Problems and Prospects of Female Domestic Workers: the Case of Bishoftu Town

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PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF FEMALE DOMESTIC WORKERS: THE CASE OF BISHOFTU TOWN

MA THESIS

HIWOT HAILU

ADVISOR: Dr. ABERA UNCHA

Co-ADVISOR: ATO GETU LEMA

August, 2018 ARBAMINCH, ETHIOPIA

PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF FEMALE DOMESTIC WORKERS: THE CASE OF BISHOFTU TOWN.

HIWOT HAILU W/GIORGIS

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES, COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES, SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES,

ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ART IN GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

August, 2018 ARBA MINCH School of Graduates Studies

Arba Minch University

Advisors’ Thesis Submission

Approval Sheet

This is to certify that the thesis entitled ―Problems and Prospects of Female Domestic Workers: The Case of Bishoftu town, Oromia, Ethiopia‖ submitted for partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Art in Geography and Environmental Studies has been carried out by Hiwot Hailu W/Giorgis under my supervision .Therefore, I recommended that the studies has fulfilled the requirement and have hereby can submit the thesis to the department for defense.

Abera Uncha (PhD) ______

Principal Advisor Signature Date

Mr. Getu Lemma ______

Co-Advisor Signature Date

DECLARATION

This is to certify that the Thesis entitled ―The problems and prospects of female domestic household workers, the case of Bishoftu town‖ is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university, and that all sources of material used for the thesis have been duly acknowledged.

Name: HIWOT HAILU W/GIORGIS

Signature: ______

Date: ______

ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES EXAMINERS’ THESIS APPROVAL SHEET We, the undersigned, members of the Board of Examiners of the final open defense by Hiwot Hailu W/Giorgis have read and evaluated his/her thesis entitled ―Problems and Prospects of Female Domestic workers: The case of Bishoftu town” and examined the candidate‘s oral presentation. This is, therefore, to certify that the thesis has been accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Masters of Art in Geography and Environmental Study.

______Name of the Chairperson Signature Date ______. ______Name of Internal examiner Signature Date ______. ______Name of External examiner Signature Date ______. ______SGS Approval Signature Date

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Above all, my deepest thanks go to Almighty God for always he is with me in all my day to day undertakings and giving me strength to complete my study.

This research paper would not have been possible without the guidance and support of several individuals who in one way or another contributed and extended their valuable assistance in the preparation and completion of this paper.

I am very glad to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my principal adviser Dr. Abera Uncha and my co-Advisor Ato Getu Lema for their invaluable, constructive and enduring comments, criticism and professional advice from the inception to the completion of this thesis.

A heartfelt appreciation for Arba Minch University for offering me postgraduate study grant and financial assistance. I would also thank the enumerators and my informants (Female Domestic workers in Bishoftu town, brokers, officials in Bishoftu town municipality Labor and Social Affairs Office and Kebele 05 sub city 01 Police Station) without their cooperation this study would not have been possible.

Besides, I also owed special debt to my friends and relatives who have been beside me throughout my work by providing me with both material and moral support. specifically, I would like to deeply thank my husband; Ato Tamiru Gemeda, my daughters Helen Tamiru and Tsion Tamiru my sons Eyosias Tamiru and Nahom Tamiru, Meti Keressa whom I brought up and is like my own daughter that took care of all the burden and responsibility of the household chores, my son in-law Bruhtesfa Yimer, my neighbors Asefa Funga and Asnaku Funga and their families and all my friends and others whose names are not listed here for their constructive suggestions, comments and professional criticisms on my work.

Table of Content ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... i

Table of Content ...... ii

List of Tables ...... vi

List of Figures ...... vii

LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... viii

ABSTRACT...... ix

CHAPTER ONE ...... 1

1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.1 Background of the Study ...... 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem ...... 3

1.3. Objectives of the Research ...... 5 1.3.1. General Objective ...... 5 1.3.2. Specific Objectives ...... 5

1.4. Research Questions ...... 5

1.5 Significance of the Research ...... 5

1.6. Scope of the Study ...... 6

1.7. Limitation of the Study ...... 6

1.8. Operational Definition...... 7

CHAPTER TWO ...... 8

2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITRATURE ...... 8

2. 1. History and Scope of Domestic Work and Domestic Workers ...... 8

Who is domestic worker? ...... 8

2.2 Domestic Workers in Ethiopia – A profile ...... 10

2.3 Vulnerability of Domestic Workers ...... 13

2.4 Common Human Right Violation against Domestic Workers ...... 14

2.5 Challenges Faced by Female Household Workers in Ethiopia ...... 15

2.6 Legal Instruments Relevant to Domestic work ...... 17 2.6.1 International Conventions ...... 17 2.6.2 Legal Protection of Domestic Workers in the ILO Convention ...... 19 2.6.2 Formation and Termination of Contract ...... 19 2.6.3 Working Hours and Time off ...... 20 2.6.4 Remuneration ...... 20 2.6.5 Freedom of Movement...... 20 2.6.6 Working Condition ...... 21

2.7 National Laws ...... 21

2.8 The present Condition of Female Domestic Workers in Ethiopia ...... 23

2.8 Domestic Workers' Convention ...... 24

CHAPTER THREE ...... 27

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES ...... 27

3.1. Description of the Study Area...... 27 3.1.1. Location ...... 27 3.1.2. Historical Background of Bishoftu Town ...... 28 3.1.3. Topography and Climate...... 29 3.1.4. Demographic Characteristics ...... 30

3.2 Research Methodology ...... 30 3.2.1 Research Design ...... 30 3.2.2 Sources of the Research Data ...... 30 3.2.3. Sampling Techniques and Sample Size ...... 31

3.3 Data Collection Instrument...... 33 3.3.1 Questionnaires ...... 33 3.3.2 Key Informant Interviews ...... 34 3.3.3 Data Analysis and Interpretation ...... 34

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CHAPTER FOUR ...... 35

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSCTION ...... 35

4.1 Characteristics of the Respondents ...... 35 4.1.1 Level of Education and Place of Birth ...... 35 4.1.2 Respondents Age and Years of Experience ...... 36

4.1.3 Marital status of respondents ...... 37

4.2 Major Problems those Female Household Workers Encountered ...... 37 4.2.1 Discrimination and Abuses ...... 37 4.2.2 Health Problems ...... 39

4.3. Households Perception Toward Domestic Workers ...... 40 4.3.1. Employer's Treatment in View of Domestic Workers ...... 40 4.3.2 Lack of Permission for Visiting Families /Relatives ...... 41

4.4. Socio-Economic Problems of Domestic Workers ...... 42

4.5. Current Status of Female Domestic Workers ...... 45

4.6 Future Prospects of Female Domestic Workers ...... 48

4.7 Working Hours and Time off ...... 49 4.7.1 Low Remuneration ...... 50 4.7.2 Abusive Living Conditions...... 50

4.8 Contract Formation and Training ...... 51

4.9 Provision of Food and Accommodation...... 52

CHAPTER FIVE...... 56

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ...... 56

5.1. Conclusion ...... 56

5.2. Recommendation ...... 57

References ...... 59

Appendices ...... 62

Appendix I. QUESTIONNAIRS ...... 62

Appendix II ...... 66

CHIS Data Collection Card ...... 66

Appendix III...... 67 I. Interview Guide for Key Informants (BOLSA officials and Female‘s and Children Affairs Office)...... 67 II. Interview guidelines for Brokers...... 68 III, Interview guidelines for Female Domestic Workers ...... 68

List of Tables

Table 3:1 Proportional Allocation of Sample Kebeles and sample Size ...... 32 Table 4.1 Age of Respondents and Years of Experience ...... 37 Table 4.2 Respondents Marital Status ...... 37 Table 4.3 Discriminations that Dmestic Worker Face in the Household ...... 38 Table 4.4 Form of abuse encountered female domestic workers and agent committed the abuse ...... 39 Table 4.5 Health problems encountered the Domestic workers ...... 39 Table 4.6 Amount of salary currently paid to domestic worker and the deciding body ...... 43 Table 4.7 Change in the amount of money ...... 43 Table 4.8 Comparison of salary to workload ...... 44 Table 4.9 Change in life being domestic worlers against year of experience ...... 45 Table 4.10 Respondents level of education and the program attended ...... 45 Table 4.11 Respondents stay in the current household ...... 46 Table 4.12 Number of respondents who have written contract and means of getting current job ...... 47 Table 4.13 Interest of respondents to further extend their education ...... 48 Table 4.14 Interest of respondents to improve their skill in household chores ...... 49

List of Figures Figure 2.1 Conceptual framework ...... 26 Source by own completion ...... 26 Figure 3.1 Map of the study area ...... 27 Figure 4.1 Respondents level of education ...... 35 Figure 4.2 Respondents place of origin ...... 36 Figure 4.3 Employer‘s treatment towards domestic worker ...... 40 Source Field Survey, 2018 ...... 40 Figure 4.4 Satisfaction levels of Female domestic workers ...... 41 Source Field Survey, 2018 ...... 41 Figure 4.5 Frequency of Leave Permission for visiting families/relatives ...... 42 Figure 4.6 Family members supported by domestic workers ...... 44 Figure 4.7 Duration of working hours per day ...... 47 Source Field Survey, 2018 ...... 47

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LIST OF ACRONYMS CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Female CHIS Community Health Information System CSA Central Statistical Agency ICCPR International Convention for Civil and Political Rights ICESCR International Convention for Economic Social and Cultural Rights IDWN International Domestic Workers Network ILC International Labor Conference ILO International Labor Organization IOM International Organization for Migration IUF International Union Federation MoLSA Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs MUDHCO Ministry of Urban Development and Housing UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Right UHEP Urban Health Extension Profession UNFP United Nation Food Program USDOL US Department of Labor USDOS US Department of State WHWs Female Household Workers WIEGO Female in Informal Employment Globalizing and Organizing SPSS Statistical Package for Social Science

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ABSTRACT Domestic workers are one of the most vulnerable workers in the world, being often the targets of physical, verbal and sexual abuse and experiencing discrimination and marginalization with regard to pay, working conditions and legal rights. One of the sources of vulnerability of domestic workers has been lack of recognition as workers and thereby inadequate legal protection of their rights. The objective of this study is to assess the challenges and prospects encountered by female working in domestic households in Bishoftu town by taking three sample kebeles purposively; thereby by which 81 domestic workers were surveyed using convenience sampling. Besides, primary data had been used through interview, and direct observation. The finding this study suggested that the working conditions and available legal protection of domestic workers in the study area had little or no labor rights or protection: they rarely had clear contractual relations, worked long hours of work, had little or no privacy and were exposed to verbal, physical and sexual harassment. In addition, they often had low payment as compared to the workload they accomplish daily. Exclusion of female domestic workers from the labor law and also being ignored from the list of special groups in the national female policy of the country were the major factors that contributed to the vulnerability of domestic workers to violence of labor rights and social justices. The study makes recommendations for future research and policy that might improve conditions for domestic workers through formulating a policy that advocate for domestic workers rights, and also capable of creating awareness among domestic workers so as to break the silence on their major problems facing them on their day to day life.

Key Words: -, Bishoftu, Domestic Workers, Labor Righ,t Sexual Harassment, Working Condition

CHAPTER ONE 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study All over the world, an important army of workers performs domestic tasks in private households in exchange for remuneration and/or lodging and board (Ramirez-Machado 2004).The ILO (2010) estimates the number of domestic workers globally as reaching up to 53 million with ages between 15 years old and above alone.

According to United Nations Population Fund(UNPF), absorbing up to ten percent of total employment in some countries, domestic work is an occupation for millions of female worldwide (as cited in Chuang 2010).Notwithstanding the increasing societal demand for domestic work, domestic workers in general remain among the most exploited and abused workers in the world (Chuang 2010).

Female are more than half of the world populations. They are the mothers of the other half. As mothers and careers, as producers and farmers, the work of female supports their families and communities. Yet, throughout the world, the poorest people are predominantly female and their dependent children. Female face an increasing level of violence because of their gender, and half a million die each year as a direct or indirect result of pregnancy.

Domestic work is among the oldest and most recognized as an important household responsibility for female worldwide. It is an industry that has roots in the global slave trade, colonialism and other forms of servitude. In today‘s globalized economy and feminized international migration, several factors make domestic work indispensable for the economy outside the household to function.

