ICTICT302 Install and optimise operating system software
Learner Guide
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Contents
Getting Started ...... i About this unit ...... i Elements and performance criteria ...... i Icon Legends ...... iii Topic 1 - Determine the functions of operating systems ...... 1 The user interface ...... 2 Operating system functions ...... 3 More detailed OS functions ...... 6 Summary ...... 16 Topic 2 – Obtain an operating system ...... 17 Technical specifications ...... 19 System requirements ...... 19 Licensing requirements ...... 20 Organisational requirements ...... 21 Evaluation criteria ...... 21 Documenting your recommendations ...... 22 Summary ...... 24 Topic 3 – Install, configure and optimise an operating system ...... 27 The installation plan ...... 28 Installing operating systems ...... 31 Configuring the operating system ...... 36 Testing an operating system ...... 37 Summary ...... 41 Topic 4 – Provide instruction to meet new software requirements and gain feedback ...... 43 Determining client’s training needs ...... 45 Feedback ...... 48 Summary ...... 56 Glossary ...... 57
Getting Started
About this unit
This unit describes the performance outcomes, skills and knowledge required to install, configure and optimise operating system (OS) software to meet business and client needs.
Welcome to ICTICT302 - Install and optimise operating system software. This unit will help you to understand the purposes, functions and types of operating system (OS) used in the computing industry today. There are two types of software: system software and application software. An important part of the system software is the set of programs called the operating system. The operating system controls how the computer functions, whereas application software is used to perform particular tasks e.g. word processing, spreadsheet, etc. The operating system loads, stores, executes programs and transfers data among devices and memory. For a computer to operate, an operating system must be stored in its memory.
You will become familiar with various terms and technical specifications to allow you to recommend various operating systems. You’ll learn how to install one and to optimise it to work more efficiently. You’ll also be introduced to user training regarding operating systems and learn how to evaluate the acceptance of a new system by the end-users.
You’ll do some tasks for a Case Study IT company, BIOS Solutions, which will allow you to demonstrate your skills and knowledge in installing and optimising operating system software. You will have the choice of your own case study as well.
Elements and performance criteria
7.1 Elements define the essential outcomes of a unit of competency. The Performance Criteria specify the level of performance required to demonstrate achievement of the Element. They are also called Essential Outcomes.
7.2 Follow this link to find the essential outcomes needed to demonstrate competency in this Unit: http://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ICTICT302
7.3
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Icon Legends
Learning Activities
Learning activities are the tasks and exercises that assist you in gaining a clear understanding of the content in this workbook. It is important for you to undertake these activities, as they will enhance your learning.
Activities can be used to prepare you for assessments. Refer to the assessments before you commence so that you are aware which activities will assist you in completing your assessments.
Readings (Required and suggested)
The required reading is referred to throughout this Learner Guide. You will need the required text for readings and activities.
The suggested reading is quoted in the Learner Guide, however you do not need a copy of this text to complete the learning. The suggested reading provides supplementary information that may assist you in completing the unit.
Reference
A reference will refer you to a piece of information that will assist you with understanding the information in the Learner Guide or required text. References may be in the required text, another textbook on the internet.
Self-check
A self-check is an activity that allows you to assess your own learning progress. It is an opportunity to determine the levels of your learning and to identify areas for improvement.
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Topic 1 - Determine the functions of operating systems
Introduction
After completing this topic you will be able to:
> Identify and demonstrate understanding of the purposes of the operating system.
> Distinguish between batch systems, real time systems and multi-tasking systems.
> Identify and demonstrate knowledge of the basic functions of an operating system, including file systems, memory management, process scheduling.
> Identify and demonstrate management of virtual memory.
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The user interface
The user interface determines how you will interact with the computer. It controls how information is presented to you on screen and how you enter data and commands. Most operating systems use a graphical user interface (GUI) which provides visual clues such as icons to help a user. Otherwise there is a command line interface which requires knowledge of commands to use the computer.
Figure 1 a Command Line Interface
Figure 2 the GUI (pronounced “gooee”) or Graphical User Interface of MS Windows 7 operating system
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Identify and describe the functions
When you have turned on the switch to activate or “boot” your computer, it probably made various noises, displayed information on the computer screen that indicated what the computer was doing and eventually stopped at a screen that was familiar to you such as Microsoft Windows®, Linux, MAC OS, Ubuntu or your game console screen.
It is the Operating System which causes your computer to work and run through these routines which interact with attached devices and perform shared functions such as to print a document when you choose “print” button in your application software. The operating system does disk management tasks, too, such as saving or retrieving files to/from your computer disks and external storage devices. It can also analyse problems with your computer.
Examples of popular modern operating systems for personal computers are Microsoft Windows Vista, Windows 7, Mac OS X and the Linux-based Ubuntu. Examples of popular operating systems for networked computers are Unix, Novell, NetWare and Microsoft Windows Server 2008.
Nearly every computer needs some way of communicating between the user of the computer and the various devices the computer has, such as a keyboard, mouse, modem, pointing device, CD/DVD drive, etc. This is one of the tasks of the Operating System.
Regardless of the ICT area you may decide to specialise in, you will need some knowledge of what an operating system is, what it can do for the end user, what its various features are, and how it functions. You will also need to know why some operating systems are better suited to some industries and not to others.
Operating system functions
While you work in your computer’s applications, the operating system works in the background and provides the resources such as memory, disk space and processing time. Here are some of an operating system’s functions:
> It allocates resources to the applications that are running.
> It provides the utility programs required to manage the hardware by analysing, configuring, optimizing and maintaining the computer
> It facilitates communication between the hardware (such as the keyboard, disk drives, internal memory, video monitors and other peripheral devices like your digital camera or your MP3 player or smartphone.
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> It manages the scheduling of tasks (such as an automatic backup you might set off to run at a particular time).
> It facilitates communication with other computers on a network or the Internet.
Figure 3 the operating system is an interface between a user and the hardware
Classes of operating systems
There are also various classes of operating systems, each with its own characteristics.
Real-time Operating System
It is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications. Real-time operating systems often use specialized scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a deterministic nature of behaviour. The main object of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable response to events. They either have an event-driven or a time-sharing design. An event-driven system switches between tasks based on their priorities while time- sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts.
Multi-user and Single-user Operating Systems
The operating systems of this type allow multiple users to access a computer system concurrently. Time-sharing system can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable a multiple user access to a computer through the sharing of time. Single-user operating systems, as opposed to a multi-user operating system, are usable by a single user at a time. Being able to have multiple accounts on a Windows operating system does not make it a multi-user system. For a Unix-like operating system, it is possible for two users to login at a time and this capability of the Unix OS makes it a multi-user operating system.
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Multi-tasking and Single-tasking Operating Systems
When a single program is allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped under a single- tasking system, while in case the operating system allows the execution of multiple tasks at one time, it is classified as a multi-tasking operating system. Multi-tasking can be of two types: namely pre-emptive or co-operative. In pre-emptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates one slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems such as Solaris and Linux support pre-emptive multitasking. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in a defined manner.
Distributed Operating System
An operating system that manages a group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a single computer is known as a distributed operating system. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other, gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a group work in cooperation, they make a distributed system.
Embedded System
The operating systems designed for being used in embedded computer systems are known as embedded operating systems. An embedded system is a computer system designed to perform one or a few dedicated functions often with real-time computing constraints – an Automatic Teller Machine is an example. Embedded systems include PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants), cash registers, GPS devices, MP3 players, traffic lights – all systems with less autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE, FreeBSD and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems.
