Generic Pest Risk Analysis Import of Transgenic

Editors V Celia Chalam Shashi Bhalla Kavita Gupta Baleshwar Singh Z Khan SC Dubey

ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources New Delhi 110 012, India Citation: V Celia Chalam, Shashi Bhalla, Kavita Gupta, Baleshwar Singh, Z Khan and SC Dubey (Eds) 2016 Generic Pest Risk Analysis: Import of Transgenic Soybean. ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, India, 146 p.

Published in 2016 ©All Rights Reserved ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources New Delhi 110 012, India

Published by:

The Director ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources New Delhi 110012, India. Email: [email protected] Website: http://www.nbpgr.ernet.in Contents

Introduction 1

Table 1. Potential Quarantine Pests of Soybean for India 3

References 126

Glossary 143

Acronyms and Abbreviations 144

Other Useful References 146

Introduction

Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] is the major oilseed crop in the world accounting for nearly 50% of total oilseeds acreage as well as production. It provides approximately 60% of vegetable protein and 30% of oil in the world. Soybean ranks second in vegetable oil economy of India after groundnut. Soybean is primarily utilized as a source of protein and oil. Soybean seed contains 20% oil and 40-42% quality protein. Soybean is grown in 92.99 m ha in the world to produce 221.5 m tonnes in 2006. USA tops the list in soybean acreage and production. The other major soybean-producing countries are Brazil, China, Argentina, Indonesia, Canada, Paraguay and Italy. India with 8.88 m ha of soybean-growing area and 10.97 m tonnes production ranks fifth in the world during 2007-08. It contributes 30-37% to India’s oilseeds production (Anonymous, 2009). Given its nutritional and health benefits, soybean has been gaining more prominence the world over more so, with the advent of transgenic crops. Transgenic soybean is being grown in 11 countries viz., USA, Brazil, Argentina, Canada, Paraguay, South Africa, Uruguay, Bolivia, Mexico, Chile and Costa Rica (James, 2011). The crop is susceptible to infection by several pests, which substantially reduce yield and quality.

The ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) is the nodal agency in India for management of plant genetic resources and quarantine processing of imported germplasm including that of transgenics for research purposes. Soybean germplasm including transgenics in the form of true seed is imported into India every year for crop improvement programmes. The seed not only serves as a source of valuable genes useful for crop improvement, but also as a reservoir of many seed-borne and seed-transmitted pests. Therefore, the exchange of germplasm for crop improvement programmes has the inherent risk of introducing new pests or their virulent races/ biotypes into the country.

Globally there are several instances of plant disease epidemics due to movement of infected seed/other planting material. There are new records that suggest that soybean pests are moving from one area/region to another. Peronospora manshurica was reported from France by Signoret et al. (1975) and from Iran by Zad (1979). Soybean rust, Phakopsora pachyrhizi was first reported from Argentina in 2003. Like-wise, there are several new regional records of soybean pests in different parts of USA, viz. Fusarium solani f.sp. glycines (sudden death syndrome) in Minnesota, Bean pod mottle virus in soybean in Alabama, Soybean dwarf virus and Cercospora sojina (frogeye leaf spot) in Wisconsin. Records from India include P. pachyrhizi in Rajasthan and Chhattisgarh.