More female are joining the labor force and working longer and more intense hours. Unfortunately, fewer governments have public policies that help workers reconcile work and family life as more and more child and family care services have been slashed, posing serious problems for rapidly ageing societies. All these factors have increased the demand for domestic workers who maintain vital household routines, thereby allowing millions of others to go out to work (Erika and Christine, 2012).

Domestic work is a large and growing sector of employment, especially for female. According to the latest International labor Organization (ILO) estimates, domestic workers represent 4 to 10 per cent of the total workforce in developing countries and 1 to 2.5 per cent of the total workforce in developed countries (ILO, 2010). These statistics translate into the ―tens of millions‖ of domestic workers around the world (ILO, 2007). In Latin America, for example, there are an estimated 7.6 million domestic workers, who represent 5.5 per cent of the urban workforce (Tokman, 2010).

A domestic worker, domestic helper, or domestic servant, also called menial, is a person who works with in the employer's household. Domestic helpers perform a Varity of household service for an individual or a family, from providing care for children and elderly dependent to household keeping, including cleaning and household maintenance. Other responsibilities may include cooking, laundry and ironing, shopping for food and other household errands (Rothan, 2017).

Domestic workers are hired to work in a private household. Majority of them are female whose work is always unrecognized. These domestic workers often migrate from one area to another particularly from rural to urban areas sometimes urban to well-developed urban areas to upgrade their socio-economic conditions (Rothan, 2017). Over the year the demand for domestic worker service has dramatically increased, with more middle class people seeking domestic workers. As a result a large number of female are occupying work as domestic workers. Domestic work is a common type of informal employment, often undertaken by marginalized female who lack formal education (Cherinet, 2002).

Children and migrant domestic workers are often the most vulnerable. An international treaty -the domestic workers convention-was adopted in June 2011, providing the first global standards to protect domestic workers (Rothan, 2017).

According to Amnesty International (2013), despite the existence of International Domestic Workers‘ Day the plight of the domestic workers has not been addressed adequately. Like in many countries globally they are ignored, abused and without resources, and often viewed as outcasts. Many civil society organizations have made efforts to undertake campaigns for the rights of domestic workers; however, the desired results are slow and not yet enjoyed by female in the local communities.

Estimates from Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs (MOLSA, 2016) and LABORSTA of ILO shows at least 248,600 people are employed as domestic workers in Ethiopian cities and 1.5 % of the total female in Ethiopia are currently working as domestic workers. These domestic workers are often not aware of their rights and have little access to legal protection as they work within families and are thus vulnerable to "private‖ abuse and exploitation.

Many female who work as domestic workers still continue to suffer exploitation, poor working conditions and sometimes violence from their employers. Female from low income backgrounds find domestic work to be an attractive form of employment because it provides both income and, sometimes, shelter in the case of migrant domestic workers who live with their employers. For unskilled female it is also a job that is assumed to require a low level of skill. The skills required are those that are already assumed to come naturally to female, such as the usual household chores. In this respect, domestic work could be described as a gendered form of employment (ILO, 2007).

1.2 Statement of the Problem The invisible work site, (the home), the lower status credit to the work and the lower level of education the workers usually attain have made domestic workers vulnerable to exploitation and abuse. Legal protection for domestic workers is unavailable usually and is hardly implemented on the ground whenever there is.

Domestic work has always been one of the oldest and most important occupations for millions of female around the world. ILO (2010) estimates the number of domestic workers globally as reaching up to 53 million with ages between 15 years old and above alone. Chuang (2010) also stated that domestic work have reached to absorb up to ten percent of total employment in some countries, domestic work is an occupation for millions of female worldwide.

Female and girls make up the overwhelming majority of domestic workers worldwide, although in some countries a significant number of men and boys are domestic workers. The ILO estimates that more girls under the age of 16 work in domestic service than any other category of child labor (d'Souza, 2010). Many domestic workers are migrants coming from other countries. Some have moved within their own country, often from rural to

urban areas, to take up employment. Many work in their home community. But for all, domestic work is one of the very few options available to sustain themselves and their families.

Most domestic workers come from poor households and have generally low levels of education and few marketable skills, other than their skills in keeping house and caring for others. As a result a number of domestic workers who were poorly regulated and chronically overworked, underpaid and unprotected would be found. Domestic work typically entails the otherwise unpaid labor traditionally performed by the household by female. This explains to a large extent the informal and undocumented status of many domestic workers. In the majority of countries, the domestic employment relationship is not specifically addressed, making domestic workers vulnerable to unequal, unfair and often abusive treatment.

Therefore, this research project aimed to assess various social, economic and other related problems and challenges that young woman household workers in Bishoftu town faced. And these challenges and problems that these working groups likely are facing should be known based on a well-studied research work in the town at least because of its existing socio-economic, employment and labor market situations and several other reasons pointed above.

Various socio-cultural and legal constraints increase the vulnerability of female domestic workers for all these problems in line of domestic work. However, there were a few researches that have been done to address these problems. Therefore, the current study was believed to contribute to fill the knowledge gap in the enactment of the existing human and labor right that domestic workers have to make use in the study area and give insights for those responsible bodies standing to help them. This study was conducted to assess the problems and prospects encountered by female working in domestic households in Bishoftu town using the lens of national and relevant international human and labor rights instruments.

1.3. Objectives of the Research 1.3.1. General Objective The general objective of this research was to assess the problems and prospects encountered by female working in domestic households in Bishoftu town.

1.3.2. Specific Objectives 1. To identify major problems that female household workers encounter;

2. To assess employers perception towards domestic workers;

3. To assess the socio-economic Conditions of female domestic workers before and after their employment;

4. To evaluate the current economic status of female domestic workers in the study area;

5. To identify the future prospects of female domestic workers.

1.4. Research Questions In line with the above stated objectives, the following research questions were formulated.

1. What are the major challenges and problems female domestic workers encounter in their work place?

2. How is the perception of employers toward domestic employees?

3. What are the socio - economic conditions of female domestic workers before and after their employment?

4. What is the current status of female domestic workers in the study area?

5. What is the future prospects of female household Workers in the study area?

1.5 Significance of the Research As the researcher is a student of Geography and Environmental study, it was a good opportunity to understand the problems of female household workers. This enabled the researcher to take up some concrete work within the area that would later help all concerned bodies to use the final findings of the study for various purposes such as for the government to design policies, the household servants, brokers and the society as a whole.

Moreover, it may provide other interested researchers in the study area with useful data inputs to carry out further research works.

1.6. Scope of the Study The study was focused on the assessment of challenges and prospects of female domestic urban house servants might be facing in Bishoftu town. In addition, measuring the extent the degree of the possible challenges and problems was also remains important content of this study. However, this research was not taken in to account male workers, rural workers, non- Ethiopian workers, non-household female workers, non-paid female household workers and outside Ethiopia.

The research assessed the problems and prospects of female domestic workers (WDWs) were facing for every area of a country for valid and reliable information, however this study has forced on a specific area due to shortage of time, managerial, financial and geographical constraints. The study does not include the factors for migration, rather to focus on investigating the major areas of impacts that internal labor migration has on young female workers in those private employers in the town.

1.7. Limitation of the Study The limitations faced during the research process emerged from the lack of obtaining previously recorded and updated data. The reshuffling and rejecting of position between some of the Labor and Social Affair office officials and restricted willingness of informants dealing on female affairs. The researcher was forced on a specific area due to shortage of time, managerial, financial and geographical constraints.

Besides, there was also boredom to give answer to the same type of questions raised in different time. Moreover, there were challenges to easily obtain female domestic workers particularly those who migrate in different kebeles or leave from the town and unwillingness of the employers to talk with their house hold workers. In order to overcome these challenges, the researcher has made serious efforts to get information by contacting the night school teachers and Health Extension Profession workers to collect the reliable data and by interviewing with the household and the society who have knowledge about the issues.

1.8. Operational Definition Agony: - Extreme physical or mental suffering.

Careers: - Is job or profession that someone does for a long time spent in a job or profession.

Egalitarian: - Believing in or based on the principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities.

Human Trafficking:-Is the trade of humans, most commonly for the purpose of forced labor, sexual slavery, or commercial sexual exploitation for the trafficker or others.

Internal / Domestic Migration: - The movement of people with in country's boundary/ territory.

Ironing: - Is the act or process of smoothing or pressing cloths, linens, etc

Maltreatment: - To treat or handle badly, cruelly or roughly, abuse: to maltreat a prisoner.

Market liberalization: - The removal of control of exchange in order to encourage economic development.

Nourished: - Provide with the food or other substance necessary for growth, health, and

Good condition.

Paradox: - Is a statement that despite apparently sound reasoning from true premises, leads to a self-contradictory or a logically unacceptable conclusion.

Physical Abuse: - Any intentional act causes injury to another person by way of bodily contact.

Procrastination: - Is to be slow or late about doing something that should be done..

Sexual Harassment: -Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favor.

Tenability: - Is capable of being held, maintained or defended as against attack or dispute.

Verbal Abuse: - A negative defining statement told to the victim or about the victim.

Violence: - Behavior involving physical force intends to hurt damage or kill someone or something.

CHAPTER TWO 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITRATURE This chapter gives a brief presentation of the meaning of domestic work, the historical process of feminization of the job the vulnerability and challenges of female domestic workers and the relevant legal instruments available for legal protection of domestic workers.

2. 1. History and Scope of Domestic Work and Domestic Workers Who is domestic worker? The ILO convention on decent work domestic workers takes a broad definition. According to convention no.189, article 1, a domestic worker may work on full-time or part-time basis; may be employed by a single household or by multiple employers; may be residing in the household of the employer (live-in worker) or may be living in his or her own residence (live-out).

A domestic worker may be working in a country of which she/he is not a national. Domestic work includes mental, manual and emotional aspects, including care work that is necessary to maintain people and communities (Anderson 2000). However, there is no common statistical definition across countries for what constitutes domestic work. The ILOs definition of domestic workers, which is based on the International Standard Classification of occupations (ISCO), included four categories of domestic workers. These are Housekeepers and related workers, Child care workers; Home- based personal care workers and Domestic helpers and cleaners.

A combined list of the four types of occupations mentioned above would give us a relatively comprehensive list of domestic workers including maids, cooks, waiters, gardeners, gatekeepers, , chauffeurs, care takers, , babysitters and so on (Chen 2011). While the shared characteristics among domestic workers (low status, mostly lacking protection and so on), are profound we should also consider considerable heterogeneity that exists within the domestic workers population and that the similarity should not mask the differences. One criteria of heterogeneity among domestic workers is the employment arrangements. Some domestic workers are hired by employing household themselves or via third party agency.

Some of the domestic workers work for a single employer others for multiple employers. Some live within the premises of the house of their employer while others live –out of the employers home (in their own home or with relatives home). Some domestic workers may specialize in one specific task while others work all kinds of tasks for their employer. Thence, while recognizing the distinctive features of domestic work sector and the challenges most domestic workers face in common, we need to recognize the special needs that some domestic workers may have emanating from the work condition they are in ( Chen 2011:3).

Although economists have dealt with issues of male and female participation in the labor force since the early 1900s, gender was not itself used as a category of analysis. The early treatment of female labor force, participation, male/female wage differentials and wage discrimination rested on the dynamics of the market operating on men and female, rather than on the role played by gender in the way that markets function fundamentally (ILO, 2007). However, over the years there has been global campaign to have gender segregated data in all categories of documentation.

While considering the heterogeneity and distinctive features of domestic workers, it is also important to consider the heterogeneity and distinctive features of those who employ domestic workers. Consider, first, the private clients or households who employ domestic workers. They may be from any class, the poor, middle, or rich, and from any of the social partner groups in the ILO tripartite system of worker, employer, or government. This reality confounds the standard understanding of the class dynamics of the employer- capitalist and employee-proletariat relationship.

Second, although there are some associations of domestic worker employers in Europe, most private employers of domestic workers are not organized. In fact, it is likely that a greater share of domestic workers, than of their employers, are organized or getting organized. And yet private clients and households exercise considerable power over their employees. This reality confounds the standard understanding of the relationship between being organized and having bargaining power (ILO, 2011).

