High-Precision Dating the Akko 1 Shipwreck, Israel: Wiggle-Matching the Life and Death of a Ship Into the Historical Record

Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 772e783

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Journal of Archaeological Science

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High-precision dating the Akko 1 shipwreck, Israel: wiggle-matching the life and death of a ship into the historical record

Brita Lorentzen a,b,*, Sturt W. Manning b, Deborah Cvikel c, Yaacov Kahanov c a Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, 2120 Snee Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA b Malcolm and Carolyn Wiener Laboratory for Aegean and Near Eastern Dendrochronology, B48 Goldwin Smith Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853- 3201, USA c Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel article info abstract

Article history: The Akko 1 shipwreck is the remains of an eastern Mediterranean naval or auxiliary brig, which was Received 25 January 2013 found inside the ancient harbor of Akko, Israel. The shipwreck and finds were recorded underwater, and Received in revised form some of the ship components, along with the majority of the finds, were retrieved and analyzed. A 19 September 2013 Bayesian dating model, incorporating 14C wiggle-matching of the ship timbers, tree-ring analysis, and 14C Accepted 13 October 2013 dates from short-lived finds, is used to model the ship’s construction and wrecking dates. These new data, combined with the results of archaeological research and available historical records, suggest that Keywords: the ship was built during the first third of the 19th century as part of Muhammad Ali’s fleet. Akko 1 then Akko 1 shipwreck fl e Wiggle-matching possibly plied the eastern Mediterranean under the Egyptian ag during the First Egyptian Ottoman e Radiocarbon War in 1831 1833. The wrecking event apparently occurred during the 1840 naval bombardment of 14 Akko Akko. This is the first time that C wiggle-matching and Bayesian analyses have been used to date the Muhammad Ali Pasha construction and wrecking of a shipwreck in the southeastern Mediterranean. The results show that EgyptianeOttoman Wars Bayesian analysis and 14C wiggle-matching techniques are valuable tools for analyzing the region’s Historical archeology shipwrecks, including those from recent historical periods. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction heavy bombardment of Akko in December 1831, and the Egyptians took the town by land on 27 May 1832, after a 6-month siege. The 1.1. Historical setting period of Egyptian rule over Akko lasted until 3 November 1840, when a British-Austrian-Ottoman fleet bombarded the town. Dur- The historic walled port city of Akko (Acre, St. Jean d’Acre, Akka) ing this event, the main powder magazine of Akko exploded, is located at the northern extremity of Haifa Bay in northern Israel. causing enormous damage to the town, which was taken the It has a continuous settlement history from the Early Bronze Age to following day (Alderson, 1843, pp. 39e48; Anderson, 1952, pp. the modern era, serving as an important naval and trading port 561e564; Kutluoglu, 1998, pp. 62e73, 173; Rustum, 1926). Analysis (Dothan, 1993; Makhouly and Johns, 1941; Negev and Gibson, 2005, of the hull timbers and finds from the Akko 1 shipwreck indicated pp. 27e28). that the ship was built, sailed, and sank during this same dynamic The town and its harbor were conquered by the Ottomans in time period (Cvikel and Kahanov, 2009, 2013). 1516 (Masters, 2009, p. 9), and were the scene of several naval campaigns during the Late Ottoman Period. In 1799, British control 1.2. The Akko 1 shipwreck of the sea and the Akko harbor prevented Napoleon Bonaparte from taking the town, and stopped his advance northwards (Alderson, The Akko 1 shipwreck was found in 4 m of water and under a 1843, p. 28; Anderson, 1952, pp. 372e373; La Jonquière, 1900, IV). thin layer of sand inside the ancient Akko harbor (see Fig. 1). It Muhammad Ali’s Egyptian flotilla was severely damaged during a was excavated over three seasons in 2006e2008 by the Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies at the University of Haifa. The shipwreck remains, lying northwest to southeast, were 23 m long from the bow to aft extremity, and a maximum 4.66 m wide * Corresponding author. Malcolm and Carolyn Wiener Laboratory for Aegean and from the line of the false keel to the uppermost remains of the port Near Eastern Dendrochronology, B48 Goldwin Smith Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-3201, USA. side. It is suggested that the original ship was a small Egyptian E-mail address: [email protected] (B. Lorentzen). armed vessel, or auxiliary brig, about 26 m long, built in the eastern

Fig. 1. Location of the Akko 1 shipwreck and Akko in Haifa Bay (drawing: S. Haad and N. Yoselevich).

Mediterranean. A complete description of the ship components and single AMS 14C dates, because the history of past radiocarbon levels finds is given by Cvikel and Kahanov elsewhere (2009, 2013). Our in the atmosphere is such that for radiocarbon ages in the last 300 work here is part of an ongoing series of studies about the Akko 1 years, there will always be several wide ranges of possible cali- shipwreck (e.g., Ashkenazi et al., 2011; Cvikel and Kahanov, 2009, brated calendar ages if the 14C data are considered in isolation. This 2013; Kahanov et al., 2012; Mentovich et al., 2010). problem has been encountered in dating several other historical Given the large amount of political upheaval and frequent naval shipwrecks (Cvikel et al., 2008; Cvikel and Kahanov, 2006) and campaigns that occurred in Akko during this relatively short time, buildings (Biger and Liphschitz, 1991) in the region. high-precision absolute dates are required to place Akko 1’s construction and wrecking within their appropriate historical context. 1.3. Bayesian modeling and 14C wiggle-matching Dendrochronology (tree-ring dating) can provide extremely precise dates or a terminus post quem for when ship timbers and wooden In order to obtain useful, high-precision 14C dates for historical elements were cut. However, it is not always possible to obtain a sites, buildings, or shipwrecks, 14C data can be analyzed together dendrochronological date from sampled wood. Even when within a Bayesian chronological model (Bayliss, 2007; Bronk dendrochronological dates are available, it may be necessary to Ramsey, 2009a). A more detailed description of Bayesian princi- relate tree-ring data to dates from other materials from the ship- ples and its applications in dating archaeological sites for non- wreck site, in order to date events post-dating the ship’s con- specialists is given by Bayliss (2007), so only a short summary of struction. Typological dates derived from the ship’s hull and small these methods is given here. Within the Bayesian framework, a finds do not provide the level of dating precision required, nor do site’s scientific dates, such as 14C and dendrochronological dates 774 B. Lorentzen et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 772e783