At ICAR-NBPGR, New Delhi, adopting a workable strategy several quarantine pests viz., Peronospora manshurica, Bean mild mosaic virus, Bean pod mottle virus, Cherry leaf roll virus, Cowpea severe mosaic virus, Pea enation mosaic virus, Peanut stunt virus, Raspberry ring spot virus and Tomato ring spot virus have been intercepted in soybean germplasm imported from many countries. In addition, interceptions have also been made of viruses like Arabis mosaic virus, Grapevine fan leaf virus, Tomato black ring virus not reported from India on soybean (Khetarpal et al., 2006; Chalam and Khetarpal, 2008; Chalam et al., 2008; Chalam et al., 2014; Chalam 2016; Parakh et al., 2005, 2008). P. manshurica, a quarantine pest was intercepted in soybean including transgenic soybean from many countries (Agarwal et al., 2006a, 2006b; Agarwal and Singh, 1998; Singh et al., 2002, 2003; Khetarpal et al., 2005). It is therefore, mandatory to pay attention to the prescribed regulations to avoid the introduction of these quarantine pests into the country. The appropriate phytosanitary measures should be adopted accordingly to facilitate safe import of planting material. The Agreement on Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, under WTO, requires member countries to have uniform phytosanitary standards. The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) has developed International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) and so far 37 standards have been brought out. Of these, the guidelines for the pest risk analysis (PRA) are given in ISPM-2, ISPM-11 and ISPM-21. The preparation of PRA is divided into three stages viz., initiation, risk assessment and risk management. A PRA should be fully documented in the event of a review or dispute. In fact, the first step is very crucial to start a PRA and requires both a list of pests reported to occur and a list of those not known to occur in the country.

ICAR-NBPGR has been empowered under the Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order 2003 of the Destructive and Pests Act, 1914 to undertake quarantine of germplasm including transgenics under exchange. The Division of Plant Quarantine in the ICAR-NBPGR has brought out publications on the potential quarantine pests (PQPs) for India in cereals (Dev et al., 2005), grain legumes (Chalam et al., 2012) and edible oilseeds (Gupta et al., 2013). In this context an attempt has been made here to prepare a document on the PQPs of soybean. Various parameters taken into account for compilation are: pests, their synonym(s), disease caused or the common name, pathway of introduction, host range, geographical distribution, economic impact and phytosanitary risk involved.

The information has been collected from various sources including the Crop Protection Compendium (CAB International, 2007). PQPs were short-listed based on one or more of the facts that these pests are: (i) not reported from India, (ii) having limited distribution, (iii) present in India on other crops but not on grain legumes and (iv) having physiological races. This data has been linked with the pests listed under the Schedule VI of Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003. The Schedule VI of the Order deals with plant/ plant material permitted for import with additional declarations and special conditions. Ninety six pests (34 insects, three mites, four nematodes, 18 fungi, six bacteria, 14 viruses and 17 weed species) are listed as the PQPs for India in soybean (Table 1). Out of these, three viruses are not known to infect legumes including soybean in India and a bacteria is known to have races world-wide. Ninety two pests (34 insects, three mites, four nematodes, 18 fungi, five bacteria, 11 viruses and 17 weed species) are not reported to occur in India. Once introduced and established, these pests or their virulent races/ strains/ biotypes can cause severe damage to agriculture. Compilation of data on pests of quarantine significance, their global distribution and other aspects related to biology, survival and spread of these pests are essential components of risk analysis to meet international regulations. However, it may be noted that, this compilation is based on published literature and the non-availability of published literature should not be interpreted as absence of a pest in a country. This publication would, thus, facilitate smooth functioning of quarantine, benefit scientists while issuing import permit stating additional declarations required for import in addition to supplementing information for analyzing pest risk. Therefore, it is hoped that this publication would serve as a ready reckoner for the benefit of researchers, quarantine officials, students, seed certification agencies and others entrusted with the task of safe trade and exchange of germplasm of soybean including transgenics.

2 Table 1. Potential Quarantine Pests of Soybean for India

S. No. Scientific Name Common Pathway of Host Range Geographical Remarks Synonyms Name Introduction Distribution

Insects and Mites

1. *Acalymma vittatum Striped Seed, as Brassica oleracea, Canada, Mexico, Oviposition occurs in (Fabricius) cucumber contaminant Citrullus lanatus, USA soil near base of Cucumis melo, plant. Larvae feed on Synonyms C. sativus, the roots and stem Acalymma vittata Cucurbita spp., (York, 1992). (Fabricius), C. argyrosperma, Cistela melanocephala C. maxima, Vector of Erwinia Fabricius, C. moschata, tracheiphila causing Crioceris vittata C. pepo, Glycine bacterial wilt of Fabricius, max, Helianthus cucurbits. It also Cryptocephalus (Cistela) annuus, Ligustrum transmits Cucumber americanus Gmelin, spp., Solidago mosaic virus and C. (Crioceris) stolatus spp., Taraxacum Cowpea mosaic virus Gmelin, officinale, Urtica (CAB International, Diabrotica dioica, Zea mays 2007). melanocephala (Fabricius), D. vittatae (Fabricius), Galleruca (Diabrotica) americana (Gmelin), G. cucumeris

