 sigma. identified in a number of regions (illus 3). In the Lastly, it should be mentioned that rescue north and west, the locations tend to be on or near excavations and field surveys have also been the coast, often on raised beaches. In the north- funded by Historic Scotland. Some of these east, there is limited evidence for activity in the took place where there is little commercial upper Dee valley. Southern Scotland presents a development, particularly in areas threatened by different picture. Although there are a number coastal erosion. Where appropriate, this account of coastal sites, especially on the Ayrshire and compares the results of this fieldwork with those Solway coasts and on Arran, more inland sites of the developer-funded projects catalogued in have been identified than elsewhere. These tend the database. The following sections provide a to be located on the lower slopes of the Southern digest of the main results of fieldwork. Their Uplands, both north and south of this range of wider significance is assessed in the second part hills. Significant gaps in site distribution can be of this article. identified in the Northern and Western Isles, in the interior of the Highland Region, across the central belt and the south-east. A SUMMARY OF THE MESOLITHIC The distribution of Mesolithic evidence EVIDENCE complements and enhances what is known from research work. The coastal nature of the The Mesolithic of Scotland has been char- evidence is emphasized, especially on the west acterized by lithic scatters and by shell middens coast. In Argyll, and on the west Highland coast, in coastal locations. Few features have been Arran and Skye, the information complements identified at most sites. It is rare for organic or the ‘Scotland’s First Settlers’ project (Hardy faunal evidence to be recovered from the lithic & Wickham-Jones 2002). This has been scatters, although a wealth of faunal evidence is supplemented by the discovery of a significant preserved in the alkaline conditions of some of number of sites on the Ayrshire coast. On the east the shell middens, especially those on Oronsay coast there has been the addition of a number of (Mellars 1987). Because of the rarity of cut coastal sites in Fife and beside the Moray Firth features, it is impossible to locate Mesolithic near Inverness. Where the distribution has been sites through most methods of archaeological expanded is through the identification of a prospection. Fieldwalking has been the main number of other inland sites, found mainly on way of finding them, but this is also constrained the lower slopes of the uplands of south-west by the availability of cultivated, or otherwise Scotland, although there is also one on the edge unvegetated, land. Coastal sites have been of the Grampian Mountains. revealed by erosion, but here the pattern of Most of the evidence recovered consists settlement is skewed. Although the sea level of lithic scatters of flint, chert, quartz and, to a has dropped since the prehistoric period, in lesser extent, other worked stone. At many sites many areas evidence may have been lost to these artefacts appear to be almost exclusively marine transgressions between 6100 and 4800 Mesolithic in date. The major exceptions are bc (Ballantyne 2004; Cressey et al 1997). To the sites on the edges of the Southern Uplands overcome these problems, research projects where there is often a mixture of Neolithic PHILIPS & BRADLEY: DEVELOPER-FUNDED FIELDWORK | 23

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Illus 3 Mesolithic evidence (overlaid on illus 1) 24 | SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 2004 and Bronze Age material at the same location. the developer-funded work has been able to At Spurryhillock Junction, Aberdeenshire investigate lower ground and this is where most (Alexander 1997), a large pit containing material has come to light. carbonized material and lithics in a blade In many cases the settlement evidence has technology was radiocarbon dated to between been limited to lithic scatters. These are some- 4910 and 4540 bc. Again, there was later activity times associated with pits and other features. The at the site in the Neolithic period. surface scatters can be mixed with Bronze Age Occupation horizons and occasional cut lithic material in the central and southern areas features are associated with the lithics at some and also with Mesolithic finds. Some structures sites, as well as shell middens at coastal locations. have been excavated. Small Neolithic round and At An Corran, on Skye, salvage investigations in oval houses have been excavated at Chapelfield advance of road widening located a rock-shelter where oval stake-built structures were dated containing a midden of this kind (Saville & Miket to the earlier Neolithic (Atkinson 2002). At 1994). At other sites many of the cut features are Spurryhillock Junction a curving length of too amorphous to be interpreted, but hearths, ditch and a cluster of pits were associated pits (often with hazelnut shells) and post-holes, with Unstan Ware (Alexander 1997). Circular probably representing windbreak structures, structures dating from the later Neolithic have have been identified. At Chapelfield, Stirling, been excavated at Beckton Farm, S Lanarkshire, three pits containing carbonized material, but no where they were associated with Grooved Ware lithics, were dated to the later Mesolithic period (Pollard 1997). On the later Neolithic site at (Atkinson 2002). The site was also occupied Lamb’s Nursery, Midlothian, enigmatic slots, throughout the Neolithic when further pits were post circles and cut features appear to relate to dug. A structure excavated recently at the North- buildings (Cook 2000a). East Quarry, Dunbar (Gooder & Hatherley There are too few of these sites to offer 2003), has been interpreted as a Mesolithic a representative sample, but the results of roundhouse. This fitted neatly into a natural developer-funded fieldwork are augmented by hollow and had an internal circular setting of those of projects funded by Historic Scotland. post-holes stratified beneath a dark organic These have identified a number of other deposit. Radiocarbon samples from post-holes structures. They range from stone houses in the returned dates between 7160 and 6870 bc and Northern and Western Isles (Ballin-Smith & 7030 and 6740 bc. Another possible Mesolithic Petersen 2003) to timber houses on the mainland. house was excavated at Craighead Golf Course, At Ratho, near Edinburgh, funded by the Roads Fife (Wickham-Jones & Dalland 1998). Directorate, a rectangular structure associated with Carinated Bowls was discovered (Smith 1995). One, and possibly two, small rectangular A SUMMARY OF THE NEOLITHIC buildings were excavated at Kinbeachie on EVIDENCE the Black Isle (Barclay et al 2001) and have been dated to the later Neolithic. A possibly Developer-funded work has revealed widespread similar structure was investigated near Lairg evidence for Neolithic activity (illus 4). This (McCullagh & Tipping 1998), which underlay a is particularly the case in southern Scotland cultivated soil and was associated with Grooved and along the east coast. The main gaps in Ware and Beaker pottery. the distribution of sites are the Northern and There has been little evidence in Scotland Western Isles, the west coast, the Grampian for large Neolithic enclosures on the scale of Mountains, much of the Highland region and the causewayed and other enclosures in England south-east Scotland. Within the local topography (Barclay 2003a, 147). In fact, the developer- PHILIPS & BRADLEY: DEVELOPER-FUNDED FIELDWORK | 25