ሽከር‘ instead of a domestic worker. However, the Code does not clearly define what domestic

work is and who domestic servants are. The domestic and international socio-political realities of the 1960s might have influenced the Code to use the term domestic servant. This ‗designation‘ has its own implications, if not everything about domestic workers. It could imply and dictate the manner and kinds of treatment a domestic worker could receive. The implication may relate to unfavorable conditions and treatments a servant traditionally faced in the context of a master-servant relationship which involved inferior levels of treatment and protection than provided to other groups of workers.

The 1960 Civil Code reflects a similar position. The Code largely permits the condition of domestic workers to be regulated by the conscience of the employers. It provides lower protection and benefits to domestic workers compared with that of the protection and benefits accorded to other groups of workers. The former pro-Marxist Ethiopian regime had banned the use of (servant) Ashker or Gered in reference to a domestic worker. Since then, የቤትሠራተኛ /pronounced as yebetserategna (equivalent to domestic worker in English language)/ has been in use in lieu of the derogatory term ‗Gered , the Code is still in effect, the term domestic servant is – at present– considered as a derogatory term, – at least in formal communication ( Yohannes ,2011).

The definition involves two basic elements—being employed by and providing service for a private household. The service must be in connection with the work of a private dwelling-house which is intended to the satisfaction of a family or family-like situation, and its respective members. The work is carried out on behalf of the direct employer and under her/his authority, direction and supervision. It must also be done on a regular basis and in a continuous manner in return for remuneration; thus work of an accidental or discontinuous nature is not considered as domestic service. It is narrow in scope, since it excludes workers who provide care services in institutions such as orphanages, kindergartens, hospitals and old-age retirement homes (ILO, 2013).

2.2 Domestic Workers in Ethiopia – A profile Majority of the domestic workers in Ethiopian cities are migrants from rural areas (Namukasa 2011). The widespread poverty in rural areas is the major factor of rural-urban migration. Since land is owned by the state and cannot be sold, particularly the young generation categorically is faced with land scarcity and forced to migrate to cities in search

of alternative livelihoods (Van Dijk and Fransen 2008 as cited in Fransen and Kuschminder 2009). However, the romanticized picture of the city presented to the rural girls by successful migrants from their place of regional, also contribute to female running to the cities. However soon after arriving to the cities, for many of these girls finding employment is tough and for many domestic works will be the gate way to the city life (Mohhamed 2010).

With limited capacity of the formal sector to absorb large number of rural- urban migrants, however, the latter usually engage in the informal sector like domestic work. Thus, each month thousands of Ethiopians move from rural to urban areas such as Addis Ababa for domestic works (Namukasa, 2011).

The dominance of female with low educational qualification in the domestic work sector is because the work relatively does not require sophisticated skill. To be employed in domestic work in Ethiopia does not require sophisticated skill or expertise. The work outlined in many families requires only brute force, the energy of youth, and probably less than a week's orientation.

Studies frequently confirmed that no further information could be found on domestic household workers and forced labor conditions inside Ethiopia. However, recent surveys confirm the condition has become one of social unrest agenda in the country. For example, concerning the circumstances surrounding internal migration- particularly rural to urban areas in Ethiopia, the US Department of State (USDOS, 2015 ) notes that large number of young Ethiopian females from rural areas are aggressively recruited to urban households of those middle class residents, opposite to their hopes to find a relatively better life working at private households in the urban areas, these groups are likely targeted because of the demand for cheap labor in most towns and cities of the country, the report adds.

The International legal frame work is composed of various instruments adopted by prominent Organizations engaged in the anti-trafficking and forced labor initiatives such as: the United Nations and the ILO. While the problem of trafficking has a deeply rooted historical background, the issue acquired global recognition dating back to the Paris conference on trafficking in female held in 1895 and the adoption of the International Agreement for Suppression of the White Slave Trade in 1904,( Cole, 2005).

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), one of the most significant declarations provides that ‗no one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms‘. The Declaration is highly recognized among States and most of the provisions are customary international law. It primarily delineates the human rights of citizens and noncitizens that all states must honor. Additionally, there are several instruments that form the international legal framework within which States must define their own laws in order to address effectively the problem of human trafficking (UDHR, 1948).

The two major general Human Right instruments: the International Convention for Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and International Convention for Economic Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) provide important protections for victims of trafficking. While the ICCPR explicitly asserts under article 8 for the elimination of both slavery and forced labor, the ICESCR establishes that everyone has the right to work and to just and favorable conditions of work.

For the protection of female in particular, article 6 of the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Female (CEDAW) refers to traffic in female and exploitation of prostitution of female by obliging States to take all appropriate legislative and other measures suppress all forms of traffic in female and exploitation of the prostitution of female.

Unlike the Trafficking Protocol, CEDAW does not elaborate other elements of exploitation but it strictly provides that States have an obligation to promote, protect, respect and fulfill the rights enshrined within the Convention. And some of the crucial rights, that are also important elements in the combat against trafficking, are protection against violence and prohibition of discrimination against female.

The extension of labor rights to the whole labor force is an unfinished process in Ethiopia. Workers employed in the private sector and in public enterprises that are engaged in economic activities enjoy labor rights, although this does not apply to some specific groups such as private managers. Domestic workers are expressly excluded from the application of the Labor Proclamation No. 377/2003, as amended (the 2003 labor law).

The condition of domestic workers is still regulated by the 1960 Ethiopian Civil Code (the 1960 Civil Code) until the Council of Ministers issues a special domestic workers‘ regulation pursuant to article 3(3)(c) of the 2003 labor law. However, the Council of Ministers has not yet issued the special regulation for over a decade since the enactment of the 2003 Labor Proclamation (Gebre, 2012).

This article seeks to examine the legal gaps in regulating domestic workers, its gender effects and the tenability of the justifications behind the procrastination, while limiting its scope only to domestic workers working within Ethiopia.

It examines a variety of sources, including legal documents, researches, academic literature, interviews, reports, ILO conventions and experience of foreign states to address the questions. In particular, key informants (a domestic workers‘ broker, and two officials from MoLSA and Addis Ababa Police Commission) were interviewed about the condition of domestic workers and the reasons for the delay in the enactment of regulations on domestic workers. Previous researches on the working and living condition of domestic workers in Ethiopia and elsewhere were also used to complement the data obtained from the interviews (as cited by Gebre, 2012).

2.3 Vulnerability of Domestic Workers Domestic workers are among the world‘s most vulnerable workers (Ramirez- Machado 2004). One of the sources of vulnerability is the intimacy that often characterizes the relationship between the employer and the domestic worker which makes the treatment of the workers as family members- not as workers. Mantouvalou (2012) explained that such ―sense of intimacy can be false, though, because the relationship between the domestic worker and the employer is characterized by a difference of status that the latter is often keen to maintain‖ (Mantouvalou 2012).

Sometimes the status difference can have also a cultural component in which the cultures of domestic workers serve as a base of creating asymmetric status between employing households and domestic workers. For instance, Getachew (2006) identified a couple of vulnerability of domestic workers in Addis Ababa due to rural styles of dressing, walking, etc. which were taken as epitomes of backwardness and lack of civilization by the urbanite-elite employers (Getachew 2006 ).

The other source of vulnerability for domestic workers is the invisible site of work. The location of domestic labor, [the home], makes the workers more vulnerable to abuse by the employers (Mantouvalou 2012) domestic work is hard to supervise because accessing the home is considered as penetration of privacy. Among the domestic works, live- in domestic workers are the most vulnerable ones.

According to the law and practice ILO report, living and working in their employer‘s negative, impact on workers personal autonomy and mobility and can influence decisions as to their future, including the decision to found a family of their own (Tijdens and Klaveren 2011). There is also health risks associated with domestic work. Long hours of work of laborious activities like cleaning, washing clothes manually, exposure to excessive smoke and heat when making Injera ( a common bread among Ethiopians), provided with unhealthy food and washing toilets and other places without adequate utensils and so on (Getachew, 2006).

2.4 Common Human Right Violation against Domestic Workers Human right violation against domestic workers has been reported by media, internationally human right organizations such as Human right watch, and Amnesty international. Physical violence, psychological violence, and sexual violence against domestic workers have been reported in many studies (Tesfaye 2007, Getachew 2006).

In Ethiopia, as in many parts of the world, the extent of sexual violence is not fully known. Many people do not want to disclose their experience of sexual abuse and only small portion of female who report it. Despite the lack of complete data, sexual abuse remains a solid experience for many female in the world. This becomes especially true for domestic workers who are more vulnerable to sexual abuse because they spend their time hidden in private homes, are at inferior position and are mostly female (Anderson, 2000).

Domestic Violence is perhaps the most frequent type of human right abuse in the world. However, in most studies the analysis of domestic violence is often restricted to violence against family members like female and children (Tesfaye, 2007). In doing so, many studies ignore domestic violence against non-family members who reside within the same home such as domestic workers (Getachew, 2006). However, the lower and ―outsider‖ status given to domestic workers make them prone to a number of abuses.

2.5 Challenges Faced by Female Household Workers in Ethiopia In many parts of the world domestic workers abuse and exploitation are found serious problem for example: US Department of State (USDOS, 2014) report mentions that the moves to domestic household works and exploitation of child labor were remained a serious problem in the country. It also indicates that the condition was particularly pervasive since they worked in domestic service, often working long hours, which prevented many from attending school regularly. Similarly, the report adds, because these young females are paid insufficient wages to their cheap labor, they frequently fail to access adequate health services.

Domestic workers are one of the most vulnerable workers in the world, being often the targets of physical and sexual abuse and experiencing discrimination and marginalization with regard to pay, working conditions and legal rights. One of the sources of vulnerability of domestic workers has been lack of recognition as workers and thereby inadequate legal protection of their rights.

The study conducted by Gebre (2012) in Addis Ababa indicated that the working conditions and available legal protection of domestic workers in, had little or no labor rights or protection: they rarely had clear contractual relations, worked long hours of work, had little or no privacy and were exposed to verbal, physical and sexual harassment. In addition, they often had inadequate food and accommodation and low pay.

Kanthoul (2015) discusses the challenges faced by female domestic household servants based on wider dimensions. He summarizes the issue as; even though the magnitude of the problems, crises or disasters are not the same or equal to the above incidents, on one hand, and although not well studied and known on the other hand, there are greater opportunities for internal migrants within the country to face several challenges or problems at least with certain level of pains. And the burdens of the crises seem to get worse especially on those females working in distant areas out of their home villages.

In the same way, Rosales (2010) also indicated the conditions of female migrant workers would face district live as a community and facing several problems such as low wages, health hazards, sexual abuse, exploitation and denial of their rights. The study depicts that

they are exploited by their supervisors at work place while their children do not get proper child care and medical facilities.

Moreover, the study also pointed to changes in family structures as a result of migrant labor which included increased divorce rates and decrease in household stability. Additionally, female migrant labor has been indicated as a source for more egalitarian relationships within the family, decline of extended family patterns, and more nuclear families.

According to a research study work a decade ago by Bezawit, (2004) 15.5% of young adults (15–30 years) had ever-migrated out from the villages; in which the number of female migrants is almost half of that of males, Based on the available statistical data and information regarding migrant labor, they, among whom many of them are female, are expected to move from a more oppressive home places to a less oppressive environment where they have actual access to waged work.

Research outcomes like by Bezawit (2004), point that reaching their destination places, urban areas in Ethiopian contexts, they become vulnerable to new challenges arising in the town or cities. These may include withholding of earnings, physical and sexual abuse, health problems due to intensive labor works and lack of access to get decent jobs from among those common threats for female and girls, particularly in countries with intense poverty and unemployment rate. Consequently, international and humanitarian organizations have been recommending both the origin rural home villages and destiny towns or cities the need for developing and/or improving their policy, legal and advocacy programs that are based on concrete knowledge of problems to female migrant workers that will which enable them to control the problem.

Domestic workers are however excluded from the labor law of the country and also ignored in the list of special groups in the national female policy of the country. Several studies (Bezawit, 2004 and Gebre, 2012), argue that it is the lack of political commitment among the state, systematic restriction by the state on the civil societies that advocate for domestic workers rights, and limited capability among domestic workers themselves due to illiteracy and poverty that are the main contributing factors for domestic workers agony and silence on their problems.