3 Melsheimer, G. pallipes Oliver, G. vittata (Fabricius)

Order: Coleoptera Family: Chrysomelidae

2. *Acrosternum hilare Green Seed, as Abelmoschus Canada, Pakistan, Bugs aestivate as (Say) stink bug contaminant esculentus, Acer USA adults in plant debris negundo, Althaea and soil. Synonyms sp., Asparagus Nezara hilaris (Uhler), officinalis, Affects the yield, pod N. (Acrosternum) Brassica oleracea filling, weight, sarpinus Stål, var. capitata, viability and vigour of Pentatoma hilaris Say, Catalpa sp., soybean seeds (Russin Rhaphigaster sarpinus Cephalanthus et al., 1987). Dallas occidentalis, Citrus inensis, Cornus sp., Damage to soybean Coronilla varia, also includes loss of Order: Corylus avellana, Family: value to seed, oil and Crataegus sp., meal. Datura stramonium, Desmodium sp., Fragaria ananassa, Fraxinus sp., Glycine max, Gossypium sp., Ilex aquifolium, Juglans

4 nigra, Lonicera sp., Malus domestica, Medicago sativa, Mimosa sp., Morus alba, Phaseolus spp., P. lunatus, Pisum sativum, Platycladus orientalis, Prunus armeniaca, P. avium, P. domestica, P. persica, P. serotina, Pyrus communis, Quercus sp., Rhamnus cathartica, Rhus sp., Robinia pseudoacacia, Rubus idaeus, Sambucus sp., Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. melongena, Solidago sp., Syringa vulgaris, Tilia americana var. heterophylla,

5 Trifolium sp., Ulmus rubra, Vigna unguiculata, Vitis vinifera, Wisteria sp., Zea mays

3. *Anticarsia gemmatalis Soybean Seed, as Arachis hypogaea, Argentina, Brazil, A serious pest of Hübner caterpillar contaminant Cajanus cajan, Canada, Chile, beans in many parts Canavalia Colombia, Cuba, of Central and South Synonyms gladiata, Glycine Ecuador, Honduras, America and the Azazia monstratura, max, Indigofera Mexico, Puerto Caribbean. In Hypernaria anisospila hirsute, Lablab Rico, USA southeastern USA, it Walker, purpureus, is a very serious pest H. detrahens Walker, Medicago sativa, of soybean. H. gemina (Maassen), M. lupulina, H. leucospila Walker, Mucuna pruriens, Pupae are found on Plaxia spiloleuca Walker, Macroptilium and below the soil P. subducta Walker, lathyroides, surface (Lee and Remigia subsignata Phaseolus vulgaris, Johnson, 1990). Walker, Pueraria radiata Thermesia costalis var. lobata, Estimated annual Walker, Sesbania exaltata, losses and costs of its T. gemmatalis (Hübner), Trifolium repens, control were ~ $60 T. infumata Felder & Vicia angustifolia, million in Louisiana Rogenhofer Vigna umbellata, and Georgia in 1982 T. monstratura Walker V. unguiculata (Suber et al., 1984). Its cost of control in Order: Lepidoptera Florida reaches $1.2