Batch Systems and Real-Time Systems
Batch processing is the process in which data is collected, and at some later time, all the data that has been collected is processed as a group. An example of batch processing is the case of a business which processes its accounts on weekly or monthly intervals.
Real-time processing refers to systems that perform one task at a time and update a central database instantly. Automatic Teller Machines are real-time systems. If you make a withdrawal, your balance is debited immediately. Airline booking systems are real-time too.
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More detailed OS functions
We have discussed the purpose and types of an operating system. We now need to discuss in more detail the different functions that an operating system can perform.
The boot process
One of the more critical functions of the operating system is in ‘booting up’ (starting) your computer. Let’s look (briefly) at the steps in this process in relation to a personal computer using the older MS-DOS operating system. (In other operating systems the process is basically the same; however some of the file names used are different and may perform extra or other functions.)
When your computer is first turned on, it uses a special piece of hardware/software called the BIOS (Basic Input Output System). The BIOS is generally stored on a ROM (Read Only Memory) microprocessor chip stored on your computer’s motherboard. This chip has instructions on it to tell the computer to perform a Power On Self-Test (POST). The POST tests for the existence of various devices on your computer and ensures that they are working properly. (That is why you see the lights on your keyboard light up momentarily when the computer is first turned on.)
Once the POST has finished, and assuming that everything to this point is working correctly, the BIOS looks for a small program called a Bootstrap Loader stored on a hard disk or even on a ‘bootable’ Compact Disk (CD) or any other bootable medium, such as USB devices. The order of where to look for an operating system is stored in the CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor). The CMOS is accessed by a user pressing certain keys on their keyboard while the computer is booting (generally or
The Bootstrap Loader program has basically one function: to load other parts of the operating system into the computer’s memory so that it can be used. Eventually the Bootstrap Loader gives control of the computer to the rest of the operating system. These other parts of the OS include the File Management schemes, the Memory Management schemes and loading the different software drivers that communicate with the various devices.
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The Bootstrap Loader program will then tell the system where to look for the first file in the (DOS) operating system, called IO.SYS. IO.SYS is then loaded into memory and it now takes over the boot process. It then looks for an operating system file called MSDOS.SYS. This is then loaded into memory and the system now looks for a programme called CMD.EXE, which then takes permanent control of the computer.
At this point the computer should basically be ready to accept input/output data from the attached devices and the user.
Memory management
One of the most important tasks that an operating system does is manage the memory requirements of your computer. We discussed earlier how current day operating systems are Multi User. This means that many users will be using the facilities of the computer at the same time, including its memory, to run their own tasks. Imagine if you had ten people sitting and working around your desk, and each of those people put their paperwork all over the desk. The desk would soon become unmanageable, with the paperwork hard to find or even lost. Eventually all ten people would probably not be able to complete their tasks. Somebody needs to take control and organise the chaos - on a computer this is one of the jobs of the operating system.
As an example consider the process of using your word processor on your computer. On your computer, you double-click an icon on your desktop to ‘load’ the program. This double-click sends a signal to the operating system that you want to use this particular program. The operating system then makes a request to the CPU to retrieve a copy of the program from the computer disk. The CPU and operating system then find where on the disk this program resides and start to copy the program code from the disk into the computer’s memory (RAM). Once the code is stored in memory, the CPU then executes the code and your program runs.
Once you have your word processor working, you may want to open up an existing document. To do this, the same process basically happens, where the document is loaded from the computer’s hard disk into RAM, so again more storage space is required.
The problem with this scenario is that:
> There must be enough memory available to store the program or data when it is retrieved.
> The programs and data cannot overlap or use memory that is currently being used by other programs.
This is where the operating system needs to be a memory manager.
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Memory chips in your computer are like the mailboxes found at your local post office. The operating system, when storing the data or program’s bytes, stores them in these boxes. All of these boxes have an address (like the mailboxes). The CPU needs to know these addresses so it can retrieve and store the data when required. However, the operating system cannot store the data in addresses that are already filled. Part of the operating system’s task is to determine whether the data that is in those boxes is still relevant — does the system or do the programs still require it? If not, then the operating system will discard the data and then use the now empty space. However, if the data is still required, then some other technique must be found.
When you close a program or save and close a document, the operating system knows that you have finished using the file and/or program, so it automatically purges the program or file data from memory. This means that RAM is a temporary storage area. At some point in time whatever is in RAM will eventually be lost, especially when you turn the computer off.
Virtual memory
If your computer runs out of space to store data in physical RAM, the operating system must compensate for this somehow. (Remember that a multi-tasking system could have many programs and/or files open at once, each needing resource space such as physical memory.) Most operating systems do this by creating a ‘swap file’ and Microsoft Windows uses this to store its ‘virtual memory’.
When the computer’s RAM chips run out of space, the operating system uses one of its programs called a Memory Manager. This memory manager sets up a large contiguous (there are no gaps) file on your computer’s hard disk (Note that sometimes, this file can be fragmented and is called a temporary swap file). As the operating system determines that your physical memory is full, it moves some of the data/programs that it believes are not currently needed, but could be needed later, into the swap file on the hard disk. Because it is contiguous, the operating system knows exactly where this data is, if it needs to retrieve it again very quickly. The size of the amount of space used by the swap file can also grow and shrink, depending on system requirements and no other programme/file/document will ever be saved in the space being reserved as the swap file.
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A problem with using a swap file is that it can slow down system performance because the data has be read from the disk when it is required and written to the disk when not needed. (There are not many moving parts within a computer, but there are in a hard disk — the disk itself that spins and the read/write heads that move backwards and forwards across the disk reading and writing the data. These moving parts always slow down access). Another problem with swap files occurs when the available space on a user’s hard drive shrinks through normal use, e.g. saving programs and files. As the amount of free space on the hard disk reduces, the amount of space available for the swap file is also reduced, thereby degrading system performance significantly.
This virtual memory makes your computer think that it has more memory than it actually has. Fortunately, the average computer user doesn’t have to worry about this, as it is handled automatically by the operating system and associated software programmes. Windows, Unix and Linux use this technique of having a swap file. Large mainframe computers use a similar technique called paging. The data that is moved in and out in these systems is called ‘pages’. Linux actually creates an exclusive partition on your drive to use for swapping.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES ACTIVITY 1
Changing virtual memory
Changing the virtual memory settings on your computer can cause it to stop working. You should only do this if you really understand the consequences. For this exercise we will simply walk through a process of looking at where it is configured on a Windows operating system. However, note that the process is basically the same for all versions of Windows including Windows 7.
1 Open the Control Panel on your computer by going to Start/Settings/Control Panel.
2 In the Control Panel look for your System icon and double-click it.
3 Click the Advanced tab.
4 Click the Settings button on the Performance option.
5 Click the Advanced tab within the Performance Options box.
6 At the bottom of the performance box the Virtual Memory option is displayed. Click the Change button.
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Figure 4 System properties for changing virtual memory
The resulting screen will display the settings for the virtual memory on your computer - the size of the swap file. Microsoft generally recommends that you allow Windows to control the size of your swap files. Do not change anything in these screens. Click the Cancel buttons until you have closed down the Control Panel.
File management
One of the most used pieces of an operating system, file management refers to the way that the operating system manipulates, stores, retrieves and saves data on mass storage devices. Each time you install a program onto your computer, open and play a game, create and save a new document, delete an old document or simply copy files from your hard drive to a USB device, CD or DVD, etc, you are using the operating system file management programs. The operating system may also implement security on files and programs such as when a network operating system is used.