(known as the ‘standardized likelihoods’), are analyzed in the context of one’s additional knowledge about the dates and site (‘priors’)(Bayliss, 2007). For a shipwreck, this additional data may include information relating ship materials and finds to relative chronological sequences (e.g., whether materials belong to the ship’s construction or its later period of use), typical use periods of materials onboard, or documentary evidence about the ship or shipbuilding practices during a particular time period. The Bayesian model combines the raw scientific dates with the other prior information in a quantitative manner to produce formal statistical d. date estimates (‘posterior density estimates’) for a given event, such as a ship’s construction or wrecking date (Bayliss, 2007; Bronk Ramsey, 2009a). Radiocarbon wiggle-matching is a specific application of Bayesian analysis, which combines tree-ring analysis and radiocarbon data (Bayliss, 2007; Bayliss and Tyers, 2004; Bronk Ramsey et al., 2001; Galimberti et al., 2004). 14C dates are obtained from multiple tree-ring samples, whose relative order is known by an exact number of years. This sequence of 14C dates can then be fitted to the fluctuations of past atmospheric radiocarbon levels recorded in the radiocarbon calibration curve, in order to provide high- precision dating estimates for a given year in the tree-ring sequence. Wiggle-matched data can in turn be incorporated with other dates and prior information into a larger Bayesian model, which can increase the precision of a model’s dating estimates, including for relatively recent historical events (e.g., Turetsky et al., 2004). In this study, we present a comprehensive Bayesian analytical model for Akko 1 to determine high-precision absolute dates for the ship’s construction and last voyage/wrecking event. We use 14C wiggle-match dating of tree-ring sequences from the ship’s timbers and additional 14C dates from the ship’s wooden elements to provide a terminus post quem for the ship’s construction, and a series of 14C dates on short/shorter-lived samples found on the shipwreck, as well as a terminus post quem dating estimate from an earlier analysis of the ship’s cannonballs (Mentovich et al., 2010), in order to determine the most likely date of the ship’s last voyage or wrecking. Our study is, to our knowledge, the first time that Bayesian analysis and wiggle-matching have been used to date the construction and wrecking of a shipwreck in the southeastern Medi- terranean. Our results show that these techniques are extremely valuable tools for the analysis of shipwrecks, particularly from the historical period, when there can be rich, detailed historical docu- mentation available, but the traditional dating of undocumented physical remains is not always precise enough to link the archaeological and textual records. Bayesian chronological models, like the one we employ for Akko 1, can narrow possible shipwreck dates to a range that allows the physical ship remains to tie into, and greatly enhance, the period’s historical documents, and may e and should e be used in the future to date and interpret other shipwrecks that have been found in the region.

2. Material and methods Plan of the Akko 1 hull remains (drawing: C. Brandon); the locations of the timbers sampled for wiggle-matching (AKO-1, AKO-11, and AKO-12) are labele 2.1. Tree-ring analysis and radiocarbon wiggle-matching of the ship timbers Fig. 2.