6 Family: Noctuidae million annually (CAB International, 2007).

4. *Cerotoma caminea Bean leaf Seed, as Avena sativa, USA Female lays 130-200 Fabricius beetle, contaminant Euonymus eggs in the upper 4 leaf beetle atropurpureus, cm soil near plant Synonym of bean Glycine max, stems. There are one Cerotoma caminea Kummerowia to three generations Fabricius striata, Medicago causing significant sativa, Melilotus yield losses (Smelser Order: Coleoptera officinalis, and Pedigo, 1992). Family: Chrysomelidae Phaseolus vulgaris, Trifolium pratense, T. repens, Triticum aestivum, Urtica dioica,Vigna unguiculata, Wisteria floribunda, Zea mays

7 5. *#Clavigralla African Seed Cajanus cajan, Algeria, Angola, In Africa, ~50% tomentosicollis Stål pod bug, Cicer arietinum, Botswana, Burkina damage of Phaseolus bean bug Glycine max, Faso, Burundi, sp. seeds (Jones, Synonyms (Africa), Gossypium Cameroon, Central 1953) and >50% of Acanthomia brevirostris spiny hirsutum, Lablab African Republic, C. cajan seeds is Stål , brown bug purpureus, Chad, Comoros, reported (Materu, A. tomentosicollis (Stål) Phaseolus vulgaris, Congo Democratic 1970). An infestation Spinacia oleracea, Republic, Ethiopia, level of 40-60% may Order: Hemiptera Tephrosia spp., Gambia, Ghana, cause reduction in Family: Coreidae Vigna unguiculata Kenya, Ivory Coast, weight of pigeon pea Madagascar, and pea seeds by 40- Malawi, 60%. The number of Mozambique, seeds were reduced Namibia, Nigeria, by 25-36%, and the Rwanda, Senegal, seed quality by 94- South Africa, Sudan, 98% (Hill and Tanzania, Uganda, Waller, 1988). Zambia, Zanzibar, Zimbabwe Major pest of grain legumes in Africa and could be of phytosanitary risk in Asia where grain legumes are also important.

8 6. *Crocidosema aporema Bud borer, Seed or pods Arachis hypogaea, Argentina, Brazil, The pupal stage (Walsingham) budworm, as Glycine max, Lotus Chile, Colombia, occurs in the soil, or bean shoot contaminant spp., Lupinus spp., Costa Rica, found webbed to Synonyms moth Medicago sativa, Guatemala, Mexico, pods. Epinotia aporema Melilotus spp., Uruguay, USA (Walsingham), Phaseolus vulgaris, In soybean, plant E. opposita Heinrich, Pisum sativum, height and insertion Eucosma opposita Vicia faba of lower pods are (Heinrich), significantly reduced E. aporema Walsingham as a result of its attack on terminal buds. Order: Lepidoptera Family: Tortricidae

7. *Diabrotica balteata Banded Seed, as Arachis hypogaea, Belize, Colombia, Eggs are deposited in Leconte cucumber contaminant Amaranthus spp., Costa Rica, El small clusters under beetle, Cucumis melo, C. Salvador, the soil surface and Synonym belted sativus, Cucurbita Guatemala, hatch in 6-10 days Diabrotica sallei Baly cucumber sp., C. pepo , Honduras, depending on soil beetle, Glycine max, Mexico, Nicaragua, temperature and Order: Coleoptera corn Ipomoea batatas, Panama, USA, larvae feed Family: Chrysomelidae rootworm Manihot esculenta, Venezuela exclusively on roots beetle Oryza sativa, and pupate in top 20 Phaseolus lunatus, cm soil. P. vulgaris, Psophocarpus Multivoltine species tetragonolobus, with several Solanum overlapping tuberosum, generations per year

9 Sorghum bicolor, (Krysan, 1986). No Triticum aestivum, diapause occurs and Verbesina adults are found encelioides, Zea throughout the year. mays Vector of Bean mild mosaic virus, Cowpea chlorotic mottle virus, Cowpea mosaic virus and Cowpea severe mosaic virus.