2.6 Legal Instruments Relevant to Domestic work Law is an important tool to promote legal and lab our rights of female. In recent years, the issue of abuse and exploitation has been one of the agenda of international organizations like ILO, Human Rights Watch, UN agencies and other regional entities. ILO has endorsed in 2011 Convention 189 (decent work for domestic workers) along with Recommendation No. 201 that would provide protection to domestic workers in ratifying countries.

Human Right Watch (2006, 2008) has been publishing a series of reports on the human right violation of domestic workers especially in Middle East countries. UN Agencies (UNPF, UNIFM) and other have also involved in assessing the working situation of domestic workers. Thus, globally domestic working is recognized as a ―work‖ and is already under existing international lab our standards and human rights frameworks (cf. the ILO Convention no.189 of domestic workers).

However, still in this ―21st century, domestic work around the world is mainly informal and characterized by widespread violations of human and lab our rights, ranging from the worst forms of child lab our and bondage to the invisibility of the work‖ (Caracciolo et al. 2011:5)

In this section two distinct sources of rights for female in Ethiopia are discussed: National laws and regional or international conventions. The next chapters will highlight the realities of domestic workers and the applicability of these laws on the ground.

2.6.1 International Conventions Besides local efforts, the government in Ethiopia has always been among the first to become a signatory to the many international conventions (Biseswar 2007). Some of these ratified conventions:

The Convention on Discrimination of Employment and Occupation (ratified in 1966); article 2 of the convention states ―Each Member for which this Convention is in force undertakes to declare and pursue a national policy designed to promote, by methods appropriate to national conditions and practice, equality of opportunity and treatment in respect of employment and occupation, with a view to eliminating any discrimination in respect thereof‖ article 3 of the convention. The Convention on the Political Rights of 17

Female (ratified in 1969); The Convention for the Suppression of the Trafficking of Persons and of the Exploitation and Prostitution of Others (1981); The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Female (CEDAW) (1981); Of these conventions, Hainfurther (2009) argues that, CEDAW is the most comprehensive and all inclusive international convention in relation to promoting rights of female. CEDAW is the most widely ratified law in the world and is a good benchmark to analyses the rights of female in general and domestic workers in particular. CEDAW is the sole international legal instrument specifically designed to promote and protect female‘s rights in a holistic and systemic way.

CEDAW addresses gender inequalities in all spheres and at all levels within the family, community, market and state. CEDAW recognizes and address violations of female‘s human rights in the private sphere of the home. Under CEDAW the promotion and protection of female‘s human rights is based on three main principles: Substantive equality, non-discrimination and state obligation.

The Substantive equality principle requires states to have gender sensitive policy design and gender responsive outcome from laws, policies and programs. Principle of non- discrimination is based on the definition of discrimination in Article 1 of the convention which reads‟ any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has an effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by female irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and female, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field. Taking a broader definition of discrimination, the principle of non- discrimination of CEDAW seeks to eliminate both intended (direct) and indirect discrimination.

Most importantly the convention makes no distinction between private and public actors. As such the principle of non- discrimination covers actions of governments, as well as actions of private actors- from individual to families, communities, business corporations and religious institutions in the political, social, economic , cultural and so on (Article 3- 11). The convention also clearly mandates governments to ensure actions of non- government actors do not discriminate against female.

The third principle of State Obligation affirms that all states parties are legally bound to meet their obligations as stipulated in the convention. This obligation has two components: de jure and de facto legal protection of female. The first is to ensure de jure gender equality, which refers to obligation of governments to ensure what is contained in law ensures the equality of female (Article 15).

However, the mere recognition of rights alone is not enough for eliminating long-standing discrimination against female and achieving substantive equality of female and men. Hence, governments are responsible to ensure the de facto equality among men and female (Article 3, Article 4, and Article 24).

Furthermore, among the ILO instruments Ethiopia has ratified convention No. 87. Freedom of association and protection of the right to organize convention in June 1948 and is also party to the ILO convention No. 189 explained below.

2.6.2 Legal Protection of Domestic Workers in the ILO Convention The ILO convention on domestic works (Convention no. 189, as it is called) is the major single international legal instrument to promote decent work for domestic workers. It has set the standards that states should strive to fulfil for many issues that domestic workers have been requesting. The major contents of this proclamation are summarized as bellow.

2.6.2 Formation and Termination of Contract Contract lays foundation for claiming ones right. ILO Convention No. 189 recognizes this and states the need for states for to promote the establishment of formal contact and ―to ensure that domestic workers are informed of their terms and conditions of employment in an appropriate, verifiable and easily understandable manner and preferably, where possible, through written contracts in accordance with national laws, regulations or collective agreements‖ (Article 7). Ethiopia is yet to ratify the ILO convention 189 but signed the convention. The purpose of the discussion of the convention here is twofold: Helps us to organize the areas of legal protection for domestic workers and thereby set and organize the framework on how this approach will analyze the working conditions of domestic workers in the study area.

According to the convention, the contract should enable workers to know details of the employer, ( the name , address) , of the job ( work to be performed, normal working hours 19

starting date and duration of contract), and food and accommodation if applicable( when the workers live in the house hold) and condition of termination of the contract ( like notice period including any period of notice by either the domestic worker or the employer (ILO convention article 7 ).

2.6.3 Working Hours and Time off As noted above the ILO convention no. 189 emphasizes the need for setting working hours clearly in the contract. In addition article 10 sub article 3 of the convention states that ―Periods during which domestic workers are not free to dispose of their time as they please and remain at the disposal of the household in order to respond to possible calls shall be regarded as hours of work to the extent determined by national laws, regulations or collective agreements, or any other means consistent with national practice‖.

Article 10 sub-article 1 of the convention states ―each Member shall take measures towards ensuring equal treatment between domestic workers and workers generally in relation to normal hours of work, overtime compensation, periods of daily and weekly rest and paid annual leave in accordance with national laws, regulations or collective agreements, taking into account the special characteristics of domestic work‖. It is also stated that Weekly rest shall be at least 24 consecutive hours article 10(2). During weekly and daily rest period, workers are not obliged to remain in the household or within household members.

2.6.4 Remuneration Concerning the remuneration, Convention no. 189 calls up on states to ensure that domestic workers enjoy minimum wage coverage and in conditions where such wage exists that it is established based on sex (article 11). Article 12 also states that ―domestic workers shall be paid directly in cash at regular intervals at least once a month‖.

2.6.5 Freedom of Movement Freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining Article 3 (sub-article 3) is one of the pillars of the convention. In taking measures to ensure that domestic workers and employers of domestic workers enjoy freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining, Members shall protect the right of domestic workers and employers of domestic workers to establish

and, subject to the rules of the organization concerned, to join organizations, federations and confederations of their own choosing.

2.6.6 Working Condition ILO convention Article 13 (sub article 1) states that ―every domestic worker has the right to a safe and healthy working environment‖. Article 9 also affirms that domestic workers should be free to reach agreement with their employer whether to reside in the household.

2.7 National Laws The Federal Constitution of Ethiopia, the supreme law of the land promulgated in 1995 serves as the main source of national laws. The constitution has demonstrated a renewed legislate support for female thorough its various articles. For instance, Article 25 of the constitution prohibits discrimination based on gender. Article 35, which is entitled to and exclusively deals with Rights of Female, has a total of 9 sub articles detailing the rights of female, among others, to equal enjoyment of rights, entitlement to affirmative action, equal rights of property ownership, equality in employment and payment, and right of access to family planning education, information and capacity.

A number of other constitutional provisions, namely those embodied in articles 7, 33, 38, 42 and 89 also have a direct bearing on the protection of the rights of Ethiopian female (Biseswar 2008).In addition to the renewed commitment to the rights of female stipulated in the Constitution, the Ethiopian Government has its own National Policy on Female approved in 1993.

The three main objectives of the female policy are promulgated as: Facilitating conditions conducive to the speeding-up of equality between men and female so that female can participate in the political, social and economic life of their country on equal terms with men and ensuring that their right to own property, as well as their other human rights are respected and that they are not excluded from the enjoyment of the fruits of their lab our or from performing public functions and being decision-makers; Facilitating the necessary condition whereby rural female can have access to basic social services and to ways and means of lightening their work-load; and eliminating, step by step, prejudices as well as customary and other practices that are based on the idea of male supremacy and enabling

female to hold public office and to participate in the decision-making process at all levels (Transitional Government of Ethiopia 1993: 25–26 cited in Biseswa 2008 ).

However, the lab our law of proclamation number 377/2003 excludes domestic workers from coverage. Although Article 3 (sub article 3) of the proclamation states that the council of ministries will issue a special, regulation, no such kind of regulation is issued so far. This exclusion is contrary to CEDAW‟s demand of sates to abolish „all other private instruments of any kind with a legal effect which is directed at restricting the legal capacity of female shall be deemed null and void‟ (Article 15 sub article 3).

The only legal document issued by Ethiopian state that addresses domestic workers explicitly is the Ethiopian Civil Code which has been endorsed in 1960s.

A separate section in the Code deals with the contracts of domestic servants living in their employer‘s home. Accordingly, Article 2601 states that ―Where the employee lives with the employer's family, the latter shall in regard to living-quarters, food, times of work and rest, take all reason- able steps to safeguard the health and moral well-being of the employee‖. Art. 2602. – declares the Obligation of employers to look after the employee. And sub article 1 of Article 2602 states that (1) ―Where an employee who is living with the family of the employer and being fed by the latter falls sick, the employer shall, during the currency of the contract, provide any care which the illness of the employee requires, either by way of medical attendance at his house or by sending the servant to hospital‖.

However, Sub article 2 of the same article declares that ―such obligation shall be limited to one month where the illness occurs after at least one year from the beginning of the contract, and to two weeks, where it occurs after at least three months from the beginning of the contract‖. In addition, sub-article three of the same article gives the power to the employer to ―set off any expenses which he thus incurs against the wages that become due during the period of illness.

Since the country was under feudalism, it is not surprising at that time the law reflected such paternalistic view for the awareness of human rights was low and employment was limited to the government sector.free to reach agreement with their employer on whether to reside in the household.

2.8 The present Condition of Female Domestic Workers in Ethiopia The role of domestic work in securing the function and the well-being of families, enabling family members to be engaged in the labor market, and contributing to economic growth is apparent. This fact becomes increasingly important throughout the globe with structural changes such as labor market, gender relationships, economic growth, higher participation of female outside homes, and higher market competitiveness.

Domestic work creates an opportunity of employment to the poor, rural female who have had little access to education, often with low employability. In Ethiopia, however, flow of remittance from urban to rural areas is almost non-existent mainly due to very low wage. Domestic work in foreign countries may also reduce unemployment in the global south countries (Albin and Mantouvalou, 2012).

Nevertheless, domestic work is considered as devoid of value, exogenous to the labor market and receives low payment. Interlinked factors such as perception of domestic work as unproductive work, gender discrimination, and low bargaining power of domestic workers are considered as the explanation for the devaluation of domestic work.

The lack of recognition of domestic work as a form of employment is evidenced in the terminology used and the very exclusion of it from labor laws that provide protection to workers. For example, even if the term ―servant‖ – as stated earlier – is currently in the course of being considered as a derogatory term, it has not yet disappeared from usage in Ethiopia.

The exclusion of domestic work from the 2003 labor law can be taken as the extension of the historical and systematic marginalization of female‘s work. As ILO notes, ―… since domestic work is often regarded as an extension of female‘s traditional unpaid household and family responsibilities, it is still mostly invisible, undervalued and unprotected

Naami (2014), moreover, says because of several factors like insufficient wages, expensive urban lives, increasing shortage of shelter and unaffordable rent prices, longer hours on job, compulsory working shifts during nights and so on, they may be likely to attend schools so that they will improve their academic status and occupations that will in turn significantly improve their current wages, unsafe jobs etc.

In the same way, reports by International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology (2014) the work conditions that these workers engaged in are mostly observed unsafe or unprotected that they may easily exposed to different physical and psychological problems mainly due to lack of voice or bargaining power to influence their employers in favor of their interests and benefits.

Similarly, in addition to the existing estimated pushing and pulling factors for causing domestic migration in the country, expansions and growth in urbanizations takes significant roles toward increasing the extent of internal migration in current Ethiopian situations. As cities and towns provide much better jobs, incomes, social services and living standards to their dwellers than the rural areas, internal migration from rural to urban centers can be a default practice in many areas of Ethiopia, including Bishoftu town, where this particular research problem would be carried out.