The Akko 1 ship timbers were first analyzed for potential dendrochronological dating. Cross-sections were cut from twelve of the ship timbers, which appeared upon initial examination to be suitable for dendrochronological analysis. The surface of each sample was prepared with a razor blade, and the tree-ring widths measured along two to three radii for each sample using the Tell- ervo (Brewer et al., 2010) dendrochronological analysis package. Sample metadata, including presence of injuries and species, were B. Lorentzen et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 772e783 775 also recorded. Since many of the sampled timbers are oak (Quercus sapwood counts that were reported as either Quercus robur L. or sp.), samples were also examined to determine if any sapwood (the Quercus petraea (Mattuschka) Liebl., but which may in fact be a anatomically distinct area of the tree containing the outermost similar Turkish endemic species (Quercus vulcanica Boiss. ex Kot- tree-rings) was present, since accurate estimation of the tree’s schy). We then made a third sapwood estimate based on sapwood felling date is often possible when sapwood is preserved (Hillam counts for Italian oaks reported in Haneca et al. (2009, Table 1). et al., 1987; Hughes et al., 1981; Wazny, 1990). It is assumed that more or less all of the outer heartwood (the Since the samples do not cross-match against one another or resin-filled inner part of the tree preceding the sapwood) is present against any of the available Aegean or European reference tree-ring in the samples, and that it is largely the sapwood rings (which are chronologies, three samples e all oak (Quercus sp.) (labeled AKO-1, less resistant to decay) that have been removed from the outer part AKO-11, and AKO-12) e were selected for 14C wiggle-matching (see of the timbers. We then added a minimum estimate of 2 1 years Fig. 2). Twelve 10-year segments of tree-rings (three each from in which the oak was seasonedewhich we based on 19th century AKO-1 and AKO-11, and six from AKO-12), whose relative position statements that two years of seasoning is a minimum for oak to one another on each sample was known from exact ring counts, (although it should be noted that in some cases, seasoning could were dissected and sent to the Heidelberg and Oxford Radiocarbon take up to about a decade) (Tredgold, 1875). Laboratories for analysis. Ten-year increments were selected for The estimated minimum felling dates for the wiggle-matched wiggle-matching, because most of the samples include periods of samples were then incorporated into a dating model with four extremely narrow ring growth with a limited amount of material to additional AMS 14C dates from wooden elements analyzed by the sample. Thus taking decadal sections allowed sufficient material to Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory in the Institute of Particle Physics in be sampled for both routine high-precision 14C dating at Heidelberg Zurich, in order to calculate a terminus post quem date for the ship’s on two larger timbers, and AMS 14C dating at Oxford on the smaller construction (the minimum construction date, or ‘MCD’ in the sample, while gaining adequate dating precision against the OxCal model). The fifth dated timber fragment (ETH-32620) from radiocarbon calibration curve. the ship has a ‘modern’ (post-AD 1950) radiocarbon age The sequences of AMS (for AKO-12) and conventional (for AKO-1 of 80 40 BP (see Table 1). Whether this date reflects a laboratory and 11) 14C dates for each sample were then wiggle-matched using error or contamination is not known. This sample is the only OxCal 4.2 (Bronk Ramsey, 1995, 2009a; Bronk Ramsey et al., 2001) extreme outlier in the overall set (see Table 1) and was excluded and compared against the IntCal09 radiocarbon calibration curve from analysis. (Reimer et al., 2009) with curve resolution set at 1 year and no The non-wiggle-matched timber fragments were modeled us- allowance made for possible regional 14C variation (DR). Each ing Bronk Ramsey’s (2009b) charcoal outlier model in OxCal, which radiocarbon date was treated as dating the center-point of the models the 14C dataset as an exponential distribution. This model dated rings (e.g., the date for rings 1001e1010 was treated as ring was used, since many of the wooden fragments were taken from 1005.5). Since the Akko 1 tree-ring sequences do not dendrochro- the outer edges of the timbers, which include younger (more nologically crossdate one another, they were treated as indepen- recent) tree-rings. Therefore the 14C dates on the wooden fragment dent series in a single model, in which there was no prior dataset will likely have an exponential distribution toward the assumption about which sample was older/younger. timber felling date. However, the charcoal outlier model also allows None of the samples contain sapwood. The average number of for the fact that some of the timber fragments may include older sapwood rings in oak species varies depending on the tree’s (less recent) tree-rings toward the center of the tree, whose dates growing location (e.g., northern Europe versus Anatolia) and age are substantially older than the general felling period for the ship’s (Griggs et al., 2009; Hillam et al., 1987; Hughes et al., 1981; Wazny, timbers. 1990). Thus, a minimum number of additional rings was added to The calculated MCD for Akko 1 was constrained to a very con- the wiggle-matched date of each sample’s last extant ring, in order servative uniform date range (in which there are no prior dating to determine a minimum felling date for the trees. This number was preferences within the specified interval) between AD 1600 and based on the average number of sapwood rings for oaks from the 1950 (which marks the end of the “pre-bomb” 14C period, after ship timbers’ likely area(s) of origin. This simpler method was used which nuclear bomb testing altered atmospheric 14C levels and the instead of Millard’s (2002) proposed model for estimating shape of the radiocarbon calibration curve) (Randerson et al., sapwood, which has been developed for British oaks in the research 2002). After an initial run of the models using the three different of Miles (2005, 2006) and is implemented in OxCal 4 (Bronk sapwood estimates, a second iteration of the model using the north Ramsey, 2009a). This is because all of the necessary metadata for Aegean sapwood estimate was run, which excluded two dates calculating such sapwood models are not currently available for oak (ETH-32621 and ETH-32623) identified as outliers. populations from most of the ship timber’s likely source areas. Additionally, the Akko 1 timbers sampled here may be one or multiple oak species (see below). The appropriate wood anatomical 2.2. Dating the ship’s final voyage/wrecking data for calculating sapwood models for each of the possible oak species in the eastern Mediterranean are likewise unavailable, and The date of Akko 1’s last voyage was estimated using a set of five this is a topic requiring further research before more sophisticated AMS 14C dates, measured by the Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory in sapwood models can be developed. the Institute of Particle Physics in Zurich, on short or shorter-lived The Akko 1 ship finds (Cvikel and Kahanov, 2009, 2013); the samples found in the shipwreck (see Table 1). It is likely that the modern distributions of the tree species from which the ship tim- dates on the short or shorter-lived samples are distributed toward bers were cut (Akkemik and Yaman, 2012, pp. 166e170; Ducousso the last few years or voyages of the ship (e.g., the two rope samples, and Bordacs, 2003; Schweingruber, 1993, pp. 188e201); and his- and the leather flask), or e in the case of the dated food remains e torical evidence (McNeill, 1992; Mikhail, 2011) indicate that the likely the literal last voyage or season of sailing, and give a close ship timbers likely came from Anatolia/the Aegean, and possibly terminus post quem for the ship’s wrecking date. The 14C dates on Italy. We therefore first employed a sapwood estimate based on the short/shorter-lived samples are therefore grouped in the same data from a group of mixed north Aegean oak species (Griggs et al., Phase in OxCal (see Fig. 4) and modeled as an exponential distri- 2007, 2009, pers. comm., 2012), and then a second alternative es- bution (‘Tau_Boundary’ in OxCal) (Bronk Ramsey, 2009a) timate from a group of oaks in northwest Turkey with higher toward the end of this Phase. 776 B. Lorentzen et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 772e783

Table 1 14C data and calibrated ages of wood and organic samples from the Akko 1 shipwreck. Sample B2012 (marked in bold and italicized) was excluded from the dating model.