8. *Diabrotica speciosa Chrysanth Seed, as Amaranthus Argentina, Bolivia, Eggs are laid in the (Germar) emum contaminant hybridus subsp. Brazil, Colombia, soil, near a host plant. beetle, quitensis, Arachis Costa Rica, Number of Cucurbit hypogaea, Beta Ecuador, French overlapping Synonyms beetle, vulgaris, Brassica Guiana, Paraguay, generations depends Diabrotica amabilis San spp., Capsicum Panama, Peru, on climatic Baly, Antonio spp., Citrus spp., Uruguay, Venezuela conditions, being D. hexaspilota Baly, beetle Cucumis spp., continuous in tropical D. simoni Jacoby, Cucurbita maxima, areas while in D. simulans Baly, C. pepo, Cynara Argentina, there are D. vigens Erichson, cardunculus, about three Galeruca speciosa Glycine max, generations per year Germar Gossypium (USDA, 1957). hirsutum, Order: Coleoptera Helianthus annuus, It has been Family: Chrysomelidae Lactuca sativa, intercepted at ports of Lagenaria entry in the USA on

10 siceraria, Luffa several occasions aegyptiaca, (USDA, 1957). Nicotiana tabacum, It is an important pest Oryza sativa, throughout southern Phaseolus spp., South America P. vulgaris, Pisum (except Chile), but, sativum, Prunus being highly persica, Sechium polyphagous, edule, Solanum qualitative reports of lycopersicon its impact on different (=Lycopersicon crops vary in different esculentum), regions. S. tuberosum, Sorghum bicolor, Triticum spp., T. aestivum, Zea mays

9. *Diabrotica Southern Seed, as Arachis hypogaea, Canada, El Salvador, Eggs are laid in undecimpunctata corn contaminant Chenopodium Guatemala, Mexico, masses of 200 to 1200 Mannerheim rootworm, quinoa, Citrullus Nicaragua, USA in the soil depending spotted lanatus, Cucumis on soil moisture and Synonyms cucumber melo, C. sativus, texture, >90% within Chrysomela beetle, 12- Cucurbita pepo, 3 cm of host plant duodecimpunctata spotted Glycine max, (Elsey, 1988). Fabricus, cucumber Ipomoea batatas, Crioceris sexpunctata beetle, Phaseolus vulgaris, Vector of plant Fabricius, western Zea mays viruses viz., Bean Diabrotica spotted mild mosaic virus,

11 duodecimpunctata cucumber Cowpea mosaic virus, Fabricus, beetle Southern bean mosaic D. soror LeConte, virus and bacteria D. undecimpunctata viz., Erwinia subsp. howardi Barber tracheiphila, Pseudomonas Order: Coleoptera syringae pv. Family: Chrysomelidae lachrymans and Pantoea stewartii (Howard et al., 1994; EPPO/ CAB International, 2007).

A2 quarantine pest for EPPO and the related D. barberi is an A1 quarantine pest.

10. *Diabrotica virgifera Colorado Seed, as Cucurbita spp., Austria, Belgium, Native of USA, virgifera LeConte corn contaminant C. pepo, Glycine Bulgaria, Canada, recorded from rootworm, max, Helianthus Costa Rica, Croatia, Yugoslavia western annuus, Hordeum Czech Republic, (erstwhile) in 1992. It Synonyms Colorado vulgare, Setaria, France, Guatemala, has spread to Europe Diabrotic filicornis Horn, corn Tripsacum Hungary, Italy, and is a major threat D. virgifera LeConte, rootworm dactyloides, Mexico, to maize (Gerginov D. virgifera var. filicornis Triticum aestivum, Netherlands, and Tomov, 1995). Gillette, T. spelta, Zea mays Nicaragua, Romania, D. virgifera zea Serbia and Introduced into Serbia Montenegro, and is spreading in the

12 Order: Coleoptera Slovakia lower Danube basin. Family: Chrysomelidae Slovenia, Thus having a high Switzerland profile as a quarantine Ukraine, UK, USA pest.

Univoltine species. Eggs are generally concentrated in the top 10-20 cm soil, or deeper in dry soils.