2.8 Domestic Workers' Convention For decades, domestic workers and their allies, especially trade unions, had Called for an international instrument that would recognize these workers and their rights. In November 2006, the Federation of Dutch labor, together with an international steering group consisting of Female in Informal Employment Globalizing and Organizing (WIEGO), among others, co-organized an International conference "Respect and Right: protection for Domestic / Household Workers" in Amsterdam (WIEGO, 2006).

The participants in that conference recommended that a working group should explore the formation of an international network. In 2007, it was decided that the Global Union Federation (IUF) should play a lead role in establishing a network to promote domestic workers‘ rights and to lead a campaign for an ILO Convention on domestic work. The International Domestic Workers Network (IDWN) was subsequently established through a collaborative partnership between IUF and WIEGO (WIEGO, 2006).

History was made on 16th June 2011 when governments, employers and workers from around the world adopted the Convention (C189) and accompanying Recommendation on Decent Work for Domestic Workers at the 100th International labor Conference (ILC) in Geneva, Switzerland. This was a leap forward for an estimated 50–100 million people worldwide who work in the homes of their employers. The Convention recognizes the

―significant contribution of domestic workers to the global economy‖ and says this work is ―undervalued and invisible, and is mainly carried out by female and girls, many of whom are migrants or members of disadvantaged communities.‖ Support at the ILC was overwhelming, with more than 83 per cent of votes cast in favor of adoption (ILO, 2009)

The momentous event was the result of years-long, coordinated effort by domestic worker organizations, regional, national and international and their allies. Domestic workers are now continuing their organizing efforts at the national level to advocate for ratification of the Convention and its implementation in each country (ILO, 2009). There is a lot of effort at the ‗global level on addressing challenges by domestic workers. However, the female may not be well informed of these milestones and take advantage of the legislations.

Domestic workers

Challenges Problems

- Work overload Health Psychological - Long working hours Abuses - Absence of day off problem problems

- Low remunerations

- Lack of legal constraints -Backbone pain -Sexual abuse Isolation - Lost payment -Varicose vain -Verbal abuse - -Kidney problem -Physical abuse -mental problem -Headache -Exploitation -Marginalization, - etc etc

y problem -Headache, etc… Vulnerability of female domestic workers

Figure 2.1 Conceptual framework

Source by own completion

CHAPTER THREE 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES 3.1. Description of the Study Area. 3.1.1. Location Bishoftu is located in Oromia Regional state East Shewa Zone at a distance of 47km southeast of Addis Ababa on the main Addis-Djibouti road. Its geographical location is 8043' - 8045'N latitude and 380 56´- 39001´E longitudes and relatively it is situated between Dukem and Mojo towns. The total area of the town is about 5,444 hectares. It was established around 1902 as a center of posting Ethio-Djibouti rail way line. Bishoftu is one of the reform towns which has got a first rank urban grade level as per the classification of urban grade levels of Oromia Region urban centers and has a City Administration, Municipality and nine Kebeles. The town has a structure plan which was prepared in 2010. It is labeled a center of tourism both at regional and national level (MUDHCo, 2013).

Figure 3.1 Map of the study area

Source: Ethio-GIS (2016)

Due to its proximity to the national capital, Bishoftu was very important for the attraction of both domestic and foreign direct investment (FDI). It shares part of the Great East African Rift Valley hence, endowed with several lakes, hot springs and crater lakes, which contribute for different developmental activities (Gezahegn, 2009). In addition, in 2008, Oromia Regional State selected Bishoftu Town as center of Tourism in the region.

3.1.2. Historical Background of Bishoftu Town Bishoftu Town was established around 1917 as a center of posting for Ethio- Djibouti rail way. (Bishoftu Town Administration, 2001:1). The area of present day Bishoftu Town and its surroundings was known as ‗Ada‘aa‘. ‗Bishoftu‘ is an ‗Oromo‘ term literally means 'ugly' or ‗stinking'. There are two arguments as to why this term was applied to the Town. One group argues that it was because of the physical feature of the land surrounding the lakes that made them to give this name (they are sloppy around their shore). The others relate its ugliness to the stinking nature of the water of Lake Bishoftu. Emperor Haile Sellasie who was the then government of the country had given the name ‗DebreZeit‘ Oromia Urban Planning Institute, 2009 (OUPI). The reason why Emperor Haile Selassie gave a new name to the town was due to the topographical similarities between DebreZeit (Mounts of Olives of the Bible) and Bishoftu. The new name was introduced on the inaugural ceremony of the church of Rufael in 1947 (NUPI, 1999 cited in Adem, 2010).

Bishoftu is one of the worth note towns in the history of early urbanization process of the country in general and Oromia region in particular. It is one of the pre-Italian towns in the country. It is also one of the rail-way towns whose history is so fascinating. The establishment of the railway increased the growth of the town and the expansion of trade along the railway line. As trade expanded, there occurred an increase in population due to the influx of merchants who opened shops and small inns in Bishoftu (Gudina, 2009 and Adem, 2010).

The town‗s topographical attraction and natural beauty such as the attractive lakes makes the area one of the top tourist attraction in the country. The area in which Bishoftu town emerged at the early twentieth century is endowed with fascinating history as it was one of the food provider areas for the Imperial palace. This had contributed to the origin of the town in addition to the construction of the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway which remains an

important historical development in the history of the country as a whole, contributing much to the socio-economic transformation of the country (Gudina, 2009 and Adem, 2010).

Bishoftu is located in an area where there are a great number of cultural and historical sites. One of an important Gada sites that are essential in Oromo history and tradition are located in this area. Mostly around lakes, which are used for practicing religious activities, and public events, like ‗Irrecha‘ festival (the worship of Waaqatokkicha) is celebrated every year at Lake HoraArsedi in the town. Currently its significance is realized by the government and the town is listed as a number one tourist destination town both at regional and national level. Also it has got a first rank urban grade level as per the classification of urban grade levels of Oromia Region urban centers (Gudina, 2009 cited by Biniyam 2015).

Bishoftu is really a resort town (usually recalled as ―City of Lakes.‖), known for seven crater lakes: Lake Bishoftu, HoraArsedi, Babogaya (Bishoftu Guda), Kuriftu, Green lake, HoraKilole and the seasonal Lake Cheleklaka. Because of these attractive lakes, vast military camps, many research and educational institutions, industrial establishments and developed urban agricultures such as Genesis Farms, Elfora, Poultry and Lema milk producers‘ association, its area is believed to be much larger than implied by its population size.

3.1.3. Topography and Climate Bishoftu is guided by structured plan which was prepared in 2010. The first master plan of the town was prepared in 1954 and the revision has been made in 1978, 1992 and 2009 respectively. Total area of the city was 3,280 hectares in the year 2000.and in 2010 increased to 15,273 hectares. It is a liner shape town with an altitude 1920m (6300ft). Also has favorable climatic condition and agro-ecological soil type for the development of rural and urban agriculture.

Rainfall and Temperature: The mean annual rainfall and mean annual temperature of the town is 800-1200mm and 18ºc respectively (MUDHCo, 2013). So it is associated with WoinaDega (Warm Temperate) climatic zone of Ethiopia.

3.1.4. Demographic Characteristics Bishoftu Town is the fourth largest urban center in Oromia Region in population size, next to Adama, Jimma and Sashemene and indeed one of few towns in the country with a threshold population of over 100,000 (Ibid). According to surveys conducted by Central Statistical Authority (CSA 1984, 1994 and 2007), Bishoftu had a population size of 55,655, 73,372 and 100,114 respectively and was estimated to reach 106,840 as of July 2009 (Biniyam, 2015).

According to Hagos and Chutta (2009), the town has shown a steady growth, but at a consistently declining rate. The data demonstrate that the average annual rate of growth declined from 8.9 % between 1967 and 1970 to 4.8 % between 1970 and 1984 to 2.7% between 1984 and 1994 and finally to 2.3 % between 1994 and 2007. Up to 2012 population size of the town was 111,963 whom 47.8% were males and 52.2% were females. Majority of people are engaged in trade and other businesses whereas the rest are working in government and non-government institutions. These include industries, research centers, schools, health sectors and others which deliver service to public (Bishoftu city Administration, 2012). Also as of the latest official Urban Population Projection estimation (CSA, 2013), the population of the town was projected to be 161,354 during 2017.

3.2 Research Methodology 3.2.1 Research Design The researcher used descriptive survey methods for the study. Both quantitative and qualitative data was used during the data gathering and organization, analysis, interpretations and presentation procedures. The qualitative survey of raw data premises and the generalizations made in the process of the study was tried to be described using numerical statistical values such as mean average and percentage values in a better descriptive manner for others to understand.

3.2.2 Sources of the Research Data

In due the study, various characteristics of research data from primary and secondary sources of information was used. While individual respondents from household servants and their employers, brokers, officials from the social and labor office and officials from

Female‘s and children affairs office of the town in the sample study population were the major primary sources. Related written works such as academic books, study reports and journals were used as secondary sources of the necessary data required for the research.

A combination of primary and secondary data sources was used so as to gather important and relevant information. Primary data for this research was collected by using questionnaire and key informant interview.

Secondary data of this research covered an intensive desk review of contemporary theories, literatures, published and unpublished documents, reports and information browsed from the internet on female domestic workers which have relevance to this specific research project and a case study was also implemented.

3.2.3. Sampling Techniques and Sample Size The study was conducted in three sample kebeles (kebeles 01, kebele 02 and kebele 03) which are selected purposively. The purposive sampling technique here was chosen based on the case study conducted and also to make sure that all participants with in the selected kebeles represent the population. These three kebeles are different in their socio-economic conditions, the population size of kebeles and the number of female domestic workers living in the three kebeles.

The majority of residents of kebele 01 are civil servants and traders, most of the residents of kebele 02 comprised of retired employees of Air Force and civil servants while kebele 03 is shanty/slum and the residents are engaged in retailing activities and most of the female household workers are non-paid. In these three selected kebeles, there were about 421 female domestic workers from which 93 sample (about 22.1 %) female domestic workers were selected to fill the questionnaire using online sample size calculator shown in fig 3.2. This non-probability sampling method was used since there were only a few available members of the target population who were willing to participate in the study.

Figure 3.2 sample size calculator

Source: (https://www.surveymonkey.com/mp/sample-size-calculator )

After determining total sample size by using convenience sampling, sample respondents number to each kebele was allocated proportionately using the following statistical methods. The respondents of each kebele were also selected using simple random sampling technique using table of random number.

Where NH=sample size for strata (each kebele)

N=is total population size (421)

n=is total sample size (93)

Nh =the population size for stratum (sample kebele)

Table 3:1 Proportional Allocation of Sample Kebeles and sample Size

Total number of female Calculated sample size from No Sample kebeles household workers each kebele

1 01 243 54

2 02 118 26

3 03 60 13

Total 421 93

Source: from CHIS Pilot project, 2009 E.C

However, all distributed questionnaires were not returned due to the fact that there were non- founds, non-willingness and non-responds on the desired data sources. Therefore, only 81 (87.1%) from 93 sampled respondents were answered and returned the questionnaires.

In addition, an in-depth interview and semi structured questionnaire was also conducted with eight(8) respondents (one officials from Labor and Social Affairs office, one official from Female and Children Affairs office, three brokers from the three sample kebeles and thee from female domestic workers) through purposive sampling method in order to get full information about the challenges and related policies, rules and regulations and proclamations that secure the rights of female domestic workers.

The required data was referred from the list of Urban Health Extension Profession (UHEP), a pilot study conducted under the program of Community Health Information System (CHIS) in 2009 E.C

3.3 Data Collection Instrument 3.3.1 Questionnaires To get relevant information from the total of 93 female domestic workers‘, Forty (43) structured questionnaires were used consisting of both close-ended and open-ended questionnaires. The questionnaires were prepared in English and translated into Afan Oromo and Amharic the language which respondents could easily understand. Close- ended questionnaire, were incorporated dichotomous (yes/no), scale or rating questions (Likert scale) and list questions. As most of the female domestic workers were illiterate and could not properly address the questions by themselves and to avoid language barrier the questionnaires were read and filled by 9 (nine) trained enumerators from health extension workers of the three sample kebeles who knew well the local language of the study area.

