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Introduction Chapter I INTRODUCTION The art of translation is being practised all over the world. In its very nature, it is bilingual. The question of translation would not have arisen if the entire world is mono-lingual. When languages evolved in human society, the need for translation must have been felt among the intellectuals. For practising translators, a minimum of two languages must have been conversant. Desirable it is, if the target language is the mother-tongue of the translator. Strictly speaking, however much is the efficiency of the translator, no translation could equal the source material in all respects. Any original is alike a living eagle. But the translation is like a stuffed eagle of a laboratory. The concept of translation would have evolved gradually since time immemorial. At the same time it could be traced back to the Christian missionaries who would have been the pioneers to have translated The Bible into several languages of the world with a view to propagating the word of God among the people particularly of heathen countries where they made their settlements and started proselytizing them. It is as in the words of Bassnett-McGuire, “With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role that of disseminating the word of God” (40). 2 The translation emerged as a separate art in the twelfth century. It is a well known dictum that art of translation flourishes only in an atmosphere of bi-lingual scenario and also in an area of multiplicity of languages. In a methodical study of translation it is found that this art itself has its own origin and development. As the present critical study involves two languages – Tamil and English, it is obligatory to make a note of translation in both these languages. Geneologically speaking, Tamil is one of the earliest languages of the Dravidian family and the English is the off shoot of Indo-European family of languages. Linguistically, culturally and socially, the Tamils are certainly different from the English. The origin of Tamil language goes back to circa fourth century B.C. and English is the language of about 600 years old only. What seems to be a wide gulf and chasm between these two languages of different culture and civilization have been ironed out with the advent of translation. In other words translation proves to be a connecting link between these two languages of different climes and cultures. Translation according to Dr. Johnson involves the process of “Change into another language, retaining the sense” which is indeed the basic objective. Modifying this statement A.H. Smith maintains that “to translate is to change into another language retaining as much of the sense as one can.” (8) 3 In this respect, translation as a separate discipline serves the essential purpose of ushering in a literary flavour, identity of thought and emotional bond among the lovers of literature. As in the words of Patankar, Translations provide for many the only means of approach to foreign literature. Thousands of literary works have been translated. Methods have been devised to judge whether and how far individual translations are successful. (61) Translation is far greater than any other means to convey an idea into another languages. Das very aptly says, In fact, translation is more than all these – ‘art’, ‘craft’, and ‘science.’ It is a process of analysis, interpretation and creation which leads to replacement of one set of linguistic resources and values for another. (Das, Handbook 103) Practice of Translation Whenever the writers of the past intended to make their concept reach beyond the boundaries of their lingua-region, translation proved to be the only medium. The uses of translation are amazing. It is very clearly put forth by Das in the Herizon of Translation studies. Translation of world classics into several other languages of the world helps in enriching the target languages. Apart from 4 well-known epics of the world, great authors like Tolstoy and Shakespeare, continue to be translated into several languages. (71) Thus the original authors sought the help of others. The writers who were well versed in both the original and the receptor’s languages rendered the works by themselves. This practice was quite common in those days. It has become an art now. The writer, his reader and work belong to one language and the translator, his reader and translation belong to another language (Of course, the translator knows both the languages). What happens in translation is that the source language text gets substituted and the result is that the target language is born. In other words translation is a journey from one language to another. (Das, Handbook 67) There are quite a good number of translated works throughout the world. For example Iliad’s Odessey, the Tamil ethical literature Thirukkural by Thiruvalluvar have been translated into many a languages of the world. Recent translations of Thirukkural are found in Thai language, Malay and Burmese, to speak of South-East Asian countries. In languages like Tamil and Sanskrit, more than one translation is found. The English translations of Thirukkural continue to be published in Tamil Nadu. The couplets of Kural are so precise that they give room for 5 different interpretations and hence in many places, no two translators go together. Need for Translation and Shakespeare’s Socio-Cultural Aspect Translation is the intellectual link between one country and another and one language and another. A cultural homogeneity could easily be evolved in this exchange of one literature to another and vice- versa. Normally existing geographical, social and cultural barriers disappear when the work gets into another language. In a multi-lingual country like India, the part played by translation is stupendous. It is an intellectual binding force to bring in an emotional integration and unity in this multi-lingual sub-continent. Whether the translation is classical or comprehensive or even pedestrian, its role in its totality cannot either be underestimated or neglected. As far as India is concerned, translation has existed as a link between Sanskrit and Tamil. These two were the languages originally existing in India right from the pre-historic times. It appears that leading ancient scholars and creative writers in those days have been proficient in both these Indian languages. That is why Valmiki’s RÀmÀyaõÀ which is said to be the pioneer work, is found in the twelfth century KambarÀmÀyaõÀ. This in effect has gradually been extended to other 6 languages such as Telugu, Malayalam and Hindi. As regards Tamil, Tholkappiyar the author of the earliest extant Grammar has said in a stanza (Sutram) in Ceyyulial of Tholkappium that in the process of translation from Sanskrit into Tamil, certain Sanskrit letters must be Tamilized - an evidence that the art of Translation had been existing even in ancient time (A.D.2nd Century). In the succeeding ages also translation had been in practice. The didactic, philosophical and logical treatises have been translated from Sanskrit into Tamil. The reputed works such as AlaôkÀra Types of grammar and minor literary works such as Sandesa types have also been rendered in Tamil from Sanskrit. The term Sandesa is in Sanskrit and it means an ambassadorial duty. There had been a tradition both in Tamil and Sanskrit to write poems of this type. The classical poets of both these languages have purported to have sent even birds and animals on political and social issues. Perhaps, due to either lack of talent or unwillingness, certain Sanskrit scholars in giving their commentary to the treatises of Vaishnava Sect have made use of MaõippravÀÒa style of Tamil. This prose style is in fact an admixture of copious Sanskrit words along with those of Tamil in interpreting or explaining the matter at hand. It is in a way allied to the existence of translation. Translation was a systematically organized activity only during the Pre–British period. A large number of European missionaries visited 7 India, particularly Tamil Nadu for proselytizing the local population into Christianity. Their religious activity in a way compelled them to learn the native languages such as Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam. Once they learnt Tamil, they began translating the Bible and Biblical literature into Tamil. Exceptionally a few cosmopolitan missionaries of a secular outlook have translated a good number of Tamil literary works also into English. Taking a cue from these benevolent literary endeavours, the East India Company at the outset and the British Indian Government succeedingly endowed a good amount of money for translating English literary works into Tamil. For a few decades in the later part of the nineteenth century, there had been an organization called Madras School Books and Vernacular Literatures Society (Mudaliyar, E¸ cuya Caritai, 13). This State-sponsored organization established in 1950 was instrumental in rendering many pieces of English works into Tamil. It was during this period that quite a number of Shakespeare’s plays engaged their attention. To begin with, Shakespeare’s plays were prepared by them in the form of re-told stories meant for young children in the schools. This was actually a period in which the greatest plays of the sixteenth century began marching into Tamil literary field. Even Tamil journals such as Prasanda Vikatan, Lokobakari and Kalaa Nilayam published in the twenties of the last century, a number of articles on Shakespeare and his plays. The Kalaa Nilayam, edited by a brilliant bi-lingual scholar 8 Mr.Seshachalam translated and published The Tempest and Julius Caesar in Tamil in a format in which both the English text and the Tamil version are juxtaposed to one another in one and the same page. With the advent of the English medium schools in India, during the British Rule the English language became a vital tool as a medium of communication.
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