In North America, losses to the tune of US$1 billion are incurred annually in maize (Metcalf, 1986).

Transmits Maize chlorotic mottle virus (Jensen, 1985).

11. *Dociostaurus Mediterra Seed, as Avena spp., Beta Afghanistan, Univoltine species maroccanus (Thunburg) nean contaminant vulgaris, Cannabis Albania, Algeria, and hibernates as a locust, sativa, Capsicum Armenia, Austria, diapausing egg stage Synonyms Moroccan annuum, Carduus Azerbaijan, Bosnia just under the soil Baranov locust spp., Carum carvi, and Herzegovina,

13 degenerates, Cicer arietinum, Bulgaria, Croatia, (Grigorov, 1976). Dociostaurus cruciatus Cucumis melo, Cyprus, France, (Charpentier), C. sativus, Georgia, Greece, Periodically recorded D. maroccanus, Cucurbita spp., Hungary, Iran, Iraq, in high densities, but D. vastator (Fischer- Elymus repens, Israel, Italy, outbreaks occurred at Waldheim), Fragaria ananassa, Kazakhstan, 10 year interval viz., Oedaleus infernalis Glycine max, Kyrgyzstan, 1919, 1929, and 1939. pendulus (Steinmann, Gossypium Macedonia, There were no locust 1965), hirsutum, Morocco, Romania, plagues in Bulgaria Stauronotus cruciatus Helianthus annuus, Russia, Spain, Syria, from 1944 to 1990 (Charpentier), Hordeum sp., Tajikistan, Turkey, and the Government S. maroccanus H. vulgare, Turkmenistan called for suitable soil (Thunberg), Humulus lupulus, Uzbekistan to be plugged with S. vastator (Fischer- Malus spp., very intensive plant Waldheim) Medicago spp., protection measures. Nicotiana tabacum, Order: Orthoptera Panicum Last outbreak of Family: Acrididae miliaceum, Pyrus Moroccan locust was spp., Quercus spp., in 2000 and it is a real Rosa spp., Rubus menace for farmers in idaeus, Secale that area (Andreev, cereale, Solanum 2002). lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), Spinacia oleracea, Trifolium spp., Triticum spp., Vicia sativa, Vitis vinifera, Zea mays

14 12. *Edessa meditabunda Green and Seed, as Abelmoschus Antigua, Argentina, Overwinters as adult (Fabricius) brown contaminant esculentus, Amazonas, Barbuda, under tree barks, stink bug Cajanus cajan, Barbados, Cuba, bushes or litter, with Synonyms Capsicum annuum, Colombia, Espirito one generation per Aceratodes nuditabundus Citrus spp., Datura Santo, French year. In soybean, Stål, stramonium, Guiana, Guyana, percentage infestation Cimex glaucescens Desmodium spp., Goias, Grenada, varied with the Fabricius, Glycine max, Grenadines, Haiti, variety and affects the C. meditabundus Gossypium spp., Jamaica, Montserrat, weight, oil, protein Fabricius, Helianthus annuus, Minas Gerais, content and Edessa consentanea Linum Paraguay, Suriname, germination of the Walker, usitatissimum, Sao Paulo, Trinidad, seeds (Link et al., E. rugulosa Uhler Lolium multiflorum Tobago, Uruguay 1973). ssp. gaudini, Order: Hemiptera Lupinus albus, In Brazil, it caused Family: Pentatomidae L. luteus, Manihot increase in number of esculenta, pods falling Medicago sativa, prematurely and Nicotiana tabacum, number of empty Phaseolus spp., pods/ plant, reduced Pisum sativum, seed weight and Solanum decrease in number of lycopersicon beans/ pod (Corso et (=Lycopersicon al., 1978). esculentum), S. melongena, S. tuberosum, Theobroma cacao, Vigna umbellata, Zea mays