Unstructured questionnaire consisting of open-ended questionnaire was prepared for female domestic workers, BOLSA officials, Female and Children Affairs officials and brokers. The questionnaires were prepared on the basis of different issues (topics) indicated in the objectives of the study, which were categorized under: background of the respondents; attitude and perception (awareness) about female domestic workers; issues of

challenges, socio-economic condition, future prospects and rules and regulations related to female domestic workers to protect their rights

3.3.2 Key Informant Interviews The purpose of an interview is to obtain more information that strengthens the responses that were obtained through questionnaires. Semi-structured interview was conducted due to its flexibility for researcher‘s to raise new questions and ideas based on the response of the interviewee and the researcher may change the direction of questions as new ideas raises and additional questions may be asked in the study area.

Key informant interviews are qualitative in-depth interviews with knowledgeable people who know well about the living conditions of the community in the study area. The purpose of key informant interviews is to collect information from a wide range of people including Female‘s and children Affairs officials, brokers, and BOLSA officials of Bishoftu town and residents who have first-hand knowledge about female domestic workers. This method was selected to provide more information on the challenges female domestic workers experienced in reference to the service providers and key stake holders.

3.3.3 Data Analysis and Interpretation The collected data from different sources was organized into meaningful facts and made to provide a detailed explanation. This is to mean that, data was analyzed and interpreted both in quantitative and qualitative techniques.

Data gathered using questionnaire was coded, verified and entered to SPSS-version ‗20‘ software and analyzed using quantitative techniques. The quantitative data was presented by charts, graphs, and tables that show frequency and percentage. And the qualitative data was presented in descriptive text and report form. Quantitative data gathered through survey was used to determine challenges and prospects of female domestic workers while qualitative data obtained from informant interviews were used to explain such challenges and prospects.

CHAPTER FOUR 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSCTION Domestic workers are often described as forming part of the invisible labor force, because their work occurs behind closed doors in private households. In the domestic service, workers are scattered and isolated from one another, thus it is difficult for domestic workers to be mobilized by unions. This is the reason why many domestic workers often find their working conditions vulnerable to abuses of different kinds. The following themes emerged from my analysis of the data, namely, conditions of employment, low wages, which emerged as a subtheme to conditions of employment, health consequences, relationship between domestic workers and employers, looking into the future, being subjected to long working hours and no leave or little leave.

4.1 Characteristics of the Respondents 4.1.1 Level of Education and Place of Birth The survey data indicated that, respondent domestic workers, reflecting the general trend, possess low level of education with the highest registered level of education being college & university accounting 3.7% of the respondents and many of them were primary school attendants (1-4 grade) that accounts 45.7% the respondents.

Figure 4.1 Respondents level of education

Source Field Survey, 2018

In addition, all of them are migrants from different zones of Oromia, Amhara, SNNP, Tigiray regions of the country with the majority from Oromia regional state that accounts for 33.3% of the surveyed individuals. Each month thousands of Ethiopians move from rural to urban areas such as Addis Ababa for domestic works (Namukasa 2011).

Figure 4.2 Respondents place of origin

Source Field Survey, 2018

4.1.2 Respondents Age and Years of Experience The majority of the respondents have 1-3 years of experiences as domestic worker. Although many of the respondents were in age category of 15-24 (59.3%), substantial number of them (25.9%) has started to work as domestic workers while they were below 15 years of age.

Considering the age of the respondents, it can be observed that the domestic work sector attracts the young and early adult aged segment of the society. This would make them even more vulnerable to abuses and child labor exploitation at the early days of their work as domestic workers.

Table 4.1 Age of Respondents and Years of Experience

Experience of a domestic worker in years Age of less than 1 - 3 4- 6 7 - 9 greater Total Percent Respondents 1 year years years years than 9 years Less than 15 1 16 4 0 0 21 25.9 15 – 24 0 25 21 2 0 48 59.3 25 – 34 0 6 1 2 1 10 12.3 35 – 44 1 1 0 0 0 2 2.5 Total 2 48 26 4 1 81 100 Percent 2.5 59.3 32.1 4.9 1.2 100 Source survey data, 2018

4.1.3 Marital status of respondents A significant number (77.8%) of the respondents were single followed by divorced female (13.6%). Since harmful Traditional Practice, Early marriage, abduction, rape and other practices pushes female to migrate from different regions of the country to Addis Ababa and other major towns including Bishoftu (as cited in Gebre , 2004),

Table 4.2 Respondents Marital Status

Status Category Frequency Percent Single 63 77.8 Married 5 6.2 Divorced 11 13.6 Widowed 2 2.5 Total 81 100 Source survey data, 2018

4.2 Major Problems those Female Household Workers Encountered 4.2.1 Discrimination and Abuses It is to be recalled that US Department of State (USDOS) reports during 2012, mentions that the moves to domestic household works and exploitation of child labor were remained a serious problem in the country. It also indicates that the condition was particularly pervasive since they worked in domestic service, often working long hours, which prevented many from attending school regularly. Similarly, the report adds, because these

young females are paid insufficient wages to their cheap labor, they frequently fail to access adequate health services.

Accordingly, among the 81 respondents 44.4% replied that they were facing discrimination in the household in the form of having less right to watch TV, considered as non-family members, being remain alone (loneliness), revulsion and causing to feel inferiority. As a result, being considered as non-family members was fond to be the most common discrimination type ever recorded in the current study. Lonesomeness was the second most observed discrimination type. The finding of this study uniquely different from the finding of Gebre (2012) that stated dehumanizing practices such as serving different food for domestic workers is one of the most frequent forms of discrimination.

Table 4.3 Discriminations that Dmestic Worker Face in the Household

Did you face discrimination in the Type of discrimination household Total Percent Yes No Isolation 7 0 7 8.6 No discrimination 0 45 45 55.6 Inferiority 2 0 2 2.5 Not allow me to watch TV 5 0 5 6.2 Not consider me as family 17 0 17 member 21.0 Revulsion 5 0 5 6.2 Total 36 45 81 100 Percent 44.4 55.6 100 Source: field survey, 2018

Gebre, (2012) reported that violence can take three main features: verbal abuse, physical abuse and sexual violence (an attempt or actual forced sex without the consent of the other party).In the attempt to understand the experience of abuse against the domestic workers participated in this study, 65.4% of the respondents were experienced abuses of different forms such as; physical, verbal, sexual and the combination of two or more kinds. Among those abuses verbal (28.4%) was found to be the most common abuse ever stated. It also has been identified as the commonest of all types of violence by Getachew (2006), Tesfaye (2007) and Gebre, (2012). Employers (50.6%) took the first rank in committing abuses of different forms than any other household member and brokers.

Table 4.4 Form of abuse encountered female domestic workers and agent committed the abuse

Abuse committed by Form of abuse other family Employer and Employer and Employer Broker member relatives broker Total Physical 5 2 0 0 0 7 Verbal 19 1 3 0 0 23 Sexual 2 0 1 0 0 3 Combination of two or more 15 0 1 2 2 20 form of abuses Total 41 3 5 2 2 53 Source: survey data, 2018

4.2.2 Health Problems In the effort made to identify such health risks in the current study almost half of the respondents (45.7% ) have reported that they encountered health problem like headache, backbone pain, varicose vain, kidney problem and any combination of the above mentioned health problems. Among such problems backbone pain was found to be the most common health problem (19.8%) that encountered the domestic workers that mighty caused from the lengthy laborious work.

Similar findings by Getachew, (2006) reported that long hours of work of laborious activities like cleaning, washing clothes manually, exposure to excessive smoke and heat when preparing food, washing toilets and other places without adequate utensils and so on can cause health problem to domestic workers.

Table 4.5 Health problems encountered the Domestic workers

Health problem encountered Frequency Percent Backbone pain 16 19.8 Headache 3 3.7 kidney problem 3 3.7 varicose vain 1 1.2 Back bone pain and kidney problem 10 12.3 Backbone and varicose vain 2 2.5 Backbone pain and headache 2 2.5 No health problem 44 54.3 Total 81 100 Source Field Survey, 2018

4.3. Households Perception Toward Domestic Workers 4.3.1. Employer's Treatment in View of Domestic Workers Domestic workers are among the world‘s most vulnerable workers (Ramirez- Machado 2004). One of the sources of vulnerability is the intimacy that often characterizes the relationship between the employer and the domestic worker which makes the treatment of the workers as family members not as workers. Mantouvalou (2012) explained that such ―sense of intimacy can be false, though, because the relationship between the domestic worker and the employer is characterized by a difference of status that the latter is often keen to maintain‖. Accordingly, majority of the domestic workers in the current study described employer‘s treatment as fair (46.9%) and good (28.4%) while few of them preserved the employer‘s treatment as good (4.9%) and excellent (3.7%). here it can be concluded that the relationship between the domestic worker and the employer is of the type of status difference as stated by Mantouvalou (2012).

Figure 4.3 Employer’s treatment towards domestic worker

Source Field Survey, 2018

The satisfaction level of the domestic workers was also evaluated as one of the perception criteria and so majority of the respondents were found to be dissatisfied (48.1%) being working as domestic worker. The remaining 27.2% and 24.7% were showed that they are average and satisfied in their work condition.

Figure 4.4 Satisfaction levels of Female domestic workers

Source Field Survey, 2018

4.3.2 Lack of Permission for Visiting Families /Relatives Due to the hidden nature of the work site, the family often forbids the worker from leaving the premises alone and sometimes the worker will not be allowed to leave at all. Some employers compound the isolation so as to avoid any contact with the outside world even through telephone or mail (Gebre, 2012). Regarding getting of leave to visit families or relatives for the domestic workers were found to be challenging as most of the respondents were given leave some times (45.7%) and 33.3% were never get leave. The same result was reported by Gebre, (2012).

Figure 4.5 Frequency of Leave Permission for visiting families/relatives

Source Field Survey, 2018

4.4. Socio-Economic Problems of Domestic Workers The monthly salary of domestic workers at the time of data collection was in the range between 250 and 1200 Birr per month on average 725 birr. At its face value, this money is by far considered as low income comparing with country‘s standard initial salary of public servants. However, the provision of food and accommodation for the worker by employers can compensate the gap. When considering the amount of money paid per working hour was again low because a public servant works only for eight hours whereas the domestic workers have no working hours limit. For instance, the highest registered working time in the current study is 15 hours which is almost twice of the working hours of the public servant of the country. As it was stated by Gebre, (2012) the minimum wage is not set for private employment sector as it was for public servants in Ethiopia implying that the domestic workers have no right to demand a certain amount of minimum salary and are forced to negotiate with their employers. Hence they don‘t have either the right to claim minimum wage nor do they have the capability to effectively negotiate for better wages. Similarly, in the effort of knowing the decision maker of the amount of salary for the domestic workers, employers (35.8%) and negotiation (38.3%) were found to be the two major entities that decide. As a result because of the power difference between the

domestic workers and employers, and abject poverty among domestic workers, most of the time is forced to take up the job even at lower wages.

Table 4.6 Amount of salary currently paid to domestic worker and the deciding body

Amount of Amount of monthly salary decided by monthly salary Percent currently paid Broker Employers I myself negotiation Total less than 300 birr 0 1 0 2 3 3.70

300 - 600 birr 3 23 9 20 55 67.90

700 - 1000 birr 2 4 7 8 21 25.93

greater than 1000 0 1 0 1 2 2.47

Total 5 29 16 31 81 100 Percent 6.17 35.80 19.75 38.27 100

Source Survey Data, 2018 Another important thing to be noted is that the absence of change in the amount salary of the worker at least once in three years‘ service. This is because for majority of the domestic workers (60.5%) there was no salary increase and this would also contribute to low income and in turn cause dissatisfaction of the domestic worker in this regard.

Table 4.7 Change in the amount of money

Salary increment Frequency Percent No salary increment 49 60.5 experience gained 12 14.8 increased by 100 birr 2 2.5 increased by 200 birr 12 14.8 increased by 300 birr 4 4.9 increased by 400 birr 1 1.2 increased by 50 birr 1 1.2 Total 81 100

Source Field Survey, 2018

As showed on the table below the monthly salary of domestic workers at the time of data collection was in the range between 250 and 1200 ETB per month on average 725 ETB.

However, they did not have job specification and worked longer hour (as showed on the Figure 4.12) due to these and other challenges significant numbers of the respondents (56.8%) were said Fair and 2.5% and 3.7 were said excellent and very good respectively.