Serial number Lab number Sample Sample d13C & 14C Age (BP) 68.2% Probability 95.4% Probability number type

1 ETH-31975 e Wood 21.6 1.1 275 40 1520e1590 (37.9%) 1480e1680 (89.7%) 1620e1670 (30.3%) 1770e1800 (5.7%) 2 ETH-32619 A2012 Wood 24.5 1.1 250 40 1520e1580 (18.8%) 1480e1690 (64.2%) 1620e1680 (29.1%) 1720e1810 (23.8%) 1760e1800 (15.3%) 1920e1960 (7.4%) 1930e1960 (5.1%) 3 ETH-32620 B2012 Wood 27.2 1.1 80 40 1950e1955 (68.2%) 1950e. (95.4%) 4 ETH-32621 702 Olive pit 29.5 1.1 5 40 1700e1720 (6.6%) 1690e1730 (13.3%) 1820e1840 (3.5%) 1810e1920 (47.1%) 1880e1920 (25.8%) 1950e1960 (35.0%) 1950e1960 (32.3%) 5 ETH-32622 700 Rope 30.9 1.1 95 40 1690e1730 (17.9%) 1680e1780 (30.1%) 1810e1920 (50.3%) 1800e1940 (65.3%) 6 ETH-32623 777 Leather ﬂask 26.7 1.1 15 40 1700e1720 (8.5%) 1690e1730 (16.3%) 1810e1840 (7.3%) 1810e1920 (56.0%) 1880e1920 (30.8%) 1950e1960 (23.1%) 1950e1960 (21.6%) 7 ETH-34103 2034 Wooden nail 26.0 1.1 190 50 1650e1690 (16.7%) 1640e1960 (95.4%) 1720e1810 (38.8%) 1920e1960 (12.7%) 8 ETH-34105 2035 Wood 29.3 1.1 115 45 1680e1740 (20.7%) 1670e1780 (35.8%) 1800e1930 (47.5%) 1790e1950 (59.6%) 9 ETH-35813 2008/1 Rope 23.6 1.1 80 45 1690e1730 (18.4%) 1680e1770 (29.2%) 1810e1920 (49.8%) 1800e1940 (66.2%) 10 ETH-35814 2008/2 Nut shell 24.9 1.1 135 45 1680e1780 (28.1%) 1660e1950 (95.4%) 1800e1890 (29.6%) 1910e1940 (10.5%)

It is assumed that the estimated cutting dates for samples AKO- but significant growing season-related offset of 19 5 14C years like 1, 11, and 12, and the dates for the non-wiggle-matched ship timber that which Dee et al. (2010) found in samples from the Nile Valley fragments (e.g., materials relating to the ship’s construction) pre- in periods prior to the Aswan dam construction. However, it should cede the dates for the shorter-lived samples onboard the ship. be noted that sample material from Egypt’s Mediterranean coast Therefore the initial boundary of the ‘Last Voyage Phase’ was would have a smaller offset, while the offset in material from the modeled as the ship MCD, while this Phase’s end boundary is Levant would be smaller still. To consider the relevance of such an considered the best estimate for Akko 1’s last voyage or wrecking offset to our dating models, we compared the modeled minimum date (‘LV’ in the OxCal model). We added an additional time construction dates against the calibration curve in OxCal first with a constraint, allowing a distribution of up to 20 years for the dates in general DR allowance of 0 10. Then, in a second test, we added a the ‘Last Voyage Phase’ (i.e., a time constant of 0e20 years to the 19 5 14C years adjustment only to the modeled date for the short/ exponential distribution). This provides a generous allowance for shorter-lived samples to determine the effect on the modeled date the lifetime of the short/shorter-lived sample objects, and indeed for the ship’s final voyage/wrecking. 20 years is estimated as the typical lifespan reported for ships similar to Akko 1 (Cvikel and Kahanov, 2013; Dodds and Moore, 3. Results 2005,p.17;Elkin et al., 2007, p. 37). A second iteration of this model was also run, which excluded the two outliers (i.e., ETH- 3.1. Tree-ring analysis and wiggle-matching the ship timbers 32621 and ETH-32623). An additional model was run, in which a terminus post quem of Of the twelve ship timbers sampled, only six e all deciduous 1839 for the date of the last voyage was added. This constraint oaks e had sufficient rings (50) for dendrochronological analysis. incorporates dating information from Mentovich et al.’s (2010) Reliably identifying European and Mediterranean oak wood at the analysis of the Akko 1 cannonballs, in which they found high species level is not possible; thus we give wood identifications only concentrations of manganese added to the cast iron. This is a at section level, following the recommendations of Akkemik and manufacturing technique used in cannonballs produced only after Yaman (2012, p. 178), Schweingruber (1990, pp. 401e403), and 1839, which suggests a post-1839 date for the ship’s last voyage. Wazny (pers. comm., 2012). Five samples were cut from oaks belonging to the section Quercus (white oaks), which in Europe and 2.3. Testing model robustness and possible regional 14C offsets the Mediterranean includes the common species Q. petraea (Mat- tuschka) Liebl., Q. pubescens Willd., Q. vulcanica Boiss. ex Kotschy, Additional tests were conducted to determine if any regional and Q. robur L. One sample was cut from an oak belonging to the offsets between the calibration curve and sample radiocarbon section Cerris (red oaks), which in Europe and the Mediterranean content might affect the model’s calculated dates. Available data includes the common species Quercus cerris L. All of the samples (Manning and Kromer, 2012; Manning et al., 2010) indicate that have relatively short tree-ring sequences of less than 100 rings, and such an offset is extremely small to negligible for the ship timbers, nine of the twelve include the innermost, juvenile tree-rings at or if they are from the Aegean, Turkey, or Italy. Archaeological evi- near the tree’s pith. The bark, vascular cambium, and sapwood are dence (Cvikel and Kahanov, 2013) suggests that Akko 1 was a ship absent from all of the timbers sampled. Most of the samples have friendly to Egypt and was possibly even built there. If, then, the scarring and abrupt growth suppression and releases in their tree- short/shorter-lived samples are from Egypt, there may be a small rings (see Fig. 3), which altered tree-ring growth. None of the B. Lorentzen et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 772e783 777