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Illus 4 Neolithic evidence (overlaid on illus 1) 26 | SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 2004 funded work has encountered few Neolithic 2003), and a post-defined cursus and timber enclosures of any kind. Of note are Loudon Hill circle were discovered at Upper Largie in the in E Ayrshire (Atkinson 2000), and Wellbrae Kilmartin Valley in Argyll (Terry 1997). Another (Dunwell 1991) in S Lanarkshire. At Loudon project, this time funded by Historic Scotland, Hill, a double palisaded enclosure contained identified an unusual post-defined cursus at a possible roundhouse. There was evidence Castle Menzies, Aberfeldy (Halliday 2002). for a long period of use, and the entrance and Recent developer-funded excavations on outer palisade were altered during two further the A1 at Eweford, Dunbar, have uncovered phases of activity. At Wellbrae, two adjacent another monument complex, which was used rectangular enclosures known from cropmarks throughout the Neolithic period (MacGregor & were excavated. One contained pits and post- Shearer 2002). In the earlier Neolithic the top holes associated with later Neolithic pottery of a glacial bank was associated with two sub- and carbonized grain but no evidence for formal rectangular structures similar in plan to timber deposition, while the other enclosure contained ‘mortuary houses’. These had been burnt down. few internal features, apart from a cremation Nearby two pit- and post-alignments were accompanied by a stone axe and Beaker associated with a circular timber enclosure and pottery. At Annieston, S Lanarkshire, a possible Later Neolithic Impressed Ware. This phase was hengiform monument has been investigated followed by the deposition of Grooved Ware (Neighbour 1995). There was no direct dating and Beaker pottery. At Pencraig Hill, E Lothian, evidence, but it may have been built during the there was evidence for Neolithic cremated bone later Neolithic. (McLellan 2002). Within a trapezoidal enclosure By contrast, upstanding Neolithic monu- there was a cremation pyre with conjoining ments have been identified during surveys sherds of pottery. There was also evidence for funded by Historic Scotland. Possible long cairns a palisade which had been burnt down. More (Wildgoose et al 1997; Alexander 1998) and the cremated bone was recovered from cut features occasional chambered cairn (Burgess & Church dated to the Neolithic period at Drumoig in Fife 1997; Carter & Wordsworth 1997; Moore & (Simpson 1997). Wilson 1998) number among these discoveries. The deposition of special artefacts, including They tend to be in isolated areas and were noted fine flints and pottery, occurred on a number during field surveys related to afforestation and of sites. For example, Impressed Ware was coastal erosion. The same is true of possible recovered from pits at Mill of Dyce Quarry, stone circles found on Lewis (Burgess & Aberdeen (Centre for Field Archaeology Church 1997). Heel cairns have been recorded 1994a) and Unstan Ware from a pit group at by surveys undertaken in Shetland (Moore & Spurryhillock Junction (Alexander 1997). The Wilson 1996; 1997). An enigmatic monument discovery of Grooved Ware pits (Cowie & was discovered at Crantit on Orkney (Ballin- MacSween 1999) had been more common on Smith 1998), where a megalithic tomb with side sites in the south and east of Scotland, such as cells was cut into a broad hillside platform. at the Craighead Golf Course in Fife (Dalland One of the most important contributions of 1996) and Hillend on the North-West Ethylene developer-funded work has been the recognition Pipeline in S Lanarkshire (Armit & Hamilton of monument complexes in low-lying areas. 1992), but they have now been discovered at These are sometimes timber constructions and Fordafourie, Fraserburgh (Murray 2003), in can only be observed by air photography and the north-east of Scotland. Grooved Ware in archaeological excavation. The line of a possible the Durrington Walls sub-style was recovered cursus was investigated in a watching brief at at Milton of Leys, Inverness (Conolly & Curriestanes, Dumfries & Galloway (Brann MacSween 2003), where it constitutes the most PHILIPS & BRADLEY: DEVELOPER-FUNDED FIELDWORK | 27 northerly find of this type of pottery and one of date to the Bronze Age, but some may be later in the earliest dates for the style in Britain. date, spanning the second and first millennia bc The evidence for resource exploitation comes (Cowie & Shepherd 2003). Because of the lack mainly from archaeobotantical and palynological of information, they are considered in a later evidence. Evidence for the cultivation of emmer section under the broad heading of ‘Prehistoric’ wheat and barley was recovered at Deer’s Den sites. on the A96 Kintore Bypass in Aberdeenshire Activity that can be firmly dated to the (Alexander 2000). Barley was identified at Bronze Age comes mainly from southern central Beckton Farm (Pollard 1997), but at Chapelfield Scotland and along the east and west coasts. wild resources were being exploited as well as Settlement evidence is based mainly on lithics, cultivated crops (Atkinson 2002). Barley has pottery scatters and excavated houses. A number been identified at Ratho (Smith 1995). Among of settlements with structural evidence have been projects funded by Historic Scotland, both barley found during developer-funded excavations. and wheat were associated with the Neolithic At Fox Plantation, Dumfries & Galloway, house at Kinbeachie (Barclay et al 2001). It is roundhouses appeared to be associated with clear that agriculture was an important com- a pit-alignment containing Beaker pottery ponent of the subsistence economy. (MacGregor et al 1996). In S Lanarkshire, at Another important aspect has been the Annieston, the houses were also associated with identification of cultivation layers and possible a number of pits, one of which contained Beaker fields on Arran (Donnelly et al 2000), but, apart ceramics (Neighbour 1995). Middle Bronze Age from the well known evidence from Shetland roundhouses and similar circular structures have (Whittle 1986), very little evidence for Neolithic been excavated at Lamb’s Nursery (Cook 2000a), cultivation has been recovered. Barclay (2003a, and a Late Bronze Age roundhouse settlement 142) has argued on the basis of evidence from was discovered at Ednie, near Peterhead sites in Perth & Kinross and Sutherland that (Strachan & Dunwell 2003). At Garvald Quarry, spade and hoe cultivation took place within plots it would appear that a Bronze Age structure had defined by ephemeral boundaries, which on most been purposefully burnt down (Duncan et al sites would be difficult to show by excavation. A 1998). At Forest Road (Cook 2001) and Deer’s similar view is taken by Gibson (1992). Den (Alexander 2000), Kintore, a large number of excavated roundhouses provide a structural sequence extending from the Early Bronze Age A SUMMARY OF THE BRONZE AGE to the Iron Age (Cook & Dunbar 2004). EVIDENCE A distinctive feature of the Scottish landscape is the ‘platform settlement’ where roundhouses For ease of description the division between were constructed on hillside terraces (Cowie & the Neolithic and the Bronze Age is defined by Shepherd 2003, 158). Developer-funded projects the appearance of Beaker pottery, following the shed some light on these sites. At Elvanfoot, on scheme used by Edwards and Ralston (2003). the M74 motorway, an unenclosed platform The distribution of Bronze Age sites revealed by settlement was dated between 1880 and 1510 developer-funded fieldwork (illus 5) resembles bc (Terry 1993). Excavations at Lintshie Gutter, the Neolithic pattern (illus 4), which, over such S Lanarkshire, dated a settlement of the same a large region, suggests some continuity of type to the Middle Bronze Age (Terry 1995). activity. Pre-afforestation surveys in marginal The Arisaig to Kinsadel road improvements, areas have revealed integrated agricultural Highland, encountered a small stone structure landscapes with settlements, clearance cairns built against a rock face (Halliday 2001), and field systems. Some of these could well beneath which were earlier stone structures, and 28 | SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 2004

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Illus 5 Bronze Age evidence (overlaid on illus 1) PHILIPS & BRADLEY: DEVELOPER-FUNDED FIELDWORK | 29 a radiocarbon date between 1380 and 1040 bc preserved wooden trough was associated with was associated with deposits at the base of the a group of ring-ditch houses (Simpson 1997). sequence. Two were excavated at Beechwood Farm, Two Historic Scotland-funded projects have Inverness (Cressey & Strachan 2003), where revealed important settlement evidence. At Carn they were dated to the Early Bronze Age. Dubh, Perth & Kinross, a roundhouse con- Another burnt mound was excavated at Kirkhill structed in the Late Bronze Age was associated Farm, Dumfries & Galloway (Pollard 1993). with agricultural activity (Rideout 1995). The Other aspects of Bronze Age life have been investigation of part of a surviving prehistoric revealed by developer-funded fieldwork. At landscape at Tulloch Wood, Moray, recorded a Rough Castle, Falkirk, a cobble layer discovered Bronze Age co-axial field system (Carter 1993), beneath peat has been interpreted as a ford across which was associated with a clearance cairn and a filled-in water channel (Hamilton et al 2001). a contemporary hut circle. At both this site and This was dated to the early first millennium bc. Carn Dubh agricultural activity and settlement Historic Scotland funded the excavation of a