15 13. *Elasmopalpus Lesser Seed, as Arachis hypogaea, Barbados, Bermuda, lignosellus (Zeller) corn stalk contaminant Brassica rapa, Costa Rica, Cuba, El Pupation occurs in borer, Cajanus cajan, Salvador soil. Feeding by one Synonyms sugarcane Cornus florida, larva throughout its Dasypyga carbonella jumping Cyperus larval life on a plant Hulst, borer esculentus, reduced the dry Elasmopalpus Digitaria weight of groundnut anthracellus Ragonot, sanguinalis, roots by 22%. Seed E. carbonella (Hulst), Echinochloa crus- dry weight decreased E. incautella (Zeller), galli, Glycine max, by more than one- E. major (Zeller), Linum third for each larva E. puer Dyar, usitatissimum, completing its E. tartarella (Zeller), Oryza sativa, development on the Pempelia lignosella Phaseolus vulgaris, plant (Mack et al., Zeller, Platanus 1986). Salebria lignosella Zeller occidentalis, Ragaria ananassa, Causes indirect Order: Lepidoptera Robinia damage from fungal Family: Pyralidae pseudoacacia, infections through Saccharum damaged host plant officinarum, tissue (Bowen and Sorghum bicolor, Mack, 1993). S. halepense, S. sudanense, Taxodium distichum, Triticum spp., Vigna unguiculata, Zea mays

16 14. *♠Ephestia kuehniella Flour Seed, Arachis hypogaea, It is a cosmopolitan Occurs especially in Zeller moth, containers, Avena sativa, pest, being spread all warm, temperate Mediterra packing Cannabis sativa, over the world by areas, but is also Synonym nean flour Capsicum spp., international trade common in cold, Anagasta kuehniella moth, mill Ceratonia siliqua, but yet not reported temperate areas and Zeller moth Glycine max, from India can occur in the Hordeum vulgare, tropics. Order: Lepidoptera Juglans spp., Oryza Family: Pyralidae sativa, Phoenix Larval diapause dactylifera, Pisum influenced by the sativum, Prunus strain and nutrition as amygdalus well as by Sesamum spp., temperature and Solanum photoperiod (Cole and tuberosum, Cox, 1981; Cox et al., Sorghum bicolor, 1984a, 1984b). Theobroma cacao, Triticum spp., Diapause increases T. aestivum, Zea the tolerance of larvae mays to fumigants at low temperature (Cox et al., 1984b). High temperature and darkness during larval development result in a high number of diapausing larvae (Cox et al., 1981).

Diatomaceous earth is

17 effective for control of E. kuehniella in processed food (Trewin and Reichmuth, 1997; Nielsen, 1998).

15. *♠Gonocephalum Southern Seed, as Cicer arietinum, Australia Adults and larvae macleayi (Blackburn) false contaminant Glycine max, attack seeds or wireworm Gossypium spp., seedlings of a wide Synonym Helianthus annuus, variety of crops in Dasus macleayi Sorghum almum, eastern Australia (Blackburn) S. bicolor, Triticum (Robertson, 1993). spp., Zea mays Order: Coleoptera Eggs are laid under Family: Tenebrionidae weeds/ crop residues species. It is a univoltine, with overwintering adults/

18 larvae.

Larvae remain in the soil for 10-12 months (Allsopp, 1980). Adults and larvae congregate under crop residues (Robertson and Simpson, 1988).

16. *Helicoverpa punctigera Budworm, Seeds, pods, Arachis hypogaea, Australian, New Highly migratory. It (Wallengren) climbing soil Cajanus cajan, Zealand, Tasmania has a complex cutworm, Carthamus diapause strategy and Synonyms native tinctorius, Cicer is highly fecund, Chloridea marmada budworm, arietinum, Echium laying (1500-1800 Swinhoe, native plantagineum, eggs over the Heliothis punctigera cutworm Glycine max, reproductive period of Wallengren, Gossypium 10-12 days). These hirsutum, four features Order: Lepidoptera Helianthus annuus, (polyphagy, mobility, Family: Noctuidae Linum diapause and high usitatissimum, fecundity) allow it to Lupinus multiply and survive angustifolius, under diverse Medicago sativa, conditions. Nicotiana tabacum, Pisum sativum, In sub-tropical and Sesbania temperate areas of cannabina, eastern Australia,