Fig. 3. Photos of sample AKO-1, and graph showing the AKO-1 ring-width measurement sequence (relative years beginning at 1001 from the center of the tree outwards are shown), which features abrupt growth releases due to an injury (A), and abrupt growth declines in both the section’s middle (B) and center (C). The lighter color around the sample’s outer edges gives the appearance of sapwood, but closer inspection revealed it to be only discoloration (photos: B. Lorentzen).

samples yielded significant dendrochronological crossdates with possibly northern Italy, so average sapwood estimates from these one another or with existing European and Mediterranean oak regions are employed. According to Griggs’ research (pers. comm., reference chronologies. 2012; modified from data in Griggs et al., 2007, 2009) on a multi- The three samples selected for 14C wiggle-matching, AKO-1 and species group of 167 oaks growing in northern Turkey and 12, and AKO-11, were sampled from hull timbers: two frame tim- Greece, oaks ages < 100 years generally have an average of bers and a hull plank, respectively (see Table 2). AKO-1 has 74 rings (plus one unmeasured, partial ring); AKO-11 has 65 rings (plus one Table 2 unmeasured, partial ring); and AKO-12 has 93 rings. The 10-year 14C data from the AKO-1, AKO-11, and AKO-12 oak samples employed in the 14C sections taken from each sample and used in the wiggle-match wiggle-match. are given in Table 2, and their calculated placements from the Lab ID Relative rings d13C & 14C age (BP) SD model (Fig. 4) are shown in terms of their fit on the IntCal09 (each sample) radiocarbon calibration curve (Reimer et al., 2009)inFig. 5. All the AKO-1 14 C data from the wiggle-matched wood samples lie in the 18th Hd-27447 1008e1017 24.52 117 22 century AD on the upward 1715e1790 slope. When the OxCal Hd-27465 1028e1037 26.6 150 19 e charcoal outlier model is used, the non-wiggle-matched wood Hd-27487 1048 1057 25.92 142 20 samples lie in the late 18th through early 19th century AD. The data fi AKO-11 from the subsequent short/shorter-lived samples t best around Hd-30362 1006e1015 26.2 140 12 the wiggle in the calibration curve between approximately 1820 Hd-30391 1036e1045 26.3 185 26 and 1840. Hd-30392 1046e1055 25.7 152 19 All three samples were cut from Quercus section Quercus. Spe- cies in this section have a wide distribution stretching from the AKO-12 OxA-19432 1001e1010 25.0 119 25 Black Sea and southwest coasts of Anatolia westward throughout OxA-19466 1011e1020 24.0 128 21 most of Europe (Akkemik and Yaman, 2012, pp. 166e170; Ducousso OxA-19433 1031e1040 24.5 202 25 and Bordacs, 2003; Schweingruber, 1993, pp. 188e201). For reasons OxA-19467 1041e1050 23.7 166 22 discussed above (also: see discussion below), the ship timbers were OxA-19434 1061e1070 23.9 191 26 OxA-19468 1071e1080 24.2 191 22 most likely culled from forests in Anatolia/the Aegean, and also 778 B. Lorentzen et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 772e783

Fig. 4. The Akko 1 dating model, comprising all 14C data on the ship’s wood elements/samples; three independent 14C wiggle-matches for timbers AKO-1, AKO-11, and AKO-12; the estimated minimum construction adding the estimated missing number of sapwood rings and minimum of 2 1 years for seasoning; a group of other 14C dates on wood samples from the ship; and 14C dates on short/shorter-lived samples from the shipwreck. The A values are the OxCal agreement values for the individual samples; a satisfactory value is 60. The O (Outlier) values are shown only where the posterior values from the General Outlier Model (Bronk Ramsey, 2009b) are greater than the prior value (of 5); these outliers are indicated by an arrow and bold text in the ﬁgure. Note that the modern sample ETH-32620 has already been excluded.