log continued into the Iron Age. boat in a waterlogged context in the Tay estuary The environmental evidence suggests at Carpow (Strachan & Glendinning 2002), a great deal of local variation, with mixed and the boat was subsequently radiocarbon- agriculture at some sites, specialist pastoralism dated between 1220 and 910 bc. It is not clear at others, and the continuing exploitation of how most of these features were related to the wild resources. Barley and emmer wheat are settlements of the same period. the main cereal crops recovered on the Bronze The evidence from the few excavated Age sites, such as the settlement at Deer’s Den monuments such as Wellbrae (Dunwell 1991) on the A96 Kintore Bypass, where evidence and Loudon Hill (Atkinson 2000) suggests for weeds of cultivation and waste ground was continuity from the Neolithic period. At also present (Atkinson 2000). There is limited Drumoig, Fife, the Bronze Age settlement may evidence for the cultivation of domesticated have been associated with a palisaded enclosure, oats. They were associated with the Middle but that feature was not securely dated (Duncan Bronze Age settlement of Lamb’s Nursery et al 1998). Ceremonial sites also remained in (Cook 2000a). At the platform settlement of use, or were deliberately reused. For instance, Lintshie Gutter, S Lanarkshire, small quantities the site of the post-built cursus at Kilmartin of grain were recovered (Terry 1995) but the was chosen as the position of an Early Bronze lack of quern stones suggested that this may Age timber circle (Terry 1997). At Eweford, a have been a specialist pastoral site. There was ring cairn was constructed next to the Neolithic a predominance of barley in the Bronze Age monument (MacGregor & Shearer 2002). features at Ratho, but smaller amounts of emmer Pits with specially-placed deposits, especi- wheat and oats were represented (Smith 1995). ally Beaker pottery, have been found across the This evidence can be compared with that central and southern regions. Beaker pits were derived from Historic Scotland-sponsored associated with a previously known cremation projects. Oats, barley and cultivated flax were cemetery in a developer-funded project at recovered from the Late Bronze Age settlement Drumchapel, Glasgow (Cullen 1997). Other at Carn Dubh (Rideout 1995), and there was examples were at Garvald Quarry (Duncan et also evidence for intensive woodland clearance al 1998) and at Thistly Cross/Spott Road on through fire, grazing and the establishment of the A1 upgrading scheme, E Lothian (Sneddon grassland. 2003). Investigations along the line of the Burnt mounds are ubiquitous in the British Kelvin Valley Sewer at Inchbelle Farm, East Bronze Age. At Drumoig an example with a Dunbartonshire found evidence for the formal 30 | SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 2004 deposition of Cordoned Urns (Massen & it can be difficult to know if some sites once MacSween 2002). included above-ground monuments. There Few standing monuments have been was no evidence for a destroyed cairn in these discovered recently. On the route of the M74 particular cases, but in the Kilmartin Valley Motorway at Stoneyburn Farm, S Lanarkshire, (Terry 1997) cist burials were associated with two small cairns covered cremation burials nearby cairns. At Hoprig, Scottish Borders, (Banks 1995). Developer-funded excavation at the cist was inserted into the centre of a ring- Cairnwell, Aberdeenshire, revealed a complex ditch (Rees 1999). On the North-West Ethylene sequence starting in the Neolithic period (Rees Pipeline at Elmwood Nursery, S Lanarkshire, 1997), in which a stone circle contained a later there were two inter-cutting multiple cremation timber enclosure. This was eventually replaced burials, one of them in a cist (Armit & Neighbour by a Bronze Age ring cairn. Historic Scotland 1992). This may have formed part of a larger has also funded fieldwork which has resulted cemetery. in the discovery of standing monuments. At There is similar evidence from a number Achinduich, Creich, a kerbed cairn covering a of projects funded by Historic Scotland. Cist cist with Beaker and Food Vessel pottery was burials were associated with nearby cairns at constructed over some earlier pits (McCullagh Sanaigmhor Warren on Islay (Cook 1999). At & Tipping 1998). At Mousland, in Orkney, an Mains of Balgavies in Angus (Eames 1990) and earthen burial mound with a stone kerb covered Kilmartin Farm in Glen Urquhart (Wordsworth a cist (Downes 1994). & Harden 1994) the cists had been inserted into Cist cemeteries cluster in low-lying areas the tops of natural mounds. At Ascog, in Bute, along the east coast from the Borders to the the cist was in a level area at the highest point of Moray Firth. These are mainly flat cemeteries, a beach (Proudfoot et al 1996). but at Leven, Fife (Lewis 2002), and Seafield Sometimes the burials were located in West, Inverness (Cressey & Sheridan 2003), the relation to an existing monument, or monu- cemeteries were enclosed within a ring-ditch. ments, as happened on the developer-funded At both these sites further cist burials had been site at Upper Largie in the Kilmartin Valley inserted outwith the enclosures. Inhumations and (Terry 1997). Burials of similar date were cremations are represented, sometimes in the close to the Neolithic monument at Eweford same cemetery. Urned cremation cemeteries have (MacGregor & Shearer 2002). All the cist also been excavated. At Kirkton of Cults, Fife, burials associated with Beaker pottery are the urns had been placed in pits (MacGregor & inhumations, while those with Food Vessels can Jones 1996), but at Elgin they were enclosed by be either inhumations or cremations (Holden a ring-ditch (Suddaby 2002). An open cemetery & Sheridan 2001). The cremations deposited of almost 40 cremation pits was excavated at in pits are associated with Beaker ceramics Skilmafilly on the St Fergus to Aberdeen Pipeline at Wellbrae (Dunwell 1991) and with Food (Cameron 2001), including both urned and Vessels and Cordoned Urns on other sites. unurned cremations. Similar information comes Projects funded by Historic Scotland from two projects funded by Historic Scotland. supply further examples. A particularly rich There may have been another cist cemetery at cist burial was investigated at Rameldry Farm, Carronbridge, Dumfries & Galloway (Johnston Fife (Baker, Sheridan & Cowie 2003). This 1994), and on the A836 at Lairg, Sutherland, an included a bronze dagger of Milston type and V- urned and an unurned cremation had been placed perforated buttons of Whitby jet. An unusually within another ring-ditch (Robins 1996). small cist was excavated at Balblair, Beauly, The discovery of cemeteries within, or which contained a Beaker (Hanley & Sheridan associated with, ring ditches is important as 1994). At the Mill Road Industrial Estate, PHILIPS & BRADLEY: DEVELOPER-FUNDED FIELDWORK | 31

W Lothian, burnt and unburnt bone represented structure at Brechin, Angus, was also associated the remains of five children and one adult with a souterrain (Baker & Moloney 1998), (Cook 2000b). At Glennan, Argyll, an urned as was another, funded by Historic Scotland, cremation was excavated in a boulder shelter at Newmill, Perth & Kinross (Watkins 1980). (MacGregor 2003). Examination of the deposits Perhaps the largest unenclosed settlement has in cists exposed by reservoir erosion at West been located at Kintore, Aberdeenshire. Several Water, Scottish Borders, revealed Filipendula seasons of excavation have taken place here type pollen (Hunter 2000). At Doons Law, (Alexander 2000, Cook & Dunbar 2004) and Berwickshire, the pollen count included large 8.75ha have been investigated, leading to the amounts of Filipendula type and Brassicaceae discovery of a long sequence of roundhouses (Clarke & Hamilton 1999). Indeed, this was the whose history extends from the Early Bronze largest sample of Brassicaceae ever discovered Age to the late pre-Roman Iron Age. This is a in a Scottish cist burial. This evidence suggests unique site in Scotland due to the size of the area that floral tributes were deliberately deposited investigated. with the dead (Tipping 1994). Similar evidence comes from projects funded by Historic Scotland. At Carn Dubh there were signs that settlement continued after A SUMMARY OF THE IRON AGE the Late Bronze Age (Rideout 1995). Within a EVIDENCE shell midden at Coroghon Mòr on the Isle of Canna was a roundhouse which had burnt down, Developer-funded excavations have recovered the collapsing roof crushing a number of Iron most Iron Age material from coastal regions. Age pots (Spearman 1992). Souterrains have The