Table 4.8 Comparison of salary to workload

Satisfaction Level Amount of monthly Total percent salary currently Paid Fair good Average very good Excellen t less than 300 birr 3 0 0 0 0 3 3.7 300 - 600 birr 31 13 10 1 0 55 67.9 700 - 1000 birr 11 4 2 2 2 21 25.9 greater than 1000 1 0 1 0 0 2 2.5 Total 46 17 13 3 2 81 100 Percent 56.8 21.0 16.0 3.7 2.5 100 Source Field Survey, 2018

On top of this, most of the respondents (54.3%) have relatives (brother/sister, Mother/father, and children) that are supported by domestic workers and hence retard the socio-economic status of the workers in the sector. Furthermore they think nothing about yet to come.

Figure 4.6 Family members supported by domestic workers

Source Field Survey, 2018

In addition to the above discretion change in life being as a domestic worker was observed very rarely and the majority of the domestic workers (77.8%) in the current study were not changed in their life for the last three years.

Table 4.9 Change in life being domestic worlers against year of experience

Change in life being as a Year of domestic worker Total Percent experience Yes No 1 -3 years 6 42 48 59.3 4 - 6 years 9 17 26 32.1 7- 9 years 3 1 4 4.9 3 - 4 year 0 1 1 1.2 less than 1 year 0 2 2 2.5 Total 18 63 81 100 Percent 22.2 77.8 100 Source Field Survey, 2018

4.5. Current Status of Female Domestic Workers Educational status of house domestic workers under the study area is low. Majority (55.4%) of them were primary school attendants and junior secondary school attendants. However, there is the need to change their educational level as most of them (69.1%) are now attending school as continuing evening program student. In addition to this, 59.3% employers were supporting domestic workers to pursue learning.

Table 4.10 Respondents level of education and the program attended

The Program they Attend Total Percent Level of education Regular Night Extension Distance 1 - 4 grade 1 26 2 2 31 55.4 5 - 8 grade 0 13 4 0 17 30.4 9 - 10 grade 2 0 1 0 3 5.4 11 - 12 grade 1 0 1 0 2 3.6 College & 0 0 2 1 3 University 5.4 Total 4 39 10 3 56 100 Percent 7.1 69.6 17.9 5.4 100 Source Survey Data, 2018

Generally, the status of female domestic workers were found to be low in area of the current survey data captured. It was also reported by Cherinet and Mulugeta (2002:1) and Gebre, (2012) that Ethiopian female‘s status is low where they: (a) are generally poorer than men because they earn less; (b) are less educated; (c) are increasingly becoming heads of households, with no resources to support their dependents; (d) do not enjoy due acknowledgment for their labor contribution, particularly in agriculture, and (e) do not have decision making power. Regarding the stay at the same household being as domestic worker was also short. Thus most of the domestic worker stay at individual home was not exceeding more than 3 year except few who stayed 4 – 6 years.

Table 4.11 Respondents stay in the current household

Years stayed Frequency Percent <1 year 2 2.5 1 - 3 years 59 72.8 3 - 4 year 1 1.2 4 - 6 years 18 22.2 7 - 9 years 1 1.2 Total 81 100 Source Field Survey, 2018

The study found that domestic workers in the study area are subject to human rights violations and exploitation such as lack of clear contract and inapplicability of contracts. Regarding to this, 71.6% of the respondents have no written contract with employers. The approximate estimate to number of respondents without written contract got their current job through brokers (32.1%) and relatives & friends (49.4%). This can be thought that nobody is caring to recognize domestic workers‘ fundamental human and labor rights.

Table 4.12 Number of respondents who have written contract and means of getting current job

Written Means of getting current job contract with Through Through Total Percent employer relatives & Self broker friends Yes 14 4 5 23 28.40 No 12 36 10 58 71.60 Total 26 40 15 81 100

Percent 32.1 49.4 18.5 100

Source Survey Data, 2018

According to the current survey data though payment per hour is low, the longest working hours registered was 15 hours and above. The most common working hours was in the range of 8 – 12 hours which is 56 to 84 hours per week. The result was found to be much longer than what was reported in (ILO, 2010) that was common (40 hours per week) and longest hour registered (49 - 60 hours per week). Rather it could be concluded as those countries which have no limit on normal hours of working.

Figure 4.7 Duration of working hours per day

Source Field Survey, 2018

Domestic workers, especially live-in workers, are often subject to working time arrangement that can be a threat to their well-being. Restrictions on working hours and the

provision of adequate rest periods are essential to preserve their health and safety and to ensure that they have sufficient time to devote to their families and their other responsibilities and interests (ILO, 2010).

4.6 Future Prospects of Female Domestic Workers Yet, many of the domestic workers have hoped that they will have a better future by saving their meager payment. They consider their present difficulty as a sacrifice for their better future, although they are insecure about what their life looks like in future (Gebre, 2012).In like manner, majority of the respondents (76.5%) would like to further extend their education level by saving what they got in the form of salary, while fewer of them won‘t extend due to different purposes they might face. For instance, some of those believe that there would not be any improvement in life afterwards. Children caring, lack of money and having no time were the factors that hinder the domestic workers from extending their education.

Table 4.13 Interest of respondents to further extend their education

Yes/No Frequency Percent Yes Extend my education 62 76.5 Care for children 4 4.9 Have no time 5 6.2 Have no enough No 2 2.5 money There won't be any 8 9.9 change Total 81 100 Source Survey Data, 2018

Regarding improvement in the skill of being household chores, almost all of the respondents (76.5%) would not like to improve the skill of household chores rather they would like to change their skill other than household chores like shopping and any other better jobs. This could be because of the difficulties and non-conducive environments of household work.

Table 4.14 Interest of respondents to improve their skill in household chores

Description Frequency Percent I won‘t like to improve skill 62 76.5 Any better job 6 7.4 Home economics 9 11.1 Shopping 4 4.9 Total 81 100.0 Source Survey Data, 2018

Condition of Employment

A discussion about working conditions for the female domestic workers emerged as an important theme in the interviews. Responses of the female indicated that many of their employers are not meeting the minimum standards set by the Department of Labor. The female had to work long hours for very low wages.

In the current study three (3) female domestic workers were randomly selected from three (3) sample kebeles found in Bishoftu town for an interview and the results are presented as follows:

4.7 Working Hours and Time off Domestic workers basically have no definite time to work and work for long hours. The working hour of many domestic workers were over extended. Many of them work for more than 12 hours per day. Here under 3 domesticworkers their response given during an in- depth interview.

Aleme Mola(changed name), a domestic worker for the last 17 years usually begins work at 6:00 A.m.early in the morning until 10:00 p.m. late in the evening and sometimes above depending on the task assigned to her by her employers. (Aleme Molla, domestic worker, April, 2018). Similarly, Meseret Alemu(changed name) usually wakes up early in the morning at 05:30 A.m. and starts her job by cleaning the house and she goes to bed in the evening usually around 10:00 P.m. after the whole family went to bed (Interview with Meseret Alemu, domestic worker, April,

2018). Sinidu Sisay(changed name), also complained that she usually works for more than fifteen (15) hours per day (Interview with Sinidu Sisay, domestic worker, April, 2018).

Regarding day off Aleme Molla mentioned that there was an agreement one day off per month during the time of employment but she never asked her employer to take rest. However, she reported that she was not given any day off or annual leave except at the time when she encounters problem such as funeral or any other family problems.

In view of article 11 sub articles 1(e) of the CEDAW that states the grant of a paid leave for female workers, right to rest and leisure was violated forcing the domestic workers to work long hours. It is also contrary article 7 (g) of the ILO domestic workers convention no. 189 which demands paid leave and daily, weekly and annual rest for domestic workers. Although the ILO Domestic workers convention no. 189 requests at least consecutive 24 hours of rest per week (article 10).

4.7.1 Low Remuneration The monthly salary of domestic workers as was indicated in quantitative data here also was found to be low. The Minimum monthly salary paid to the domestic workers of participated in the current interview was 200 ETB and the maximum monthly salary reported was 1200 ETB. The same factor also affected the low status of domestic workers as the quantitative findings indicated. For instance, a domestic worker Sinidu mentioned here experience as follows;

Though her monthly salary (1200 ETB) relatively higher than the other participants of the interviewed, she reported she has a child that depends on her monthly income. She added that she suffers from a work overload and longer time of work usually more than fifteen (15) hours per day (Sinidu April, 2010)

4.7.2 Abusive Living Conditions. Domestic Violence is perhaps the most frequent type of human right abuse in the world. However, in most studies the analysis of domestic violence is often restricted to violence against family members like female and children (Tesfaye 2007). Regarding this Getachew (2006) indicated that many studies ignore domestic violence against non-family members 50

who reside within the same home such as domestic workers. Two of the participants reported that they encountered sexual, verbal and physical abuses.

Meseret reported that there had been an incident when one of the sons of her employers tried to rape her but rescued by people who rented a house in her employers compound that heard her scream for help. She also reported that the lady of the household would insult her most of the time and sometimes she also beats her (Meseret, April, 2018).

Sinidu also reported that she was driven out of the household after she had been raped and got pregnant by one of the relatives of her employer (Sinidu, April, 2018).

An interview with three local brokers in three sample kebeles(represented by three letters A, B, and C) that specialized in hiring woman household workers give emphasis on more of contract formation and training offered to the woman household and the discussion made with the three brokering offices is explained in detail as follows;

4.8 Contract Formation and Training Basically, the ILO convention emphasizes the need for formal contract between employer and domestic workers. However, provision of written contract was common for the brokering agencies interviewed in this study but the enactment of the contract formed between the employers and the domestic workers is rarely used. For instance, A, brokering agency owner reported that he used to provide a written contract for both the female household workers and their employers and the original copy would be kept within the broker agency to present as evidence in times of dispute (Key informant A, April 2018).

All the three brokers reported that they could provide formal and informal training to their customers who are going to be hired as domestic worker such as giving consultancy for the woman household workers to enable them cope with the situation they might encounter in the household they are going to be hired. However, problems like sexual abuse are still common that the brokers admitted by themselves. For instance key informant B presented his experience as follow;

He reported that there had been some cases of pregnancy reported to their office by female household workers that caused from a sexual abuse encountered in the household they were hired and the informant mentioned also an incident where a woman household worker were driven out of the household by the maid of the house suspected of an affair with the husband. The informant also addressed that there had been incidents when a woman with a child would come to the office to be hired which even worsened the situation (Informer B, April 2018).

He also added that there had been some encounters of an abuse reported to the office by female household workers but the agency had no involvement in giving a legal solution except for trying to negotiate the two parties. The informer also addressed that some serious cases would be referred to the local employer and employee bureau for further resolution

Accordingly, it could be concluded that the need of more enforcing of policy that can avoid all type of violence and abuses should be formulated.

4.9 Provision of Food and Accommodation All the three key informants reported that they provide accommodation to their customers who came to the office of brokering agency. For instance informant A and C has

The informant‘ C‘ mentioned that the agency had rented a house for the female to live and cook their food until they were hired and the expenses incurred would be settled later by the female household workers after they got employed. The informant also reported that the female could stay in their office for one (1) to seven (7) days and sometimes more before they could be hired.

The informant A mentioned that the office had prepared a separate room to shelter female household workers who have no place to stay in the town until they would be able to get hired. He also mentioned that most of these female could stay with them for two (2]) or three (3) days before they got hired. He also reported that the agency would lend some money for the female to buy some necessity items and would deduct the money borrowed when they got hired.

Regarding accommodation, the main idea to be noted is that did all the job seekers (i.e. woman household worker) got advantage of the provision.

The Bureau of Labor and Social Affairs (BOLSA) office of Bishoftu town is currently lacking legitimacy to assist the domestic workers. Its lack of legitimacy emanates from lack of proper legal framework to oversee the situation of domestic workers and at the same time there is lack of understanding of the importance of legal contract that has to be signed between employers and employees. A key informant from the office said ―regarding female household workers, there is no article on the employer and employers‘ proclamation no.377/2003 that describes about female household workers and she also mentioned that there had never been any abuse reported by female household workers to their office‖.

One of the informants from BOLSA office mentioned that it was obvious that these female domestic workers would face so many challenges. And he also added that even though there is no article mentioned on the proclamation no. 377/2003 regarding female household workers, their cases were usually solved by the local police station.