When files are stored on a mass storage device, these different devices can vary in their structure, e.g. a CD-ROM, a hard Disk, a tape, a USB flash drive. It is important therefore that the operating system knows how data can be stored on these devices as each has its own characteristics of storing data. However, the operating system will nearly always present the data on those devices to a user in a consistent view. That is, as folders and files in a directory structure.
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For a device to be able to store and retrieve data it needs to be ‘set up’ by the operating system to allow this. The techniques for setting up these devices vary slightly depending on the device. For this discussion, we will concentrate on a hard disk drive and the Microsoft disk operating system (MS-DOS), but note that the concepts for most mass storage devices with other operating systems are similar to what is discussed here.
Partitioning
When a Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is first installed into a computer, and before it can be used, the operating system needs to create a partition/partitions on the drive. A HDD can have either only one partition or many partitions. A partition is simply the physical hard disk having an area or multiple separate areas to hold data. An analogy would be a large roomy office. The room could simply be used as one large office where everybody works together or we could use room partitions and divide the room into separate working areas. The end result is that we still have one physical room, but it is divided into smaller separate areas where each staff person would have their own private space.
Partitioning a hard drive is similar to this. In the DOS and Windows operating systems these separate areas of the HDD are identified by letters of the alphabet. If we have one physical HDD and only have one partition, then the drive is identified as the C: drive. If we partitioned the HDD into four separate areas, then each is identified by a letter of the alphabet, i.e. C, D, E, F, etc. called logical drives. On a Linux and Unix system, and generally on Windows Server systems, the separate areas are known as volumes and are identified by names rather than letters.
When the operating system creates these partitions, it creates a ‘partition table’ on the very first track of the hard drive. During the POST, the operating system checks the partition table and verifies that they exist on the disk. If the operating system finds that the partition information is invalid, then the system normally stops and it will be unusable. If it finds the partition table to be valid, it checks to see which partition has been identified as the ‘active partition’. The active partition is identified and created during the partitioning process.
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When an operating system is installed on the HDD, the active partition tells the operating system that this partition is the one to boot the computer from, e.g. if Windows was installed on the active partition then Windows would be the default operating system to load and run. If Linux was installed on the active partition, then Linux would be the operating system loaded. (Note that it is possible to have more than one operating system installed on a HDD in the different partitions. Some operating systems will recognise this and present the user with a menu from which they can select the operating system they want to load.)
Example
The screen below shows the results of running the MS-DOS FDISK program, and that the computer simply has one partition, identified as C: drive and it is marked ‘active’. It also displays the size of the partition in megabytes and also the type of file system installed (FAT32).
Figure 5 a screen from the Microsoft FDISK program used for partitioning a HDD
Figure 6 an un-partitioned C: drive running Windows 7
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Figure 7 Options to view information on Windows 7
Formatting
Once you have partitioned the HDD, the formatting process is now performed. Note that there are two types of formatting: low level and high level. Low level formatting is generally done before the HDD leaves the factory. Low level formatting divides the HDD into sectors (much like the pieces in a pie) and tracks (separate concentric circles on the disk surface). For our purpose, we will concentrate on what the average user can do - high-level formatting.
High-level formatting
High-level formatting of a HDD basically does four tasks:
1 Creates the sectors and tracks that are identified by the low level format. Each sector can hold about 512 bytes (characters) of data per track. Some operating systems allow this value to be increased. The first PC hard disks typically held 17 sectors per track. Today's hard disks can have thousands of sectors in a single track, and make use of zoned recording to allow more sectors on the larger outer tracks of the disk.
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Figure 8 disk platter divided into tracks and sectors
2 Creates a Master Boot Record (MBR). The MBR holds data that tells the operating system about the structure of the disk. How many tracks, how many sectors, etc.
3 Creates an area on the first track, (the outside track) called the File Allocation Table (FAT). The FAT is like the index of a book. It holds information that tells the operating system where the data (your programs and documents) is physically stored on the disk. The format process actually creates two copies of the FAT, in case one of the copies is corrupted. (Each time you save or delete data from your disk, the operating system updates this table.)
4 Creates the first directory (folder) on the disk called the root directory. The root directory is simply the first directory on the disk. It is called the root directory because directory structures are like trees — every other directory that is created on your disk ‘grows’ from the root.
So how does the process work? Assume you are using your word processor and you open an existing document on your hard disk. When this happens, the application program tells the operating system that it wants to retrieve this document from the hard drive. The operating system then consults the FAT on the disk to determine the address of the file you want. (The address is basically the track and the sector where it is stored). Once the operating system knows where the file (or first part of the file) is located on the disk, it then directs the ‘actuator arm’, (the piece of the hard drive that has the read/write heads) to move to that address on the disk and start retrieving the data. As the data is retrieved it is assembled into the correct order and sent to the CPU, which then displays it on the screen.
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Note that the file may be stored in many different sectors and tracks all over the disk, depending on its size. This is known as fragmentation. When a file is saved on a disk, the operating system looks for addresses which are not in use. Because you may have saved/deleted many files of different sizes over time, the disk will have empty addresses in different places all over the disk and the operating system simply uses these empty addresses to store the data. Non-contiguous sectors are the reason for defragmenting a disk, they slow the retrieval process down.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES ACTIVITY 2
Check your understanding
1 Choose the correct response to the statement:
An operating system manages?
A. Computer memory requirements
B. Communication between the various computer devices
C. Storing and retrieving files for your computer
D. All of the above
2 Name at least three well-known operating systems.
3 What is a computer ‘BIOS’?
4 What is the ‘File Allocation Table’ (FAT)?
5 What is a ‘swap file’?
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Summary
Having completed Topic 1, you should now be able to describe the functions of an operating system:
> provides an interface for the end user to use their computer
> manages the various system resources and devices without the end-user needing to manage them
> brings the computer into an operating state so that it can be used by the end user
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Topic 2 – Obtain an operating system
Introduction
After completing this topic you should be able to:
> Contact operating system vendors to obtain technical specifications and system requirements.
> Identify process and steps required to install and configure the operating system using installation components.
> Document adjustment recommendations and provide to appropriate person
> Determine and apply knowledge of licensing, hardware and security requirements.
How do you start evaluating the large range of computer products?
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To select a product from suppliers, manufacturers publish technical specifications for their products. These specifications will vary depending on the particular component. For example, when looking at hard drives you will compare specifications such as data storage capacity and how fast the hard drive can access data. If you are looking at a graphics card, you will look at specifications such as the amount of memory and what interface is used.
READINGS SUGGESTED 1
There are many sources of information where you can find out about technical specifications and other features, as well as reviews on products. The Internet and computer magazines are good sources of up-to-date information. Here are some links to magazines:
> APC available at: http://www.apcmag.com/
> PC World available at: http://www.pcworld.idg.com.au/
> ZDnet available at: http://www.zdnet.com/
> Byte available at: http://www.drdobbs.com/index.jhtml
> TechLife Magazine available at: http://www.techradar.com/au
Newspapers
Most newspapers have an IT section once a week. For example The Australian newspaper has an IT section every Wednesday. Online news sites have technology sections as well. For example: http://www.smh.com.au/technology
Manufacturers and vendors
Manufacturers will usually have product information and specification sheets or product data sheets. Some manufacturers have product selection guides to assist in the selection of the most suitable product for a particular task. These can usually be accessed from the manufacturer’s website.
The Internet
The Internet has many sources of information including manufacturer websites, online computer magazines, product review sites and user forums.