exceptions are a few inland sites on the been found without any associated structures, east coast and along the line of the M74 in as at Shanzie, Perth & Kinross (Coleman 2000). the south-west (illus 6). The same pattern Another, built out of timber, has been excavated can be seen in the later Iron Age (illus 7) and at Nether Kelly, Angus (Carter 1992). There raises question of archaeological visibility. may have been important differences between The paucity of Iron Age pottery on excavated individual sites. At Ross Bay, Dumfries & sites presents a problem unless the excavated Galloway, settlement features were accompanied features are radiocarbon dated. Clearly many by grains of emmer and einkorn (Parry 2003). of the Iron Age settlements were integrated This site has been dated to the Early Iron Age. into the agricultural landscapes that have been On the other hand, very little grain was recovered recorded by field survey, but this evidence at Uppercleuch, Dumfries & Galloway. There can be difficult to date with confidence and were no querns in the artefact assemblage and may represent a palimpsest originating in the the excavator suggested that the site was used by Bronze Age, or even earlier. It will be discussed pastoralists (Terry 1991). in the next section. Enclosed settlement is well represented in Several settlement excavations have been the results of developer-funded excavations, funded by developers, and the basic domestic such as Eweford Road, Dunbar (Innes 2003), structure is the roundhouse. Three examples at and Albie Hill, Dumfries & Galloway (Strachan Novar Windfarm, Highland, were associated 1994). Many sites were occupied for long with an area of clearance cairns covering periods. The valley-side enclosure at Phantassie nearly 2ha (Wordsworth 1997). One produced Farm, E Lothian, showed a lengthy sequence, a radiocarbon date between 770 and 380 bc. in which a large rectangular building was On the Isle of Arran, another roundhouse had an eventually replaced by a circular structure attached souterrain (Mudie 2001). A post-hole (Lelong 2002). 32 | SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 2004

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Illus 6 Iron Age evidence (overlaid on illus 1) PHILIPS & BRADLEY: DEVELOPER-FUNDED FIELDWORK | 33

Historic Scotland-funded projects include present at Uppercleuch (Terry 1991). Evidence Balloan Park, Inverness, where excavation for cultivated barley was also recovered from revealed Iron Age settlement features outwith a midden and a nearby cist at Galson on Lewis a palisaded enclosure (Wordsworth 1999), in fieldwork funded by Historic Scotland and the Fisher’s Road enclosure in E Lothian (Neighbour et al 2000). experienced an equally complex history Developer-funded excavations have (Haselgrove & McCullagh 2000). St Germains, revealed other aspects of the Iron Age E Lothian, started as an open settlement and was economy. There was evidence for coppiced enclosed at a later date (Alexander & Watkins hazel at the enclosed settlement of Woodend 1998). In the Roman period the enclosure was Farm, Dumfries & Galloway (Banks 2000) rebuilt on a defensive scale, then, in the late first and excavation of the Smoo Cave near or early second century ad, it reverted to an open Durness in Sutherland recovered fish and settlement. mammal bones from a shell midden where they There is growing evidence of interaction occurred together with a quern stone (Pollard with the Roman world. The Pathhead Roman 1992). This suggests that fishing and shellfish temporary camp in Midlothian had a ‘native’ collection were integrated with agriculture. enclosure as an annexe (Leslie & Will 1998). Another activity that may have been practised A Roman military camp was constructed on the in the Iron Age was peat cutting. This was site of a native settlement at Kintore (Alexander suggested by truncated cores taken from North 2000) and also at Smeaton in Midlothian where Ballachulish Moss, Highland (Clarke 1998), one overlay prehistoric features (Dunwell 1995). and Auchencrosh near Ballantrae (Clarke A similar pattern was identified in a project 2001). The cutting and stacking of peat in the funded by Historic Scotland on a pre-Roman Bronze Age has already been documented in enclosure at Carronbridge. Again occupation the Outer Hebrides (Branigan et al 2002). continued into the Roman period and a temporary Areas were still being cleared in the first Roman camp was constructed nearby (Johnston millennium bc. This is evidenced by a pollen 1994). core taken near Arisaig on the developer-funded Historic Scotland-sponsored excavation on A830 road scheme (Clarke 2000a). However, an unusual site at Candle Stane in Aberdeenshire the pollen evidence from Drumchapel suggested revealed a large circular timber structure dated that here there was little change throughout the to the Iron Age built beside a recumbent stone prehistoric sequence and that the local vegetation circle (Cameron 1999). A similar sequence has consisted of an open environment with patches been identified at the Strichen recumbent stone of shrubland (Cullen 1997). circle, Buchan, where an Iron Age roundhouse Few Iron Age field systems have been exca- appears to have been constructed inside the vated; indeed, such features can be frustratingly monument itself. This was demonstrated by difficult to date (Harding 2004, 72). Two possible research excavation during the early 1980s examples are from developer-funded projects at (Phillips et al, forthcoming). Drylawhill, East Lothian (Masser 2002), and the Environmental analyses at Inchture, Perth service station at Gretna/Kirkpatrick Fleming, & Kinross (Miller & Ramsay 2001) and at the Dumfries & Galloway (Banks 1992). Post-holes enclosed settlement at Uppercleuch (Terry 1991) and pits were also associated with the latter site, show that barley and emmer wheat were the main and a trackway appeared to lead to a nearby cereal crops. At Inchture there was evidence for hilltop enclosure. the cultivation of oats and small amounts of The tradition of burial in long cists certainly einkorn, which is rare in prehistoric Scotland started in the Iron Age and it extended well into (Miller & Ramsay 2001). Ergot fungus was the early medieval period, but, in the absence of 34 | SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 2004

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Illus 7 Later Iron Age evidence (overlaid on illus 1) PHILIPS & BRADLEY: DEVELOPER-FUNDED FIELDWORK | 35 artefacts and radiocarbon determinations, these A SUMMARY OF THE REMAINING can be difficult to date. Evidence for Iron Age PREHISTORIC EVIDENCE burials has been found in developer-funded projects around and beyond the Firth of Forth. This section deals with the evidence that has Close to Dundee, a long cist was associated with not been dated to a specific prehistoric period. a settlement site (Centre for Field Archaeology It relates mainly to field surveys, but there are 1994b). A short cist containing a child burial some data from excavations. Field surveys was excavated by a developer-funded project at record the physical evidence of archaeological Kingsbarns, Fife (James 2001) and excavations features visible on the surface, but the near Alloa have discovered a ‘warrior’ burial landscapes recorded by field survey are complex in a stone-lined grave (Mills 2004), which is and may have been altered in later episodes of provisionally dated to the first centuries bc/ad. land use (Halliday & Stevenson 1991, 135). The Close to Dunbar a long cist of coursed masonry visible remains are often difficult to date and contained an inhumation dated to the first two many probably result from activity throughout centuries ad (Baker 2002). Perhaps the most the later prehistoric period, from the second exciting funerary discovery has been the cart millennium bc into the first millennium ad. burial at Newbridge, Edinburgh (Baker 2001). Some features may be even older. More Iron Age burials come from projects ‘Prehistoric’ remains have been recorded by sponsored by Historic Scotland. Individual field surveys in parts of Highland, south-west of long cists have been found in several areas, the Moray Firth, along parts of the west coast for example near to Arbroath (Duffy 2002). On and in south-western Scotland (illus 8). They Lewis, a Middle Iron Age cemetery contained include marginal areas not affected by other one inhumation in a long cist and a number of types of development. The major gaps are in cremations in a stone-lined ditch (MacLeod the south-eastern area of the Scottish Borders, 2000). At An Corran, on Boreray in the Western eastern