19 4.33 sapwood rings, while oaks ages 101e150 years have an innermost rings are likely from very close to the tree’s center average of 21.19 4.61 sapwood rings. If we use Griggs’ (pers. (within approximately 10 rings). Sample AKO-12 was cut from a comm., 2012) sapwood estimates from the smaller dataset of oaks tree at least 93 years old, although the pith is not present, nor is (possibly Q. vulcanica Boiss. ex Kotschy) from northwest Turkey, there clear indication that the sampled timber was cut close to the then the average for oaks < 100 years old is 27.2 7.19 sapwood center of the tree (thereby placing AKO-12 in the older sapwood rings, and 27.81 7.78 for oaks 101e150 years old. According to the estimate age class). Thus the sapwood estimate for trees in the data from Martinelli reported in Haneca et al. (2009, Table 1), <100-years age class is used for samples AKO-1 and AKO-11, while Italian oaks have an average of 13.23 6.06 sapwood rings. the older 101-to-125 years age class estimate is used for AKO-12. Sample AKO-1 was cut from a tree that was at least 75 years old, The minimum felling dates for the three wiggle-matched tim- and the pith and innermost rings of the tree are present. Sample bers using the different sapwood estimates are given in Table 3. The AKO-11 was cut from a tree at least 66 years old; the pith is not north Aegean oak sapwood model is shown in Fig. 4. There is an present, although based on the sample’s ring curvature, its extremely slight difference in the estimated minimum felling date B. Lorentzen et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 772e783 779

Fig. 5. The placement of the 14C data in the Akko 1 dating model in Fig. 4 against the IntCal09 (Reimer et al., 2009) radiocarbon calibration curve (1s). The 14C data from the different samples are shown as the 68.2% probability modeled calendar age ranges from Fig. 4 on the x axis (calendar date scale), and as the 14C age BP (1s) on the y axis (14C years). across the different sapwood models between samples AKO-1 and radiocarbon levels in the atmosphere (the ‘Suess Effect’)(Suess, 11 versus AKO-12, which may reflect very small differences be- 1955). Thus, while these post-1880 construction (and also wreck- tween the Heidelberg (which measured AKO-1 and 11) and Oxford ing) date ranges are included in our results and shown in Figs. 6 and (which measured AKO-12) radiocarbon laboratories, or a slight 7, they may be excluded from our analysis of both the ship’s likely difference in the actual timber ages. However, the date ranges for all construction and wrecking dates. three samples comfortably overlap one another at both 68.2% and 95.4% probability. This indicates that the timbers were cut at 3.3. Dating the ship’s final voyage/wrecking roughly the same time; our assumption that the timbers had only their sapwood rings removed (plus possibly a few heartwood rings) The overall model produces slightly different estimates for the is likely correct; and the calculated minimum timber felling date calendar date of the ship’s final voyage/wrecking depending on the and subsequent minimum construction date is robust. sapwood estimate employed (see Fig. 7A, C, and D). The most likely probability ranges are all very similar at AD 1822e1842 (north 3.2. Dating the ship’s construction Aegean oaks); AD 1825e1848 (the northwest Turkey oak subset, ‘DEV’); and AD 1821e1837 (Italian oaks) at 68.2% probability (see The calculated minimum construction dates for Akko 1 using Table 3). If an additional terminus post quem of 1839 for the ship’s the different sapwood estimates are given in Table 3, and their last voyage, based on Mentovich et al.’s analysis (2010), is added to probability distributions are shown in Fig. 6. If we calculate a the model using the north Aegean sapwood estimate, OxCal pro- minimum construction date using the north Aegean oak sapwood duces a most likely date range of AD 1839e1852 at 68.2% proba- estimate (since it is the most likely origin for the timber), the most bility, with probability strongly skewed toward the earlier part of likely period for the ship’s construction is between AD 1817 and the date range (see Fig. 7B). 1834 at 68.2% probability (AD 1810e1856 at 94.3% probability and 1889e1897 at 1.1% probability) (see Fig. 6A). If we use the other two sapwood estimates instead, the likely ship construction dates vary 3.4. Testing model robustness and possible regional 14C offsets by less than 10 years at 68.2% probability (see Fig. 6B, C, Table 3). If we rule out the very small probability of a minimum construction The overall dataset employed in our model (see Fig. 4)e date in ca. 1880e1900 in two of the models, the likely minimum comprising the 14C wiggle-matched timbers, additional wood construction dates produced from using different sapwood esti- samples, and short/shorter-lived sample setefits nicely to the var- mates vary by less than 20 years at 95.4% probability. iations in the atmospheric radiocarbon record (see Fig. 5). The The different models give a possible (but very unlikely) mini- overall model using the north Aegean sapwood estimates produces mum construction date range from ca. AD 1880e1890. However, an analysis with a good OxCal agreement index (Amodel 69.7 > 60), none of the finds from Akko 1 indicate that the ship was con- and the alternative northwest Turkish subset and Italian sapwood structed any later than the mid-19th century (Cvikel and Kahanov, estimate models also offer Amodel values >60 at 69.8 and 67.5, 2013). Our models likely produce these date ranges because of respectively. There are only two minor outliers produced using changes to the shape of the radiocarbon calibration curve around Bronk Ramsey’s General Outlier model (2009b) (see Figs. 4 and 5). If the early 20th century, when burning of fossil fuels started altering the model using north Aegean sapwood estimates is re-run without 780 B. Lorentzen et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 772e783

Table 3 Calendar date ranges (years AD) for the minimum felling dates (MFD) for the three wiggle-matched timbers, for the ship’s minimum construction date (MCD), and for the last voyage (LV) according to a range of dating models and criteria (see text for model descriptions). The OxCal agreement values (‘Amodel’) are also listed for each model; a satisfactory value is 60.