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Software evaluation versions
For software purchases many software suppliers provide evaluation versions available for download from their website. This allows staff to conduct their own independent evaluation of the product. The evaluation versions may have fewer features than the full commercial version, or they may operate for a limited period of time, such as 30 days.
Other sources
Trade associations and professional associations can be a valuable reference source for identifying software offered for a specific line of business.
You can also use:
> Telephone directories
> ICT exhibitions
Technical specifications
When comparing products, particularly hardware components, you will need to read the technical specification details. If you are unsure of the meaning of any specification used, PC Webopedia is one place to start to find a definition of a term.
A benchmark is an objective test or measurement that can be used to compare two or more competing products. Benchmarks are a popular way to compare hardware products, but they are also useful for software packages or computer systems. Benchmarks are an objective evaluation criteria, it means that they are measurable and not influenced by personal opinion.
System requirements
For both hardware and software components you will need to ensure that any minimum system requirements are met. You will find this information at manufacturer’s websites.
For software you will need to ensure that your system meets minimum requirements for:
> the type and speed of the processor
> memory
> available disk space
> operating system
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For hardware components you will need to ensure compatibility with the existing system:
> processor - ensure motherboard support for new CPU is available
> memory - ensure type and size is compatible with the motherboard
> hard drives and optical drives - ensure that there is an available drive bay, power cable and interface connection
> expansion cards - ensure that there is a suitable expansion slot for installation of the expansion card
Licensing requirements
When evaluating software, the cost of the product will be determined by how many licences are required. A license is a legal agreement to use software and the exact terms of the agreement vary.
An important part of managing software licences is to purchase the right types and mix of licences. Software licenses are offered as follows:
> a site licence for a number of computers at a particular office
> a licence assigned to a specific computer
> a licence assigned to one specific user
If you are evaluating software, the cost of the software is directly related to the number of licences that need to be purchased. It is therefore important that part of your evaluation process is to accurately determine how many licences are required. Typically, the cost per user decreases as you have more users. For example, a popular anti-virus software application has the following pricing:
Table 1
No of users Total Price per user 1-user $74 $74
3-user $112 $37.33
5-user $169 $33.80
Another point to consider is that some software applications will have different pricing structures for either an upgrade or a new install. To purchase software at the upgrade price, you must have a licence for an earlier version of the software.
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Organisational requirements
Companies may establish computer product standards to limit the number of hardware and software choices. By establishing standards, companies can achieve the following:
> have compatible products
> limit parts inventories
> limit support costs
In terms of hardware, companies can establish standards for new hardware purchases with respect to minimum configurations and preferred suppliers. Similarly, companies establish standards for software configurations. This lessens both support costs and licensing costs.
When evaluating hardware or software components, these organisational guidelines must be adhered to.
Similarly companies may also have preferred suppliers, that is, vendors that must be used when any components are purchased.
Evaluation criteria
When evaluating the hardware or software component, you will firstly need to decide on the evaluation criteria. The criteria used would be based on several factors including:
> The specific type of hardware or software product being evaluated. Evaluation articles in magazines are an excellent source of ideas for criteria to use when evaluating specific products
> The needs of end users - does the product have all features required by the end users?
> Support issues such as what warranty comes with the product
> Cost - last but not least
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The following table gives examples of criteria that could be used for evaluation of a product:
Table 2
Category Criteria Processing speed of a CPU
Storage capacity of hard drive
Hardware or software Software capabilities
Compatibility with existing systems
Upgradeability
Ease of use
Ease of learning End user needs Does the product meet all mandatory features?
Does the product have any desirable features?
What technical support is available for the product?
What assistance is given during installation?
Support issues Is any training in the use of the product provided?
What documentation is supplied with the product?
Is the product compatible with existing platforms?
Total cost of ownership (TCO)
The total cost of ownership is a type of calculation that assesses both the direct and indirect costs related to the Cost purchase of computer software or hardware. For example, when considering the purchase of a printer, the ongoing costs of consumable items such as printer cartridges would be need to be considered
Documenting your recommendations
You have researched the requirements for your new hardware or software and now you need to document your findings.
Typically, your report will be presented as a matrix that presents the component manufacturer horizontally and evaluation criteria vertically. For examples of evaluations, visit the website of any computer magazine and search for reviews.
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One useful website for reviews is ZDnet at: http://www.zdnet.com/
The following is a template that you could use to present your recommendations. To use the template you would need to add details of the products that have been evaluated, the manufacturer or supplier details and list vertically all evaluation.
Table 3 Example of a selection template
Component required
Brief description Product 1 Product 2 Product 3
Model Number
Price
Supplier
Contact details
Internet details
Technical specifications (or software feature)
Spec 1
Spec 2
Spec 3
Spec 4
Spec 5
Bundled software
Training
Technical support
Warranty
Recommendation
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LEARNING ACTIVITIES ACTIVITY 3
Check your understanding.
1 Choose the correct response to the statement: Sources of information about products can be found?
A. In the technology sections of newspaper
B. At technology trade fairs
C. In computer magazines
D. All of the above
2 What is a benchmark?
3 Name 3 reasons organisations establish standards for their information systems?
4 Name 3 evaluation criteria to take into account when deciding on technology?
Summary
New releases of computer products, including hardware components, software applications and operating systems are constantly changing. In this reading you have looked at sources of information to use when you start researching the available hardware or software.
Manufacturers publish technical specifications for their products. For hardware components this will include performance considerations such as data transfer rate. For software, it will also include a list of features included in the application.
When making your recommendation, you will need to consider the system requirements, licensing requirements and organisational requirements.
The next step is to determine your evaluation criteria and present your recommendations to the appropriate person.
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LEARNING ACTIVITIES ACTIVITY 4
Practice
Use the web to compare and contrast Ubuntu and Windows operating systems. Consider why you might choose one operating system over the other and in what circumstances.
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Topic 3 – Install, configure and optimise an operating system
When you have sourced the required system software; recommended it to the appropriate person; had your recommendation approved; purchased it and; entered it into an inventory database, you are ready to install the operating system.
However, more planning is still required before performing the actual installation. The additional planning steps include:
1 scheduling the installation of the hardware components in conjunction with your client’s needs
2 testing the system for problems and optimal performance
3 documentation of final outcomes
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As part of this entire process, you should also plan to complete these tasks with minimal disruption to your client.
After completing this topic you should be able to:
> install, configure and test operating system using installation components and boot utility options
> use the relevant operating system user interface to correctly configure the installation
> optimise the system to meet organisational requirements
> document the system according to organisational requirements
> install the operating system with minimal disruption to client or users
The installation plan
When installing a new operating system many users are concerned about:
> losing their data
> losing the configuration of systems settings and applications
> time taken to complete the job
> unexpected expenses that may arise
Having an installation plan will aid in providing a smooth transition between operating systems and must include steps for:
1 Installing with minimum disruption to your client
2 Configuring the system to meet your client’s requirements
3 Testing for security and performance issues
4 Backup procedures and disaster recovery plan
5 You will also need to consider:
> Does the client hardware meet the operating system specifications (is the equipment new or is an upgrade needed?)
> How will existing data be migrated to the new operating system?
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Back up data and system settings
When you have completed your installation schedule, you then need to negotiate with your client the start time and location for the installation.
When performing an operating system installation on new computer hardware you may find it preferable to do the installation off-site (away from the client). You will then only need to arrange for delivery and final setup. If you do complete the installation on-site, then disruption to the client would, at this stage, still be minimal. You only need to arrange for the final setup and integration into an existing system. So, for an on-site installation or an upgrade of the operating system and possibly hardware, you need to organise times when you can be on-site to reduce disruption to the client.