Scotland, much of the interior of the Isles, a short cist was associated with a nearby Highlands, inland from the west coast of Argyll settlement (Badcock & Downes 2000). and Highland, and the Northern and Western Extensive long cist cemeteries dating to the Isles. post-Roman period have been discovered in The features recorded include roundhouses, developer-funded fieldwork in Angus (Rees & sometimes in groups, clearance cairns, burnt Cameron 1998). At Thorneybank, Midlothian, mounds, field systems and enclosures. Larger an excavated cemetery contained the remains circular cairns have also been identified and of over 100 burials (Rees 2002), two of which may have been funerary monuments. Many were contained within small square ditched of the features occur in apparent isolation, enclosures and one within a four-post structure. but others appear to form parts of integrated The radiocarbon dates from this site clustered prehistoric landscapes. The developer-funded between ad 450 and 550. survey at Balblair Wood, Beauly, Highland, Similar evidence has been recorded in work identified houses, burnt mounds and nearby funded by Historic Scotland at Avonmill Road, field systems and clearance cairns (Neighbour W Lothian (Dalland 1993), although this site 2000). Roundhouses were identified inside the may date to the early Christian period. It has enclosure at Coats Hill (Armit 1992), but other also sponsored work at the Pictish cemeteries enclosures were apparently empty and may be at Hermisgarth on Sanday, Orkney (Downes related to stock control. 1998), and at Lundin Links, Fife (Will 1996). A Such evidence is rather limited compared cairn and a pyre were associated with the former with the findings of projects funded by Historic site. Scotland. At Kilwhannel High Plantation in 36 | SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 2004

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Illus 8 ‘Prehistoric’ evidence recorded by developer-funded field surveys 1990–2003 (overlaid on illus 2) PHILIPS & BRADLEY: DEVELOPER-FUNDED FIELDWORK | 37

S Ayrshire, a group of roundhouses was associ- of steep rocky ground that does not include ated with a field system and clearance cairns many prehistoric monuments. Analysis of a peat (Neighbour 1993). Similar associations were core concluded that there had been no human identified at Garlogie Wood, Aberdeenshire modification of the landscape during prehistory. (O’Sullivan & Duffy 1994) and Rattal Farm in Angus (Lelong 1999). Field systems with clearance cairns and associated settlements PART TWO have also been identified at Achrasker, Reay, Highland (Smith & Rankin 1995), and at Ratch DEVELOPER-FUNDED PROJECTS AND Hill in Aberdeenshire (Carter & O’Sullivan RESEARCH ON SCOTTISH PREHISTORY 1995) Richard Bradley Excavated prehistoric field systems cannot always be dated to a specific period, but The increase in developer-funded archaeology developer-funded work near Loch Ashie, High- has come at a time when a smaller number of land, did identify poorly preserved walls and field projects is being funded as research projects. associated clearance cairns (Suddaby 2001). Only limited sums are available from bodies At Dirleton, E Lothian, lines of pits and post- like the British Academy, and archaeologists holes were interpreted as later prehistoric working in universities are less able to conduct field boundaries (Baker & Moloney 1999). fieldwork than was the case twenty years ago. Fence lines were identified at Hatton Mill, The same applies to the staff of public bodies Angus (Neighbour et al 1992). A trackway was such as museums. Most excavations are now associated with a ditched field system at the conducted as part of the planning process, and Maybury Business Park, Edinburgh (Collard the second part of this paper considers their 1992). Ard marks have often been recorded, but impact on our understanding of prehistoric more recent examples have been identified at Scotland. What are the developments that shed several sites on Arran (Baker 1999; Taylor 1996; new light on old problems, and which topics are Donnelly et al 1999) and at Lumphinnans in Fife becoming important for the first time? Naturally, (Moore & Wilson 1995). this is a personal perspective, but it is based on Similar evidence comes from projects funded a similar survey of the results of commercial by Historic Scotland. At the Moss of Achnacree, archaeology throughout Britain and Ireland and Argyll, one component of a prehistoric field draws on work in progress towards a synthesis system was excavated (Dalland 2001), and ard of their prehistory from the Mesolithic period to marks provide further evidence of land use. the Iron Age (Bradley in prep). They were also discovered in excavations at There are four areas that need to be Balloan Park, Inverness (Wordsworth 1999). considered: changes in the distribution of Field survey has demonstrated that large archaeological evidence; changes of chronology; areas of marginal land were occupied in the the recognition of new kinds of prehistoric prehistoric period, but not everywhere was monuments; and new perceptions of how settled during prehistory. It must be emphasized developments in different regions of Scotland that only about a quarter of these surveys have might be related to those in other parts of these recorded any new prehistoric evidence (Table islands. They can be considered both in general 1). Although the extent of known settlement terms and within the period framework followed has widened, some regions were unattractive. in Part One of this paper. Palynological investigations on the A86 by The first point is the least contentious. Loch Laggan, Highland, help to put this in Most developer-funded excavations have been context (Clarke 2000b). This is a marginal area taking place in areas that had no well-defined 38 | SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 2004 archaeological record when Scottish prehistory It is difficult to achieve the same in England, was synthesized in an important volume because not all radiocarbon dates are published, published in 1962 (Piggott 1962). There were and even when they are their contexts are rarely chance finds of artefacts and burials from described in sufficient detail for the results to valleys and coastal areas, but until the general have much impact. application of aerial photography these were The third and particularly important point difficult to relate to a largely upland distribution concerns the identification of different kinds of standing monuments. That is no longer the of monuments. There have always been two case. Rather than complementing the distribution dangers. One is of trying to characterize the of monuments, the lowland areas contain others unfamiliar by reference to the archaeology of of their own. Some are similar to the type-sites distant, but well researched areas, usually the on which reconstructions of prehistoric life archaeology of lowland England. As a result the were based, but others take unfamiliar forms Scottish monuments were not considered in their and are still quite difficult to relate to those local contexts, and even the ideas concerning that were already known. The discoveries made their interpretation might be imported from the during developer-funded projects rarely involve south. In the process Scotland was sometimes substantial discoveries in regions where there treated as a periphery of Wessex (Barclay was no material before. Rather, they extend the 2000; 2001). The second danger was seeking to patterns that were already recorded and give them characterize plough-levelled sites by reference added definition. That is especially important in to the standing monuments that still survived, fertile lowland areas where the most attractive sometimes on marginal land. That tended to soils have always been exploited, meaning that obscure an important source of variation. For prehistoric remains are normally ploughed out example, lowland Scotland contains a variety (Barclay 1992). of elongated Neolithic enclosures, while the Second, the great increase in archaeological nearest equivalents in the uplands seem to be fieldwork over the last few years came ata mounds and cairns. time when methods of absolute dating were Taken together, these observation lead well established, and thus excavators were to a fourth point. For many years prehistoric well aware of the need to collect appropriate Scotland was assigned to Cyril Fox’s Highland samples. Understandably that had not been the Zone (Fox 1932), and even more recent case until the 1970s, and, even then, too few territorial schemes, like that developed by Stuart