North Aegean North Aegean Northwest Turkey Italy North Aegean North Aegean North Aegean (all data) (minus 2 outliers) (all data) (all data) (all data and (all data and (all data and 1839 TPQ) DR 0 10) DR 19 5on short-lived samples)

Amodel value 69.7 > 60 94 > 60 69.8 > 60 67.5 > 60 68.8 > 60 81 > 60 60 60 AKO-1 MFD (68.2%) 1800e1821 1799e1820 1806e1825 1795e1814 1800e1824 1800e1823 1801e1821 AKO-1 MFD (95.4%) 1787e1829 1785e1830 1792e1833 1782e1822 1785e1834 1785e1841 1786e1829 AKO-11 MFD (68.2%) 1801e1820 1801e1820 1807e1824 1795e1812 1801e1823 1800e1823 1801e1820 AKO-11 MFD (95.4%) 1789e1831 1789e1835 1794e1838 1785e1825 1790e1841 1789e1843 1788e1832 AKO-12 MFD (68.2%) 1812e1827 1811e1828 1813e1830 1805e1820 1816e1832 1812e1829 1812e1827 AKO-12 MFD (95.4%) 1804e1836 1803e1838 1804e1843 1797e1829 1807e1841 1804e1842 1803e1837 MCD (68.2%) 1817e1834 1815e1837 1818e1837 1813e1830 1824e1843 1816e1836 1817e1833 MCD (95.4%) 1810e1856 1808e1856 1812e1860 1806e1844 1818e1861 1810e1864 1810e1853 (94.1%), (91.1%), (89.4%), (93.8%), (92.4%), 1889e1897 1880e1900 1879e1902 1887e1897 1888e1902 (1.1%) (4.3%) (6.0%) (1.6%) (3%) LV (68.2%) 1822e1842 1823e1849 1825e1848 1821e1837 1839e1852 1823e1847 1822e1841 LV (95.4%) 1815e1866 1814e1868 1817e1873 1814e1854 1839e1874 (89.4%), 1815e1874 1815e1864 (94.1%), (91.4%), 1882e1885 (0.7%), (94%), (92.5%), 1897e1905 1894e1909 1894e1911 (5.3%) 1897e1905 1897e1908 (1.3%) (4.0%) (1.4%) (2.9%)

these two outliers, the resulting date ranges are almost the same date) is used, the earliest likely construction date at 95.4% proba- (see Table 3). bility still post-dates the siege of Akko by 9 years. It is instead most The DR test of 0 10 years for calculations using the north likely that the Akko 1’s timbers were cut, and building of the ship Aegean oak sapwood model returns little evidence of any signifi- initiated, during the political ascendency of the Egyptian vali cant offset. The mean offset for the minimum timber use date is Muhammad Ali Pasha. just 3.3 7.7 years (1 standard deviation), which indicates that Muhammad Ali invested considerable resources in obtaining there is no substantial offset. This modifies the last voyage/wreck- timber, which he deemed critical for building up the Egyptian navy, ing date range by only a few years, so that it is AD 1823e1847 at and even personally oversaw timber importation to Egypt (Mikhail, 68.2% probability (AD 1815e1874 at 94% probability and AD 1897e 2011). The most easily accessible and largest quantities of available 1905 at 1.4% probability). If the pre-Aswan ‘Egyptian’ Nile Valley timber came from the Black Sea and south Mediterranean coasts of growing season adjustment of 19 5 14C years is added to the Anatolia, which traded heavily with Egypt during the early 19th short/shorter-lived samples, the modeled last voyage/wrecking century (McNeill, 1992, pp. 246e247; Mikhail, 2011). However it is date range is placed only slightly later at AD 1823e1847 at 68.2% documented that Muhammad Ali also imported timbers from Italy probability (AD 1815e1874 at 94% probability and AD 1897e1905 at (McNeill, 1992, pp. 246e247). Muhammad Ali was apparently un- 1.4% probability). The overall agreement of the model also goes up happy with both the quantity and quality of wood from these lo- (Amodel ¼ 81), which may suggest that this consideration is rele- cations (Marsot Al-Sayyid, 1984,p.221;McNeill, 1992, p. 247). His vant. Nevertheless, even if a small 14C offset applies to the short/ desire for high-quality, accessible timber resources free from shorter-lived materials, its overall effect on our dating results is Ottoman control e which he had unsuccessfully attempted to ac- quite small and does not affect our overall interpretation of the quire within Egypt e was, in fact, his primary motivation for dates (see discussion below), but may create a slightly more invading the Levant (including Akko) and southeast Anatolia in compatible model. 1831 (Kutluoglu, 1998,p.51;Marsot Al-Sayyid, 1984, p. 228; Mikhail, 2011, pp. 160e169; Rustum, 1936, pp. 63e64). 4. Discussion Akko 1’s wrecking site and hull construction indicate that it was friendly to, and was likely even built, in Egypt (Cvikel and Kahanov, According to the dating models calculated above, the minimum 2013). Like the Turkish and Italian timbers that Muhammad Ali construction dates for the Akko 1 ship timbers lie somewhere be- reportedly found unsatisfactory for his navy, the timber used to tween AD 1813 and 1843 at the extremes of the 68.2% probability build Akko 1 was generally poor quality, cut from juvenile trees, ranges (see Table 3). The ship’s final voyage most likely occurred and (based on the abrupt tree-ring growth suppression and re- between AD 1821 and 1852 at 68.2% probability when no other leases in many of the samples) culled from a forest/forests that additional information is included in the model. If the terminus post experienced frequent anthropogenic disturbance (possibly from quem indicated by Mentovich et al.’s (2010) analysis of the can- coppicing and pollarding). If the timbers were in fact culled from nonballs is incorporated and the north Aegean sapwood estimate multiple areas in the Turkish and Italian forests, this may explain used, then the most likely final voyage/wrecking date can be nar- why the ship timbers do not dendrochronologically crossdate. rowed to AD 1839e1852 at 68.2% probability. The model and Even if the Akko 1 timbers were taken entirely from Turkish calculated dates fit well with the approximate date ranges given to forests, it is still likely that the ship’s timbers were culled from the Akko 1 finds, arms, and rigging elements (Cvikel and Kahanov, several different forest stands. Mikhail’s (2011) analysis of the 2009, 2013; Shalev, pers. comm., 2007, 2010). Ottoman and Egyptian archives demonstrated that the standard Our model indicates that the ship was constructed after Napo- procedure for timber exportation between Anatolia and Egypt was leon Bonaparte’s 1799 siege of Akko (see Table 3). Even if the Italian that: i) the Ottoman sultan agreed to grant an Egyptian request for sapwood model (which provides the earliest possible construction timber; ii) Anatolian timbers were cut from multiple forests in B. Lorentzen et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 772e783 781