You will also need to be familiar with available backup equipment and programmes for upgrading the operating system to ensure client data and system settings can be recovered or duplicated. The whole system may even be backed up using a file system cloning or ghosting programme such as Symantec Ghost.
You also need to be familiar with the suggested installation recommendations and procedures from the operating system and/or software vendors. This information may be found:
> printed on a CD/DVD
> in a separate vendor’s installation manual if included
> in a file often called the ‘readme.txt’, ‘install.pdf’ or ‘installation.doc’ or something similar
These instructions should provide details on both minimum hardware and disk space requirements, as well as the installation instructions so you can check that your previous research matches these specifications.
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Disk Cloning
As a method of backing up an existing operating system, applications and data, a technique called disk cloning can be used. Disk cloning involves taking an exact image (duplicate) of everything on a disk (or partition), compressing it and saving the image on a CD, DVD or network file server. By using software tools that come with the cloning programme, the image can then be copied to other workstations, uncompressed and then used (installed). Once this is done the workstation is generally available for use straight away. This technique has benefits in that only one installation may need to be done that can be used for many workstations, thereby saving considerable time and resources. (Note: you should be aware of any copyright issues when using this technique.) Examples are Symantec Ghost or Norton Ghost.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES ACTIVITY 5
Disk-cloning
Go to Symantec’s website and get details of the operating systems that are suitable for use with Ghost.
> What are Ghost’s pricing and licence requirements?
> Read more in depth about what Ghost does
Microsoft has similar large rollout capacity procedures built into the Windows operating systems installation procedures (SysPrep). Other products that can be used may be found at the following websites:
> Migration Toolkit from http://www.symantec.com/endpoint-management/
> Drive2Drive from www.highergroundsoftware.com
> SYSPREP — You can find an article from Microsoft on the usage of the SYSPREP tool for Windows at: http://support.microsoft.com/
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Installing operating systems
Example 1: Installing windows
When installing Windows, you have three options to choose from.
A clean install
This will install Windows and basically deletes any existing data/information on the hard drive. You would do this when installing the operating system to a new computer, replacing a failed hard disk drive or simply want to reinstall the operating system. Note: remember that this deletes any information currently on the disk.
An upgrade install
This will install Windows over the existing operating system. Windows duplicates existing application and system settings to a large extent. You would do this if you had a large existing base of computer systems where the existing computer hardware is suitable for the new operating system. This doesn’t format the hard drive which means that your data should be relatively safe, but remember to back up important data first.
Repair a previous installation
If you have an existing install of Windows and are having troubles with the operating system, it is possible to simply reinstall the operating system. This will keep the existing data and replace any relevant system files.
It is also possible to install multiple operating systems on your hard drive and allow Windows to install a ‘Boot Manager’. You can then select the Operating System you want to work with, during the boot process. At the Microsoft website at http://www.microsoft.com/ you can find a document that contains a checklist of items you should have before installing Windows.
Starting the installation
There are three ways that you can start a Windows installation.
1 Microsoft Windows start-up disk
2 Windows boot disks
3 Windows CD-ROM
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For this reading we will use the method of booting from the Windows CD-ROM. You can find out about the other methods at the Microsoft website.
Another commonly used option is to make use of an image file (ISO), this is a good option for installation on a virtual server.
Installing Microsoft Windows
The following procedure is for a new installation of Windows to a hard drive that does not yet have an installed operating system. If you are upgrading or the hard drive already has an installed operating system, then there will be minor variations to these procedures. These variations, where relevant, will be mentioned.
First, configure the PC to boot from a CD-ROM
Before inserting the Windows CD-ROM, you have to ensure that your computer is configured to boot from the CD drive. Most personal computers have this ability. If the computer does not have the ability to boot from your CD-ROM drive, you will need to create a boot disk with appropriate CD drivers installed.
You may need to refer to your computer’s hardware manual to determine the way that your computer needs to be configured to allow booting from a CD/DVD. However, generally there is a key that needs to be pressed during boot up that will allow you to enter the ‘BIOS Setup’. Sometimes this key is
Once you have configured your computer to boot from a CD, insert the Windows CD into your CD drive. Reboot your computer.
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LEARNING ACTIVITIES ACTIVITY 6
1 Watch the computer screen. The setup process enters the DOS installation mode.
2 Setup will start to copy device drivers and files to the computer’s memory. (It cannot copy to the hard drive at this point if it is a new installation, because the drive has not yet been partitioned and formatted to receive data.)
3 At this point you will be asked if you want to install Windows, repair a previous installation or quit the setup process. For our walkthrough we will select the first option by pressing
4 You will then be presented with the End User License Agreement (EULA). By pressing the
5 Once you have accepted the End User License Agreement, the setup process will allow you to partition your hard disk and use that partition for the Windows operating system. If no partitions have yet been set up you need to press the
6 You can specify the size of your partition. If you want to use the entire disk for Windows, simply accept the default value and press the
7 You will be returned to the screen shown in Step 5, however instead of showing ‘Un- partitioned space’ the screen should show that the partition has been assigned a drive letter of ‘C:’ and it is now partitioned. Simply press
8 You now have the option of formatting the partition into 1 of 2 types of file systems. A file system is simply the way that your computer stores the files on the hard disk. Each type of file system has different characteristics. Windows gives you an option of FAT or NTFS. NTFS gives greater security options and allows larger files to be stored. For greater security, the best option is to choose NTFS.
9 Once you pick the type of file system, the setup process will format the drive (partition).
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10 When the formatting process is finished, Setup will start copying operating system files to the newly partitioned drive. Depending on the speed of your computer this can take a while.
11 Once the copying of files is completed, Windows Setup sets some configuration files for the initial boot up. The screen will display a notice that the computer is about to reboot. After reboot the setup process enters the Graphical Setup phase.
12 Once your computer has rebooted, you will see the first Windows graphical screen. During this phase some more files are loaded into memory and the hard drive and some devices are initialised.
13 The setup process will then continue to copy more Windows files to your hard drive. Various screens will also remind you of the benefits of using Windows and also indicate how long the process will take. This timing is fairly subjective.
14 Device drivers will also be copied to the hard drive. In most cases, there are standard sets of drivers that are a part of Windows. You may find that after the installation process, you need to update or install different drivers to get them to work properly with Windows.
15 You will then be asked to supply your regional and language settings. Click the
16 You will then be asked for a name and organisation for your software. This information will appear in the settings tab of Control Panel once the installation has finished.
17 You will then have to enter your licence key. This is generally printed on the CD/DVD cover or on your Windows manual or box. The setup process will not continue until this number is entered correctly.
18 You will then be asked for a computer name and a password for the administrator of this computer. The computer name should be something that uniquely identifies this computer on the network. The administrator password should conform to accepted standards such as using a mixture of numbers and letters, using non-standard characters and a mixture of upper and lower case characters.
19 You will then need to set your date and time and also your time zone. The date and time will generally display and be retrieved from your computer BIOS settings. You will need to select the correct time zone from the drop down box. You can also get the system to automatically change itself when daylight saving starts and stops.
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20 The next screen allows you to accept the default network settings or to change them if needed. You may find that the default IP address may need to be changed, or you may need to add an extra network protocol. If you select the
21 The process will continue by copying some files and saving the settings for answers that you have supplied in the previous screens.
22 Once this process is finished, the computer will reboot and you will be asked to add at least one other user to the computer. Remember that the administrator is added as default and you have already supplied a password for this user. You may also find that you are asked for other information such as registration, or if you want to connect to the Internet. Once you have supplied this information, you will be presented with the ‘standard’ Windows screen. From here, you can now continue to configure the computer and install programmes.