were collected and submitted for analysis. They Piggott (1966) for the Scottish Iron Age, tended included samples that would now be considered to impose ‘natural’ topographical divisions on an inappropriate: bulk samples mixing material of incomplete distribution of sites and monuments. different origins; fragments of burnt wood that The situation has improved with more recent could have been centuries old when they were excavations and field surveys, as well as by deposited; pieces that were only loosely related newer studies of portable artefacts. Now it seems to the events that were being studied. During clear that the right way forward is not to study the 1990s the situation was improved by the the archaeological record within predefined use of small samples for AMS dating (Ashmore areas, but to use it to work out where any 1999; 2004a; 2004b), and now there are further divisions actually existed in the past. Sometimes advances through the direct dating of cremated that procedure emphasizes the specifically local, bone (Sheridan 2003). The archaeological as it does in north-east Scotland during the Early community was able to provide securely Bronze Age (Needham 2004), but in other cases stratified material with which to build upan it suggests that areas cannot be considered in absolute chronology for prehistoric Scotland. isolation. For example, some elements of the PHILIPS & BRADLEY: DEVELOPER-FUNDED FIELDWORK | 39

Kilmartin complex may be as closely related to the later Mesolithic period in Ireland, whereas prehistoric Ireland as they are to the prehistory recent work shows that the material culture of of Britain (Bradley 1997, ch 7). Similarly, during these two areas was quite distinct. the Neolithic period there may have been more In fact it was during the earlier Mesolithic in common between regions along the North that Scotland and Ireland had most in common, Sea coast from Yorkshire to Aberdeenshire than and in both countries there is evidence for there was between communities in Orkney and substantial domestic buildings that do not have Shetland (Greig et al 1989). any counterparts in later phases. It is not clear With this as background, is it possible to whether these sites were occupied over longer identify the new elements defined by developer- periods than others, but the circular house at funded archaeology, and how do they differ North-East Quarry, Dunbar, is very similar in from those identified by other kinds of research? form and date to those at Newferry in Northern These questions are best studied within a period Ireland (Woodman 1977) and Howick in north- framework. east England (Waddington 2003). In some ways knowledge of the Scottish At most of the sites investigated during Mesolithic had been biased by two factors: developer-funded fieldwork the Mesolithic the changes of sea level that mean that large artefacts occur in isolation, although they can be areas of the original coastline are preserved, found with Neolithic and Bronze Age material and the influence of early work on the Obanian around the edges of the Southern Uplands. The ‘culture’ (Mellars 1987). Both combined to give very fact that this is unusual argues against the impression that Mesolithic activity was the idea that Neolithic material culture was predominately coastal, as also seemed to be the adopted by the indigenous population along case in Northern Ireland (Woodman 1978). One with the earliest domesticates. That hypothesis effect of developer-funded fieldwork has been to has been influenced by the archaeology of show that the distribution of Mesolithic activity South Scandinavia (Thomas 1988) but the only extended into inland areas, as Kevin Edwards other part of Scotland where that comparison is had predicted in 1989. That is consistent with possible is along the west coast where Neolithic the results of pollen analysis. Occupation sites artefacts are quite often found with Mesolithic on the shoreline were undoubtedly important, material at what may have been specialized sites but studies of the associated artefacts and the (Armit & Finlayson 1992). That region cannot materials of which they were made suggest provide the basis for any model of general that there may have been networks of sites application. Although radiocarbon dating within particular regions, such as the Southern suggests that a few sites did span the period Hebrides, the Ayrshire coast and the Solway boundary, analysis of the human bones found Firth (Finlayson & Edwards 2003, 120). there suggest that there was a shift from fishing Moreover, the specialized status of the Obanian to the use of terrestrial resources (Richards has also been reconsidered. At An Corran, on 2004). Skye, salvage investigations in advance of road- Radiocarbon dating makes another important widening located a rock-shelter containing a contribution to this debate. Developer-funded shell midden (Saville & Miket 1994). Obanian projects have found Neolithic carinated bowls bone tools and a microlithic industry were in many parts of Scotland, and museum research stratified together. The Obanian can now be and older excavations have produced more seen as one aspect of the Scottish Mesolithic, examples (Cowie 1993). Recent fieldwork has rather than something more distinctive (Bonsall also provided samples for radiocarbon dating, 1996). That is especially important as it had and the results show the same emphasis on the always been tempting to make comparisons with early fourth millennium bc. This is consistent 40 | SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 2004 with the pattern throughout Britain and Ireland areas, although a similar building or enclosure and it suggests that Neolithic material culture was found beneath a large circular mound at was adopted rapidly not long after 4000 bc Courthill, Dalry in Ayrshire during the 19th (Ashmore 2004b). There is nothing to suggest century (Cochran Patrick 1874). Its date remains that new ideas spread gradually by way of uncertain, but like the examples excavated England or Ireland. during recent years it had been burnt. One remarkable development of recent The distinctive character of the Scottish fieldwork has been the recognition of pit- and Neolithic is equally apparent from the domestic post-alignments which were first built at this buildings excavated during recent fieldwork. early stage. These are important for several Some were sturdy constructions, while others reasons. They seem to represent a Scottish left little trace behind. They contrast with the variant of the earthwork monument known as massive timber halls, but they are also different a cursus, but they are unlike any structures in from the stone houses excavated in Orkney. southern Britain apart from the post-alignments They do not seem to fall into a series of clearly buried beneath the bank barrow at Perry Oaks defined types, and it is clear that rectilinear and (Barrett et al 2000). It seems likely that this curvilinear buildings were used at the same form of elongated enclosure originated in time (Barclay 1996; 2003b). It is impossible Northern Britain and that the later examples to compare this evidence with the situation of this type in Scotland were used as the same in England and Wales, where few domestic time as the causewayed enclosures in the south structures have been identified, but the Scottish (Barclay & Maxwell 1998; Brophy 1999). That evidence certainly contrasts with that in Ireland contrast is important for another reason. Like where it has been argued that there is a sequence long barrows, causewayed enclosures are a in which substantial rectangular houses date distinctive form of earthwork which originated from the earlier Neolithic and were superseded in Continental Europe. Cursuses have no by slighter round or oval structures during the counterparts on the European mainland and the later Neolithic period (Grogan 1996). earthwork enclosures that most resemble them There seem to have been more local were actually built during the first millennium developments during the Scottish Neolithic. bc (Roymans & Kortelag 1999). The Scottish These have usually been defined in two ways: monuments are easy to date because those built by the distinctive styles of decorated pottery of timber were often burnt. and by different types of megalithic tomb. The same applies to the distinctive timber Although developer-funded projects like those halls that have been excavated in recent years, at Eweford and Pencraig suggest that mortuary although none has been investigated as part of monuments may have been more varied than the planning process (Barclay et al 2002). They was