Anatolia and then sent in bulk to the Imperial Dockyards in Istan- Kahanov, 2013). Considering that the ship was armed and suffered bul, or ports like Antalya and Alanya in southern Anatolia, which considerable damage during its wrecking (Cvikel and Kahanov, served as timber repositories; iii) the wood was then shipped to the 2013), it is likely that it was wrecked during a naval battle. The dockyards in Alexandria; and iv) timbers were distributed fact that no other naval campaign took place in the vicinity of Akko throughout Egypt as needed. Thus, wood used to make an entire after 1840, combined with our dating model and analysis of the fleet of Egyptian vessels might come from several locations within finds, suggests that the Akko 1 was sunk as a direct result of the Anatolia. 1840 bombardment of Akko by the Allied fleet, or by the explosion If ship construction concluded by 1830 (which our dating of the town’s main powder magazine. models indicate is entirely possible), Akko 1 might have even been If Akko 1 was a naval vessel in Akko on guarding and patrolling one of the six Egyptian armed brigs that sailed to Akko and duties, she could have taken part and been sunk during the battle. participated in Ibrahim Pasha’s 1831 siege of the town (Cvikel and She might also have been an auxiliary vessel friendly to Egyptian forces, like that which Captain Henry Codrington (commander of the British frigate HMS Talbot) observed anchoring in Akko harbor on the eve of the bombardment in 1840 (Codrington, 1880, p. 182). If Akko 1 was the brig that Codrington observed, then she was an auxiliary vessel shipping arms and ammunition to the Egyptians defending Akko when she sank.

5. Conclusions

The Bayesian analysis model used in our study gives a much narrower possible range of dates for when Akko 1’s ship timbers were felled, for when the vessel was built, and for when the vessel was wrecked than either single 14C dates or typological dates derived from the ship’s equipment or finds. This study is, to our knowledge, the first time that such techniques have been used to provide high-precision dates for a shipwreck found in the southeastern Mediterranean. Our results show clear advantages for implementing this type of analysis, particularly for dating historical shipwrecks, and even buildings or archaeological sites, when their specific histories are not documented and direct dendrochronological dating is not possible. Previously, the broad range of dates from the 17th through 19th centuries AD for the ship’s construction and wrecking available from single-sample radiocarbon dates limited the ability to interpret the physical ship remains in the context of historical events during a time period in which there were multiple political up- heavals, naval and military campaigns, and changing and expand- ing trade networks. However, with our dating model (and e as seems most likely e assuming that the timbers are from Anatolia/ the Aegean and citing the model excluding the two outliers), we are able to determine that the ship was constructed no earlier than AD 1815e1837 at 68.2% probability (AD 1808e1856 at 95.4% probability) and likely wrecked between AD 1823 and 1849 at 68.2% probability (AD 1814e1868 at 95.4% probability), or, allowing for the level of manganese in the cannonballs, likely AD 1839e1855 at 68.2% probability (AD 1839e1874 at 95.4% probability). If the analyzed ship timbers came from either of the other two proposed regional oak populations, these dates vary by at most only a few years. Combined with evidence from the small finds and botanical analysis of the timbers, we can then fit this information with the historical record to suggest that Akko 1 was an Egyptian brig built for Muhammad Ali’s navy during his political ascendency; possibly plied the eastern Mediterranean during the First Egyptiane Ottoman War in 1831e1833; and sank during the Allied bombardment of Akko in 1840. These data aid in further analysis of the Akko 1 shipwreck as an Egyptian naval brig. Even more critically, our study demonstrates the advantages of using Bayesian analysis techniques combining tree-ring analysis and 14C data, in interpreting and identifying other historical-era shipwrecks (and shipwrecks from earlier periods) Fig. 6. Probability distributions for Akko 1’s minimum construction date (MCD) at from the southeast Mediterranean. These methods provide the 68.2% and 95.4% probabilities: (A) uses the north Aegean oak sapwood estimate; (B) alternative northwest Turkish sapwood estimate; and (C) Italian oak sapwood high-precision dates that are required to insert such important and estimate. rich ship finds into the region’s historical narrative. 782 B. Lorentzen et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 772e783

Fig. 7. Probability distributions for dating the ship’s ﬁnal voyage/wrecking from the dating model shown in Fig. 4: (A) uses the north Aegean oak sapwood estimate; (B) the north Aegean oak sapwood estimate including the AD 1839 terminus post quem from Mentovich et al.’s (2010) cannonball analysis; (C) the alternative northwest Turkish sapwood estimate; and (D) Italian oak sapwood estimate.

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