Example 2: Installing a Linux operating system
Listed below are seven steps to download and install Red Hat Enterprise Linux (or Fedora).
1 Understand what you are doing.
2 Make room on your system.
3 Download the files you need.
4 Write files to media, if necessary.
5 Boot from the CD-ROM or boot diskette you created and run the installation program.
6 Use Red Hat Network to update your system or check for Errata on the Red Hat website.
7 Get help, if you need it.
Here is a link to downloading and installing Redhat Enterprise Linux. http://www.redhat.com/download/howto_download.html
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Configuring the operating system
Once you have installed the operating system, it can then be configured to suit the organisational and/or individual needs of the user/s. Some of the items are configured during the setup process; others are configured after the first reboot or indeed, as needed over time.
Main items to be configured
Some of the main items that should be configured include:
> ‘User’ and ‘group’ accounts - establish any new or existing user or group accounts, including passwords, level of access, login times, and security issues.
> Network items - do other protocols need to be added? Does the computer need to logon to a network server?
> What services should be run at start up? If the computer is to be a web server, then the HTTP Web services should be started when the computer boots.
> Backup procedures and schedules. It may be necessary to implement scripts or schedules to do or to automate backups.
> Does virtual memory need to be adjusted?
> Do any ‘network shares’ need to be configured on the computer to allow other users access to the computer?
> Do any ‘policies’ need to be established? In some organisations, the ability to perform certain functions is disabled, e.g. stopping a user from installing software without logging on as an administrator. These are called ‘policies’. You may find that some policies need to be established.
> Do any applications need to run at start up? Some application programmes such as a word processor or email client may need to be automatically run when the computer boots, so these may need to be configured to do this.
The main point is that each operating system can be configured to meet a user’s or an organisation’s requirements. You may also find that there are 3rd party utilities to also help fine tune the operating system.
Configuring Microsoft Windows operating systems
In Windows, the items that can be configured are contained in the Control Panel. You can configure the Date and Time, Display, Internet Options, Regional Options and the Users and Passwords from the Control Panel. You may also have to configure the Network places and make links to any printers, multi-function units, scanners and/or network storage locations.
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Configuring Linux operating systems
In Linux, the items are configured by various command line programmes or utilities within the X Windows System. Some of the items that can be configured under Linux are:
1 The Linux desktop configuration selection
Figure 9
2 Which services to start on boot up
Figure 10
Testing an operating system
Once the operating system has been installed, it is extremely important that the hardware and software be tested. Three types of tests are performed during this activity:
1 System Test, which checks all application programmes available on the system. It also includes the manual procedures, backup and recovery procedures.
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2 Integration Test, which checks that all applications work with one another and interact with the network resources such as printers.
3 Acceptance Test, which is performed by the users to ensure that the new system works with actual data and that it satisfies their information needs.
How do you know that the installation was completely successful? By testing the application(s) and checking the following:
> Does it run slowly?
> If the answer is yes, then you have a problem!
> Does the machine come to a grinding halt?
> If the answer is yes, then you have a problem!
> Can the application access the network printer?
> If the answer is no, then guess what? You have a problem!
These are the type of tasks that need to be tested and resolved before you can finally say you’ve installed and configured the application(s) successfully.
Develop a test plan
As part of project management you need to develop a test plan. This involves:
1 Creating a list of functions to test.
2 Within each function, create a list of items to be tested.
3 Developing test cases for each function.
4 Developing a timetable of when the functions will be tested. Allow time for resolving issues.
5 Assigning resources to undertake system testing according to the timetable.
6 Organising client resources to undertake User Acceptance Testing according to the timetable.
7 Assigning resources to resolve issues arising from testing.
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Table 4 Example of a test plan
Function Procedure Expected results Actual results Comments Print Access an application Selected document and print a printed document
Scan Scan and save a Selected document document displays on screen
User acceptance testing
Input by the users does not stop at the initial investigative phases. Users need to be involved in all stages of software installation and they can serve as a reliable source of information.
After the vendors have delivered the software and hardware, the users are involved in overall system testing, adaptation and hands-on training on how to use both the hardware and software.
User acceptance testing involves the clients using the operating system and performing their normal work activities for a period of time, to see if any problems occur with it. They also determine whether the performance requirements defined in the initial investigative phases have been met. These performance requirements must be defined as a specific set of tests that will decide whether the software is acceptable. If the software passes all of these tests, it is considered to be acceptable by the users.
System testing
The entire system needs to be tested. Test strategies are used to try and ‘crash the system’. These strategies have to ensure that any and all problems that the software may have are found before the users convert to it. Often this is done on a pilot (secondary) system. On the completion of this activity, a report is produced which will contain the results of the user acceptance testing process.
Review, use, and evaluation of the software documentation is a part of user acceptance testing. Users are involved with reviewing user documentation such as user guides and training manuals.
At the end of this activity, the users should be adequately trained with the new software. This means that they must be familiar with the software to a level, which allows them to independently use it in their everyday work in order to fulfil their information needs.
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System integration
The stage following testing is system integration. This is where you integrate the new system software and upgraded applications into the organisation. At the beginning of any conversion, existing data must be made ready for the new software. This involves the conversion or creation of the files, forms and databases for the new software versions.
Conversion can take place using one or more of the following methods:
> Parallel - when the old operating system software runs alongside the new software.
> Abrupt - when the old system is completely disbanded
> Phased - used with larger applications that can be broken down and installed separately at different times
> Pilot - new software is installed and used by one department in the organisation so it can be tested
Post-installation review and support
The final stage of installing new technology or, in our case, an operating system, is reviewing the installation process that has occurred and ensuring ongoing support is provided to users. This means:
> Set up user support or help desk
> Train the users in all aspects of the system, including backup and recovery
> Conduct post-installation review, identify errors, add enhancements and, monitor software
> Document that the installation has been completed, and that the software has been registered
What aspects of the new operating system might you document and train users in a small group setting? What aspects would you leave for ‘as needed’ training on a one-to-one basis?
Any changes which necessitate an immediate change in policy or work practice need to be documented, and distributed to users as notes or in training. For example, these would include things like having to log on where previously they may not have, new backup procedures and how My Network Places works differently from Network Neighbourhood.
One-to-one training may be left for the user to request how a particular function works and may include things like making a file available to others on the network which may not be everyday requirements.
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LEARNING ACTIVITIES ACTIVITY 7
Check your understanding
1 What is a EULA?
2 What is an ISO image?
3 What is disk cloning?
Summary
In this topic you have worked at the various stages of installing an operating system. Whether or not you are carrying out a new system install or an upgrade, the tasks include:
1 planning and scheduling
2 installing new hardware
3 installation of the operating system
4 testing
5 carrying out system integration
LEARNING ACTIVITIES ACTIVITY 8
Practice
Use some of the utilities in your operating system to improve or monitor a computer’s performance. For example:
> Perform a disk clean-up. (Available in Windows however many technicians use CCleaner a freeware system optimisation, privacy and cleaning tool: http://filehippo.com/download_ccleaner
> Investigate the advanced system tools, such as Event Viewer, Disk Defragmenter, and System Information, that system administrators and IT professionals often use to solve problems.
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Topic 4 – Provide instruction to meet new software requirements and gain feedback
Finally you will learn how to provide instruction to clients in a group or one-to-one training session. There are similarities between group and one-to-one training, such as determining client needs, formulating training plans and obtaining feedback. However, each has advantages over the other depending on the training required, and it is important to be able to select the appropriate training option accordingly.