once believed, it is the combination of are another form of monument that seems to air photography and excavation that has led have been peculiar to Northern Britain, although to the definition of a series of smaller regional a possible example has been identified from the groups defined by different kinds of monuments, air outside a causewayed enclosure at Freston including henges, hengiform enclosures, in Suffolk (Oswald et al 2001, Fig 3.14). Again cursuses and recumbent stone circles. Their they seem to have been a local development, distributions tend to complement one another for they are quite different in construction and and extend along the east coast from Lothian ground plan from the long houses of Neolithic to Caithness (Barclay 2003a). They provide Europe, which went out of use during the fifth a quite different source of information from millennium bc. These buildings have been the more familiar studies of long barrows and discovered by aerial photography in cultivated megalithic tombs. On the other hand, these PHILIPS & BRADLEY: DEVELOPER-FUNDED FIELDWORK | 41 different types have not been investigated to radically with those obtained since then, it is the same extent and not all of them are closely possible that the original determinations were dated. The cursuses, for instance, date from the flawed. The third development has been a new earlier fourth millennium bc (Brophy 1999), study of Bronze Age urns based on the direct while the large henge monuments are later dating of the associated cremations (Sheridan (Barclay 2003a). Recumbent stone circles span 2003). These vessels are found with burials the conventional division between the Late but also occur on settlement sites, and a better Neolithic period and the Early Bronze Age understanding of their history was long overdue. (Bradley 2004), and the hengiform enclosures Again the dating programme made considerable remain undated. The same scheme extends to use of samples from excavations carried out as Clava Cairns whose distribution complements part of the planning process. that of recumbent stone circles to the east and Until the advent of developer-funded field- hengiforms to the north-west, yet the excavated work the Early Bronze Age was best known for monuments at the type site of Balnuaran of its burials, many of which were brought to light Clava were built in the Early Bronze Age by cultivation. This revealed a large number of (Bradley 2000a). Some of these architectural graves associated with pottery, metalwork and traditions remain to be dated more precisely and personal ornaments, but it was not always clear to have their bounded distributions explained. whether these had occupied the sites of ploughed Were the latest monuments built in conformity out barrows or whether they formed part of more to social divisions that had originated during extensive flat cemeteries (Cowie & Shepherd the Neolithic period, and how far can the same 2003). Even now the evidence is not always approach be extended to the better-preserved clear-cut, but recent excavations have certainly remains of chambered tombs? shed some light on these questions. It seems clear Another chronological problem is closer to that some of the burials were in fact associated resolution. This is the dating and sequence of the with ring-ditches, while in other cases they were styles of decorated pottery in use during the Late not. Two recently excavated sites emphasize Neolithic and Early Bronze Age. Such work has these important contrasts, for radiocarbon dates depended on samples from recent excavations, show that the open cemetery at Skilmafilly in combination with cremated bone collected (Cameron 2001) was contemporary with the during earlier projects. The new work has been ring ditch cemetery at Elgin (Suddaby 2002). important for three reasons. First, it strengthens The same mixture of round barrows and groups the argument that Grooved Ware was used in of unmarked cists has been identified along Scotland, and possibly in Ireland, before it was the eastern seaboard of Ireland and sometimes adopted in southern Britain (Sheridan 2004). there seem to have been links between the two Given the amount of stylistic variation associated areas. Such connections have been discussed with this kind of pottery, it is not clear whether by Sheridan in the publication of the burials at it had a single origin. Secondly, a series of Seafield West (Cressey & Sheridan 2003). radiocarbon dates has been obtained for Beaker In common with other parts of Britain, the pottery in Scotland (Sheridan, forthcoming). Early Bronze Age in Scotland may have seen an These dates are generally consistent with the expansion in the settled area. It is often claimed expected chronology and cover a shorter time that in the uplands the remains of round houses, span than the dating programme published by the cultivation plots and clearance cairns go back British Museum which did not support any of the to this time, although in fact some may be existing schemes (Kinnes et al 1991). That was a considerably later in date (Cowie & Shepherd notable piece of research but all its results came 2003). These remains are usually recorded by from a single laboratory. Since they disagree so field survey, but in Scotland some projects have 42 | SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 2004 investigated them through excavation. As a but also in Ireland where developer-funded result, their chronology is much clearer than it excavation have brought a number of these to is in England, Wales or Ireland, and certain sites light. Again they do not seem to be associated do date from the earlier second millennium bc. with regular field systems. The houses are more substantial than the few There is another way in which the results of recorded in England and occur in small groups recent fieldwork in Scotland have confounded which were entirely unenclosed. The platform previous expectations. In two influential papers, settlements are the easiest to identify because one of them presented to an international of their distinctive earthworks. Work on Arran audience, Colin Burgess argued that climatic suggests why other traces have been elusive, for change in the Late Bronze Age made settlement here it is clear that the sites of early roundhouses in the north unsustainable (Burgess 1985; were cultivated once the buildings had been 1992). He even declared that no occupation abandoned (Barber 1997). The crucial evidence sites of this period had been discovered outside survived because the landscape was eventually lowland England. That was a possible reading buried by peat, but it is a model which might of the published literature of the time, but it well explain why their counterparts in other is completely contradicted by the results of regions of Britain have been difficult to identify. current fieldwork. Late Bronze Age settlements On the other hand, that cannot supply the entire had certainly been difficult to identify because explanation, for similar structures are now being of the rather undiagnostic ceramics produced found in lowland areas. The long sequence of during that period, but the problem has domestic buildings excavated in developer- been overcome by the use of radiocarbon funded work at Kintore began during this phase dating (Sheridan 2003). Not only were these (Cook & Dunbar 2004). settlements fairly numerous in the low-lying There has been a temptation to divide the situations investigated as part of the planning period into two halves, an Earlier Bronze and process, it is clear that Burgess’s arguments a Later Bronze Age, which were distinguished for the abandonment of the uplands were very from one another through important develop- much over-stated (Young & Simmons 1995). In ments in the settlement pattern. Ritual also contrast to the situation in England and Ireland, seems to have changed its principal focus the settlement record from Bronze Age Scotland from specialized monuments to the domestic shows an unexpected degree of continuity and, arena. That scheme certainly applies to parts except on a local level, there are few signs of of lowland Britain where there may have been sudden changes in the landscape. important changes in the landscape (Bradley One development which might have taken 2000b). Settlements, some of them enclosed, place during the earlier first millennium bc was assumed a more prominent position; large areas the emergence of large hillforts, but, as standing were organized into co-axial field systems; and monuments, these have rarely been the subject the ceremonial monuments of the Neolithic and of recent excavation. Even