To get strong evidence of human right violence and child labor exploitation, an interview was made with one of the police officer. She said there are many problems and challenges encountered female domestic workers such as labor exploitation, mental retardation, shortage of food and hygiene due to lack of time and physical, verbal and sexual violence especially on children under the age of 15. Moreover she expressed about the case which was registered on the list of crime about a family from Abusera (local kebele around Bishoftu).

Box no 01

A case story child labor exploitation and absence of legal written contract

Two girls who came from Abusera (local kebele around Bishftu town) were working in the household of someone who brought them for teaching. However the girls‘ family took six hundred (600) ETB monthly without a legal contract. Actually the two girls were used to work for a long time even without eating their meal. Sometime they work for the other neighboring household. Because of the overload of work and hunger, one day they escape away from the household during the night. Unfortunately, hyena came across to their way, and they started to shout while the people for the neighboring came out and saved them and took them to the police station.

Though the two girls did not have legal written contract, by means of evidence obtained from the neighbor household it was enabled to open the charge on the employer, and finally the employer sentenced to be punished as he was violating child labor exploitation and abuse of hunger. An interview with a Polis Officer in kebele 05 sub city 01 head of female and Children Affair

(April, 2018)

A study in Addis Ababa found out that ―poverty of the family (destitute family, disintegration of family or death of one or both parents) is the single most important cause of children entering into domestic work‖ (Kifle, 2002). Getachew (2006) also added additional push factors that included escape from family violence, escape from unhappy and early marriage, and attraction by city life (Getachcew, 2006) are the causes of migration.

Box no 02

A case story of sexual abuse

A husband committed sexual abuse on a child seventeen years of age coming back home after his wife left the home to Addis Ababa for her daily duty. Subsequently, the head of that household was accused of his sexual abuse and sentenced being prisoner for 7.5 years.

An interview with a Polis Officer in kebele 05 sub city 01, head of Female and Children Affair(April, 2018).

Similarly, in case when a child worker is not paid or withhold of her salary, Female and Children Affairs Office will try to solve the disagreement even in the absence of written contract whereby legal ground not supportive enough to charge the employer for what he/she has done wrong to the worker.

For domestic workers of age greater than eighteen years though they can ask for their right, office of female and children affairs has been solving as many problems as possible given that the society accustom to come to the center for any similar problem concerning vulnerability of domestic worker. For instance, a lady who was working in a household as domestic worker come to our office has got justice after she reported that sexual abuse was committed to her by her employer.

There were occasion when the domestic workers leave the household they used to work for. After some days when they did not get any other work and have no money at hand for buying food, the office of female and children affairs experienced to settle such victimized female‘s by organizing a fund raising for provision of food and accommodation and also trying to get the contact address of their families for making them send back to join their families.

CHAPTER FIVE 5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1. Conclusion This study was conducted with the aim to assess the challenges and prospects encountered by female working in domestic households in Bishoftu town using the lens of national and relevant international human and labor rights instruments.

The findings of the study showed that discrimination in the household in the form of having less right to watch TV, being considered as non-family members, being remain alone (loneliness), revulsion and causing to feel inferiority were the most common problems of domestic worker; health problem like headache, backbone pain, varicose vain, kidney problem; were identified as major problems that encountered female household workers.

Employer's treatment in view of domestic workers was evaluated as faire and majority of the domestic workers in the study described employer‘s treatment as fair; the satisfaction level of the domestic workers was also evaluated as one of the perception criteria and so majority of the respondents were found to be dissatisfied. Rights of visiting families /relatives for the household domestic workers were perceived challenging as most of the domestic workers was not getting permission regularly.

The finding regarding socio-economic problem of female domestic workers indicated that domestic workers were economically and socially low. Comparison of monthly earnings of domestic workers with country‘s standard initial salary of public servants was found to be low by two folds in terms of the length of hours worked per week. In addition to this, the minimum wage was not set for private employment sector as it was for public servants in Ethiopia implying that the domestic workers have no right to demand a certain amount of minimum salary and hence forced to negotiate with their employers. . Change in life being as a domestic worker was observed very rarely and the majority (77.8%) of the domestic workers reported that there was no improvement in their life for the last three years.

Currently educational status of domestic workers generally was found to be low, as majority (55.4%) of workers was largely attendant of primary school and some were secondary school. However, there is the need to change their educational level as most of them are now attending school as continuing evening program student. In addition to this, 59.3% 56

employers are supporting the domestic workers to pursue learning. In like manner, the study found that domestic workers were subject to human rights violations and exploitation such as lack of legal contract and low applicability of contracts to protect the right of the workers. For instance, the approximate estimate to number of respondents without written contract got their current job through brokers (32.1%) and relatives & friends (49.4%). This can be thought that nobody is caring to recognize domestic workers‘ fundamental human and labor rights.

The interesting part of this study is that most of domestic workers have hoped that they will have a better future by saving their insufficient payment. However, most of the domestic workers would not like to improve the skill of household chores rather they would like to change their skill other than household chores like shopping and any other better jobs. This could be because of the difficulties and non-conducive environments of household.

5.2. Recommendation Based on the findings of the study the following points are forwarded as recommendation:

1. The general utilization of model employment contracts should be encouraged and the effective implementation should be coordinated so that problems like work overload, lack of annual leave permission will be legally resolved.

2. Female and child affairs office and BOLSA of Bishoftu town should play major role in improving working conditions of domestic workers regardless of the absence of proper legal framework that oversee the situation of domestic workers

3. Appropriate policy interventions need to be devised as the level of illiteracy among domestic workers is quite high and there is a very high prevalence of informality. So struggle for basic rights such as minimum wages, equal pay for work of equal value, and better working and living conditions as there are no legal ground that protect the wellbeing of domestic workers.

4. Alternative employment opportunities should also be made available in Ethiopia to young person‘s so that they are not forced to join domestic work for sustaining lively hood.

5. Due to low levels of education, the skill of domestic workers is often recognized as being of simple and routine nature. Therefore, it is important to involve NGOs in creating awareness

and educating such venerable sector of workforce so that violence of labor right and child labor exploitation will no more be major problem to domestic workers.

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Appendices

Appendix I. QUESTIONNAIRS Background of the respondents 1. Date of collection ______/______/______D/M/Y 2. Name of enumerator______. 3. Current residence kebele: 1. Kebele 01 2. Kebele 02 3. Kebele 03

4. Where is your birth place? ______. 5. Age: 1. below 15 2. 15-24 3. 25-34 4. 35-44 5. 45 & above 6. Marital Status: 1. Single 2. Married 3. Divorced 4. Widowed 7. Level of education: 1. Illiterate 2. 1-4 (Primary) 3. 5-8 (junior) 4. 9-10 (high school) 5. 11-12 (Preparatory school) 6. College & University 8. Religion:

1. Orthodox 2. Protestant 3. Muslim 4. Catholic

5. Wakefeta 9. How many years of experience do you have as a domestic worker?

1.1-3 years 2. 4-6 years 3. 7-9 years 4.10 years & above . 10. How many years have you worked in your current employer‘s home?

1.1-3 years 2. 4-6 years 3. 7-9 years 4.10 years & above 11. Do you attend school currently? 1. Yes 2. No 12. If your answer is yes for question no. 9, which program do you attend? 1. Regular 2. Night 3.Extention 4. Distance 13. Do your employers support you to go to school? 1. Yes 2. No 14. Do you have a written contract with your employer? 1. Yes 2. No

15. How do you find your current job? 1. Through a Broker 2. Through relatives and friends 3. By myself 4. Other please specifies ______.

16. Are you a live-in or live- out domestic worker? 1. Live – in 2. Live – out

. Perception II and Satisfaction Level of the Respondents (Female domestic workers)

17. How do you describe your employer‘s treatment to you? 1. Fair 2. Good 3. Average 4. V. good 5. Excellent 18. What is your satisfaction level in your current job?

1. Satisfied 2. Dissatisfied 3. Average 19. What was the amount of salary you were recruited at the first time? ______.

20. What is the amount of salary you are paid currently? 1. Less than 300 birr. 2. 300-600 birr. 3. 700-1000 birr 4. Above 1000 birr. 21. Who decide the amount of your salary? 1. Broker 2. Employers 3. I myself 4. Negotiation 22. is there change in the amount of your salary? 1. Yes 2. No 23. If your answer is yes for question 23, please describe ______. 24. How do you describe your wage/salary compared to your workload? 1. Fair 2. Good 3. Average 4. V. good 5.Excellent 25. How many hours do you work per day? 1. 8 hours 2. 8-12 hours 3. 13-15 hours 4. Above 15 hours 26. How often do your employers give you a leave to visit your family or relatives when you needed it?

1. Always 2. Some times 3. Never 4. It depends 27. Do you have family members that are dependent on you? 1. Yes 2. No 28. If your answer is yes for question 27, who are they?

1. Your brothers/sister 2. Your mother/father 3. Your children

4. Other, please specify______. 29. How often do you visit your family and relatives? 1. Rarely 2. Sometimes 3. Never 30. Do you think you face discrimination in the household?

1. Yes 2. No If yes, please describe in what ways? ______31. Have you ever encountered any abuse? 1. Yes 2. No 32. If your answer is yes for question 9, what form of abuse was it? 1. Physical 2.Verbal 3. Sexual 4. Other, please specify: ______33. Who committed the abuse? 1. Employer 2.Broker 3. Other, please specify______34. Does your employer cover any cost that you incur apart from your salary? 1. Yes 2. No If yes, please mention: ______35. Do you think your employment as a domestic worker changed your life?

1. Yes 2. No

If yes, please explain:

36. If you get the opportunity, would you like to further extend your education?

1. Yes 2. No If no, please reason out, why? 37. How often do you encounter a work overload? (1)

1. Always 2. Sometimes 3.Never 38. Have you ever encountered a health problem from a work overload? 1. Yes 2. No If your answer is yes, please describe? ______. 39. Do you like to improve your skills in household chores? 1. Yes 2. No If yes, please describe the area? ______. 40. Who determines the daily task to be performed? 1. My employer 2. I Myself 3. Other, please describe ______. 41. Is there separate restroom for you? 1. Yes 2. No 42. If your answer is yes for question 42, please specify the facility: (4)______43. Do you think being a domestic household worker has affected your social life? 1. Yes 2. No 3.To some extent

Appendix II

CHIS Data Collection Card

Appendix III.

I. Interview Guide for Key Informants (BOLSA officials and Female’s and Children Affairs Office). General information

1. Kebele______

2. Position/ office responsibility______.

3. Level of Education______

1. What do you know about the contents of ILO convention NO 189 that talk about the rights of domestic workers? Which of the rights contained in the convention are practiced?

2. Has there been any woman domestic worker who encountered a breach of right reported to your office? Please explain the type of breach of right that has been encountered. 3. Is there any contract made between a woman household worker and her employer through your office? 4. There are brokers who recruit domestic workers to employers. Did your office have any contact / intervention with them? Was there any time to work with them in relation to domestic workers? Anything you would like to share me in relation to them? 5. Does your office play any role in assisting female household workers get extra benefits [like education, annual leave, medical…etc.] from their employers? 6. Do you give any training for woman household workers in the town?

1. Yes 2. No

If your answer is yes, describe what type of training?

7. If you think there remains more information not mentioned in the questionnaire, please don‘t hesitate to mention.

II. Interview guidelines for Brokers 1. How many years of experience do you have as a broker? ______. 2. How long do female domestic workers stay in your office before they are hired?______. 3. Is there any training given to female household workers in your office before they are hired?______. 4. Do you make the employment of female domestic workers through a legal contract? ______. 5. Have there ever been a situation that a female domestic worker hired through your office encountered sexual, physical or any other abuse and got compensation legally and the abuser punishment legally?______8. If you think there remains more information not mentioned in the questionnaire, please don‘t hesitate to mention.

III, Interview guidelines for Female Domestic Workers 1. How many years of experience do you have as a domestic worker? 2. What are you benefited by working as a domestic household worker? 3. Mention any problems or challenges you faced working as a domestic worker? 4. Do you have a written contract, which include job specification, annual, monthly or weekly rest and working hour per day? 5. What is your future dream/vision?

Prepared by Hiwot Hailu