At the end of this topic you will know how to:
> Provide one-to-one instruction about changes to the client or users as required
> Obtain client evaluation about new system to ensure requirements are met, using appropriate feedback mechanism
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A common scenario
Jay, a clerical officer, has this to say about the help desk at his organisation:
“Some people at our ‘help’ desk are not at all helpful. They assume they know what my needs are. They use ICT jargon. Or they might just quickly go into a monologue. I feel like saying, ‘Can you just come and show me on my computer?’ Worse, there are some of them who are quite impatient and I feel as if I’m wasting their time. At the end of a negative experience like that, I just feel like giving up.
I have to say, however, that there are some at the help desk who do help. They take time to listen carefully as you state your problem. They also take you through the process step-by- step and they make sure they’ve fully resolved your problem before they leave you to it"
Think of some of your experiences that have involved instruction. You may have received instructions from a teacher, an instructor, a co-worker or a supervisor. You may have had to provide instruction to classmates, friends, co-workers and clients. If you are working, think of some instruction or training situations in your own workplace or any other place where knowledge transfer has occurred. It could have been a construction site, a driving lesson, a childcare centre or a ferry.
What do you think makes a good instructor?
Feedback
Generally a good instructor is someone who:
> adopts an enthusiastic attitude about the subject matter
> has a good grounding in the subject matter
> is able to simplify difficult tasks and concepts for the learners
> is confident in presenting the information
> has a friendly manner that puts the learners at ease
One-to-one instruction
One-to-one instruction is personalised training. You may, as trainer, for example, sit next to the learner (client) at their workstation and go through the features of an updated version of a software package; or you may give step-by-step instructions to someone over the phone.
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Think of the time when you first learned to drive. You had an instructor sitting right there beside you. You would certainly have had quite a different experience if you had learned to drive in a group. With theoretical subjects, you may probably gain from the questions and comments from others in the group, but not with practical skills like driving! It is also quite common to find yourself sitting through group instruction in areas in which you are already competent or which may not be relevant to your own needs.
Determining client’s training needs
It is necessary to work out the specific training needs of individuals, in order for them to achieve the training goal. This is also known as conducting a training needs analysis.
Then you can compare what they already know with what they will be expected to know by the end of the training. The ‘gaps’ indicate the skills and knowledge your training should focus on. These will become the learning objectives.
To determine a client’s training needs, you will need to consider:
> the overall goal of the training
> the specific tasks the client needs to perform
> the skills needed in order to perform those tasks
> the different levels of training required for different learners — novice, advanced, power- user or technical training
Strategies to find out about client needs
Determining the client’s training needs is similar to determining any sort of client need. You must be careful not to make assumptions. Focus on what the learner needs to know in order for them to perform the task, and also find out what they already know. The training should be valuable and appropriate to this particular learner or group.
The following are some strategies to find out about client’s training needs. You may develop more strategies as you go along.
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Ask
Employees need to acquire new skills and competencies to function effectively when there are changes in their workplace, be it the introduction of new technology or new work procedures. A good understanding of the stakeholders and their current competency levels will give you an idea of their training needs.
Conduct a diagnostic activity
A good solution is to prepare in advance a diagnostic activity. This might be a specific set of questions for the client, or it might be a sort of test to see whether the client can perform a series of tasks.
Practice good communication skills
Good communication skills, such as questioning and active listening techniques, will help you get useful information about client’s training needs.
Observe the client as they attempt to complete the task
This will help you see where the client’s gaps in knowledge and skills are and find out what they don’t know.
Do some research
You may be able to find out what the client’s recurring problems are. For example, you might be able to look through the help desk request log. Frequently requested help with a particular problem may alert you to a particular training need. This strategy is particularly useful in gauging any problems arising from the introduction of new technologies.
Find out about barriers to the learner (client)
Find out whether the learner (client) has any special needs, negative attitudes or phobias about any of the tasks they need to learn to perform. Before you offer training, you may need to help the client think positively about the training. For example, your client may have a disability or cultural barriers with regard to using certain types of technology.
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Meeting client’s training needs
Now you’re able to start planning the detail of your training session/s, in order to meet your client needs. You’ll need to:
> Set the training (learning) objectives, identifying the skills and knowledge the client will gain.
> Develop an overall presentation approach.
> Develop a training plan for a training session.
> Plan the demonstration and information you’ll give for each skill.
Setting learning objectives
This involves identifying the skills and knowledge the client will gain. Once you’ve got a list of the tasks that the learner needs to be competent in, break each one down into a list of skills involved in each task. At this stage you can also think about how you will know that your client has acquired the new skills. This might involve them producing something for you, or you may be able to observe their performance to gauge their progress.
You may wish to draw up a checklist encompassing all the skills for that task. This checklist can be customised each time you need to instruct a new client.
On the checklist, allow a space next to each skill for you to tick if your client does not need instruction in that skill, or if/when they have developed the skill.
For example, for the some tasks centred around “using operating system functions” you might draw up a skills checklist like the one below:
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Table 5
Skills Complete a Demonstrate a positive attitude towards the value and purpose of housekeeping by identifying some reasons why it may be useful.
b Demonstrate basic computer skills by being able to perform simple computer tasks such as starting a computer, starting application programmes and work in a windows-based environment
c Identify rules about acceptable practices when logging on
d Access files and documents using Windows Explorer.
e Use search to find folders and files
f Use the Recycle Bin to restore or delete files
g Run backup and restore
h Perform a disk clean-up
i Perform disk defragmentation, clean-up, etc.
Feedback
Collecting feedback is the first step in the evaluation process that assesses the success or failure of the implementation of new technology, so that corrective measures can be taken if necessary. This is an important step - not only to ensure that the new system is relevant and effective but also to apply the findings for the benefit of future projects.
The need for evaluation
Evaluation needs to be conducted after the migration into the new technology to assess the project’s success or failure. In this process, you must use the project success indicators to compare against the actual benefits and returns. During evaluation, data is collected, recorded and analysed to identify the benefits of the new technology.
Evaluation is conducted after implementation of new technology to:
> Identify any issues relating to the relevance, effectiveness and efficiency of the hardware and software systems installed.
> Identify changes that are necessary to address any pressing issues.
> Ensure that the organisational process used for migrating to new technology are acceptable to stakeholders and identify any changes that are necessary.
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> Verify whether the system the system has delivered what was expected so as to benefit future projects.
> Monitor long-term use of the system.
The process of evaluation
There are three steps in the evaluation process:
1 Collect, record and analyse feedback to track progress against the targets. Explain success and failures with respect to the performance indicators. Identify unintended positive or negative effects.
2 Decide on necessary adjustments to the system to increase its usability and performance.
3 Establish any lessons that could be learnt from this project so future information technology projects would be much more efficient.
Planning evaluation
The evaluation plan should be flexible enough to accommodate new questions and information sources. Here are some strategies in planning evaluation:
> Obtain a list of all stakeholders of the new technology.
> Identify stakeholders that must be consulted to evaluate the performance and usability of the system. Ensure that the sample chosen includes users, power users, support personnel, managers as well as customers (if applicable).
> Identify any other data sources to collect information such as documents, reports, performance logs, etc.
> Identify key performance indicators with regard to performance and usability of the software applications and hardware.
> Determine the resources that are needed to carry out the evaluation.
> Identify the methodologies that will be used to conduct the evaluation. The possible methodologies are: observations, questionnaires, walkthroughs, interviews, focus groups, etc.
> Analyse the information collected and compare it against the targets of performance and usability.