so, is worth noting Early Bronze Age finally went out of use. None that at both Eildon Hill North and Traprain of this is consistent with the results of developer- Law the use of these sites seems to have funded fieldwork in Scotland. There is only commenced in the Late Bronze Age and did one co-axial field system, at Tulloch Wood, not resume until the Roman Iron Age (Harding Moray (Carter 1993), which resembles those in 2004, 65; Rideout et al 1992, 21–71). These are southern Britain (Yates 1999), and there was no among a small group of fortified enclosures in obvious increase in the construction of domestic southern Scotland and northern England which buildings during the Middle Bronze Age. That have been described as ‘oppida’ (Harding contrasts with the situation not only in England, 2004, 64 –5), but the term could hardly be PHILIPS & BRADLEY: DEVELOPER-FUNDED FIELDWORK | 43 less appropriate as it usually refers to the large standing remains of a recumbent stone circle nucleated settlements of the La Tène Iron Age. (Phillips et al, forthcoming). This runs counter To judge from excavation at Eildon Hill North to the orthodox sequence in Britain but again it (Rideout et al 1992), these places may not have is very similar to the situation in Ireland where been permanent settlements. If more distant stone rows, stone circles and even henges were comparisons are needed, they might be made still being built in the late second and early first with the large Irish hillforts which now appear millennia bc (O’Brien 2004; Roche 2004). It to be a specifically Bronze Age phenomenon is not impossible that Scottish monuments had (Grogan 1994). an equally lengthy sequence, and the small The twofold division of this period into hengiform enclosures normally attributed to the an earlier and later Bronze Age had one other Neolithic period bear a disquieting resemblance component. If domestic sites achieved a to Irish ring barrows, which usually date greater prominence, ceremonial monuments from the first millennium bc (Raftery 1994, were no longer used. That may be too stark a 188–94). This offers one way of interpreting the contrast, even in southern England where the unexpectedly late radiocarbon dates from the scheme was first devised, but in Scotland it henge at Picts Knowe in Dumfries & Galloway is completely wrong. One result of the recent (Ashmore, forthcoming). programme of radiocarbon dating has been to It seems ironic that it is only in Iron Age show that older monuments were commonly studies that the results of developer-funded reused during this period. That secondary phase projects have been incorporated in a new was often associated with the deposition of synthesis (Harding 2004). Most of the projects human cremations and with the use of a kind quoted in detail were undertaken by only one of coarse pottery known as flat-rimmed ware. of the commercial firms operating in Scotland, At Loanhead of Daviot (Kilbride-Jones 1935; but this is an improvement on the situation in 1936) and Moncreiffe (Stewart 1985) there the south where the fourth edition of Cunliffe’s was also evidence that older monuments had Iron Age Communities in Britain overlooks been used by smiths. It is obvious that many practically any fieldwork that has not seen full different types of structure were being used or academic publication (Cunliffe 2004). Harding’s reused during the Middle and Late Bronze Ages, initiative is important because the scope of his including ring-cairns, kerb cairns, recumbent study is not confined by national boundaries stone circles, Clava Cairns and other settings and takes in northern England. He describes a of monoliths (Bradley 2004). It has become the series of regional traditions, at least as various conventional wisdom that on such sites timber as those illustrated by Neolithic monuments, and structures were replaced by those built out of traces their development over time. He takes no stone, but even this may prove to be misleading. account of the conventional division between Developer-funded excavation at Cairnwell, prehistoric and early historical archaeology and for example, showed that at one stage in its his discussion of the Later Iron Age extends into evolution the site included a ring cairn and a what is conventionally described as the Pictish timber enclosure of Middle or Late Bronze Age period. That is extremely helpful. His book date (Rees 1997). Reassessment of the excavated draws on a considerable body of information, pottery from Croft Moraig, Perth & Kinross, not all of it fully published, and makes it easier suggests that there a timber circle may have to assess the impact of the fieldwork carried out been constructed inside an older stone circle. It in relation to the planning process. was apparently replaced by another stone setting Harding describes several rescue excavations (Bradley & Sheridan in prep), and at Strichen a at brochs and related monuments in the Northern timber roundhouse was constructed within the and Western Isles and provides a useful account 44 | SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 2004 of the work funded by Historic Scotland at fragmentary evidence built up from chance the hillfort of the Brown Caterthun, Angus. finds of artefacts, souterrains and cists. For the He also discusses excavations occasioned by most part it is that hidden fraction of Scottish commercial development which are almost prehistory that is being brought to light today. entirely in lowland areas. His account considers For the first time the pace of fieldwork may four aspects of this work: the regional styles of have outstripped that of current research, as it timber round houses; the various forms of open has in every part of Britain and Ireland, and it and enclosed settlements; the dating and purpose remains a priority for future work to provide a of souterrains; and the burials associated with more balanced picture than has been available long cist cemeteries and with square and up to now. The sites that survive as earthworks circular barrows. All these are important issues, must be reunited with those that are identified but few play a major role in his interpretation as crop marks; the great stone monuments must which still depends on the results of research be considered alongside their counterparts in excavations and field survey, supplemented by earth and timber. Only then will it be possible to aerial photography. This is ironic as Harding investigate the prehistoric evidence as a whole. is one of the few scholars to take into account That is a more realistic prospect in Scotland than the results of developer-funded excavations, in other parts of Britain and Ireland because the but his discussion is based largely on studies of relevant information is more readily available. well preserved monuments. He does consider The real value of developer-funded fieldwork important issues that arise from recent fieldwork, will only be apparent when its results play in particular the significance of the Newmills a central role in new accounts of northern cart burial and its Continental parallels and prehistory. even the possibility that the square barrows in eastern Scotland might have been influenced by the Arras Culture in Yorkshire, yet it seems as if ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS the poorly preserved evidence from the lowlands plays a subsidiary role. That is surprising since The preparation of this report and the database were these were the areas that could most easily initiated by Dr David Breeze and funded by Historic support prosperous farming communities who Scotland. The collection of material at the RCAHMS could live there all year round. It is a moot point in Edinburgh was funded by the AHRB as part of Richard Bradley’s research project on British and how many of the upland monuments that feature Irish Prehistory. We are grateful to Patrick Ashmore in his account were occupied only seasonally and Gordon Barclay for much needed advice and for (Halliday 1999). commenting on the text and to Alison Sheridan for This illustrates a paradox that is present in news of new radiocarbon dates. We must also thank every aspect of Scottish prehistory. Many field Patrick Ashmore and Jerry O’Sullivan for providing monuments are impressive and well preserved, unpublished data. We would also like to thank the and since the 19th century they have provided staff at the RCAHMS for their help. The illustrations were prepared by Aaron Watson. the basis for a series of syntheses, from megalithic tombs to hillforts, and from stone circles to crannogs. 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