> Recommend potential enhancements to the system and identify any shortcomings of the implementation for the benefit of future projects.
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Key indicators of usability and performance
The overall objective of conducting usability and performance evaluation is to recommend changes that will contribute to increase user acceptance, increase productivity, decrease training and learning times, and increase business performance.
Key indicators of usability
Usability of the system measures hardware and software user interface with respect to attributes such as ease of learning, ease of use and satisfaction in meeting user needs. A usable system ensures that the user can access the required feature instantly through its well- planned user interface. It also ensures that all control features are consistently presented so would need minimum training to identify various processes within the system. Indicators include:
> Ease of use - users find it easy to apply to their intended tasks.
> User satisfaction with the functional capabilities.
> Sufficient and easily accessible user support. Users are satisfied with the support procedures such as help screen with context sensitive help, knowledge bases, help desk, etc.
> Satisfactory initial experience. Users have successful initial experience with the software and/or hardware.
> Integration with existing processes. The new system integrates well with existing processes.
> Overall system capability. Users are satisfied with the overall capability and usefulness of the system.
Key indicators of performance
Performance of the system measures the reliability of the hardware and software. It includes:
> the availability of the system
> the error rate
> the mean time taken to complete tasks
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The value of feedback
Feedback is extremely valuable in the evaluation of hardware and software as it provides an effective balance for your own observations and walkthroughs on the system. This is an ongoing process of keeping IT professionals informed of the performance and usability of the system and should not be treated as merely an event.
While positive feedback reinforces the implementation of the system, negative feedback provides very valuable information about how to improve the usability and the performance of the system. The performance improvements made due to the feedback will ultimately benefit the organisation.
Gathering feedback
The goal of collecting feedback from users and gathering information from other sources is to enable the technology committee to assess how well the software and hardware implementation is satisfying the key usability and performance indicators.
Sources of information
You can gather data from people, documents, performance data, observation of events or any other empirical method such as experiments and benchmarking.
Basic feedback gathering methods
The ideal form of feedback gathering is to use a combination of the following methods depending on time and organisational factors.
Observations, walkthroughs and site visits
These are conducted to get first-hand information on performance and usability features of the system. The internal or external evaluators will observe all stakeholders using the technology and observe usability and performance indicators of the system.
Walkthroughs are conducted where an evaluator walks through a certain feature to assess how the system performs that feature with respect to usability and performance indicators.
Interviews
Here are some tips for conducting interviews:
> Choose stakeholders who would have greater or unique involvement with the new system.
> Communicate the purpose of the interview to the interviewee.
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> Ask brief questions relevant to performance and usability of the system.
> Don’t interrupt.
> Be a good listener.
> Take notes. Focus groups
These are group interview situations where discussions can take place about the usability and the performance of the hardware and software. Here are some tips for conducting focus groups:
> Reward the attendees by providing refreshments as this could be a good motivator.
> Start and finish on time.
> Be prepared to hear positive and negative comments.
> Be prepared with prompting questions to start the discussions about usability and performance of the system.
> Let the participants communicate and listen carefully.
> Avoid being defensive.
> Listen to all comments.
> Engage a note-taker. Surveys and questionnaires
These are used to gather quantifiable data about the system from a large number of people. You should make allowances for the low response rate and the slow response time. Here are some tips for conducting surveys:
> State the objective of the survey as evaluating the performance and usability of the new technology.
> Keep the survey to a manageable length.
> Use both open-ended and closed questions.
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Analysing and processing feedback
All data regardless of how and from where it was collected must be summarised against the performance and usability indicators so they are more manageable. In almost all case, both quantitative and qualitative data will be collected and used.
> The performance measurements such as error rates will be quantitative and will be easy to interpret
> Performance measurements such as reliability could be a combination of qualitative and quantitative data.
> Usability indicators could be qualitative or quantitative.
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Indicators Poor Satisfactory Good Excellent Support
Help desk Support Support mechanisms exist. But Support mechanisms exist. Excellent support mechanisms. services mechanisms are fees associated with help desk Fees for help desk calls are Reasonable fees and acceptable non-existent or calls are high and response times reasonable but response response times. Relevant cheat not adequate. are slow. times are slow. Cheat sheets sheets and how-to guides are and how-to guides are accessible through the web-based
available for some features. support system.
Technical needs assessment
Needs Needs Some groups of stakeholders Needs for all stakeholders An elaborate and comprehensive assessment assessment was were surveyed to identify identified however not all needs assessment was conducted conducted for not conducted. computer hardware needs are accounted for in and it all stakeholders were well implementation requirements. the final implementation. informed about the improvements that would be introduced.
Training
Training prior to Training was not Training was provided in large More customise training for A comprehensive training plan was and during provided. groups. small groups. derived and all users were trained in implementation groups for common skills and on a one-to-one basis for user specific tasks.
Customisation
User All features are Desktop attributes such as fonts Power users can customise Power users can customise most customisation set and and colours could be customised certain features. Ordinary features where as ordinary users can customisation is to suit the user’s needs uses cannot change any change a limited number of features. not an option features
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Indicators Poor Satisfactory Good Excellent Integration
Compatibility The new New software is partially New software is backward New software is totally backward software is not compatible with old compatible with the old compatible with the old software. compatible with technologies however the software but does need some any old packages administrator has stopped intervention with data that performed making any reference to data in conversions. similar tasks. the previous system.
Performance
Value for Money The technology The new technology has not The technology has The technology is proving to be has not produced enforced any additional minimized costs producing a profit. any cost expenses (running costs) advantages that compared to the old was anticipated. technologies used previously. In fact, the new technology costs more money to the organisation.
Speed Output of new New Technology is comparable New Technology is lot more New Technology is producing more (Throughput) technology is with old other technologies. efficient than all previous than three times faster than the slower compared technologies. previous system. to the previous technologies.
Quality The quality of The quality of output is Produces good quality The quality of output is rated as very output is not comparable to older output. Less than 2% defects. high. Less than 0.5% defects. acceptable. Error technologies and is acceptable. rate is more than Less than 5% defects. 5%.
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LEARNING ACTIVITIES ACTIVITY 9
Check your understanding
1 Name 3 key usability indicators
2 Identify 3 key performance indicators.
3 Name 3 ways of gathering feedback.
Summary
We began with a discussion of the need for and process of evaluation when implementing new technology. Then we moved on to planning an evaluation, key indicators of usability and performance, and environmental considerations when purchasing new equipment. Then we explored using feedback, its value and how to gather, analyse and process it. We finished with an example of a scoring system to identify how the new system is performing with regards to usability and performance.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES ACTIVITY 10
Practice
Practice your training skills on a new user. Use the Skills Checklist to ensure that the person you train can do all that is listed there.
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Glossary
Phase/Word Description
Batch Non-continuous (non-real time) processing of data
Benchmark the act of running a computer program, a set of programs, or other operations, in order to assess the relative performance of an object, normally by running a number of standard tests and trials against it
CLI Command Line Interface
GUI Graphical User Interface
ISO image a special file that contains the entire contents of a CD or DVD disc commonly used to install an operating system
OS Operating System - The most important program that runs on a computer. Every general-purpose computer must have an operating system to run other programs.
Partition part of a hard disk that is dedicated to a particular operating system or application and accessed as a single unit
Real-time transmission or processing of data transactions as they occur, instead of waiting for a certain number of transactions to accumulate before they are processed (batch processing)
Swap file an area on your hard disk used as virtual memory
Virtual memory memory created by using the hard disk to simulate additional random-access memory
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