19 Solanum pupae enter a winter lycopersicon diapause, but some (=Lycopersicon survive the winter as esculentum), non-diapausing Sonchus oleraceus, individuals, emerging Trifolium spp., before the bulk of the T. pratense, diapausing population T. repens, (Murray and Zalucki, T. subterraneum, 1994). Vicia faba, Vigna unguiculata Causes severe damage on grain legumes costing ~ $A 20 million for control in Western Australia, Victoria and South Australia. H. punctigera and H. armigera together cause an estimated cost of control and damage of $A250 million annually in Australia (Adamson et al., 1997).

17. *♠Helicoverpa zea American Seed, as Abelmoschus Antigua and Undergoes pupal (Boddie) cotton contaminant esculentus, Barbuda, Argentina, diapause and pupation

20 bollworm, Abutilon Bahamas, Barbados, occurs in the soil. It Synonyms corn theophrasti, Bermuda, Bolivia, has a high fecundity Bombyx obsoleta earworm, Amaranthus spp., Brazil, Canada, (1500-3000) and 10- Fabricius, tomato Arachis hypogaea, Chile, Colombia, 11 generations per Chloridea obsoleta fruit worm Brassica oleracea Costa Rica, Cuba, year have been Fabricius, var. capitata, B. Dominica, recorded in tropics. Heliothis armigera oleracea, Cajanus Dominican Hübner, cajan, Capsicum Republic, Ecuador, Second most H. ochracea Cockerell, spp., C. annuum, El Salvador, important pest in H. umbrosa Grote, Cicer arietinum, Falkland Islands, North America. Citrus spp., French Guiana, H. zea Boddie, Annual losses by H. Coronilla varia, Guadeloupe, zea and H. virescens Phalaena zea (Boddie) Cucumis melo, Guatemala, Guyana, together on all crops

C. sativus, Haiti, Honduras, in USA is >US$ 1000 Order: Lepidoptera Fragaria spp., Jamaica, Martinique, million, despite the Family: Noctuidae F. ananassa, Mexico, Montserrat, expenditure of 250 Geranium Nicaragua, Panama, million US$ on carolinianum, Paraguay, Peru, insecticide application Gerbera sp., Puerto Rico, Saint (Fitt, 1989). Glycine max, Kitts and Nevis, Gossypium spp., Saint Lucia, Saint Migratory in nature Helianthus annuus, Vincent and the and can fly hundreds Lactuca sativa, Grenadines, of kilometers. Lespedeza cuneata, Surinam, Trinidad Lonicera japonica, and Tobago, Added to EPPO A1 Medicago lupulina, Uruguay, USA, list of quarantine M. sativa, Venezuela pests in 2006 and is a Nicotiana tabacum, quarantine pest for Panicum APPPC.

21 miliaceum, Pharbitis purpurea, Phaseolus vulgaris, Quercus sp., Salix sp., Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. melongena, Sorghum spp., Trifolium sp., T. incarnatum, Vicia sativa, V. villosa, Vigna unguiculata, Zea mays

18. *Heliothis virescens Pigeonpea Seed, as Abelmoschus Antigua, Antilles, High mobility, (Fabricius) pod borer, contaminant esculentus, Argentina, Bahamas, polyphagy, high tobacco Abutilon Barbados, Barbuda, reproductive rate and Order: Lepidoptera budworm, theophrasti, Bermuda, Bolivia, diapause make H. Family: Noctuidae tomato Antirrhinum majus, Brazil, Canada, virescens well suited budworm, Arachis hypogaea, Cayman Islands, to act as a serious pest tomato Cajanus cajan, Chile, Colombia, on a wide range of flaxworm Capsicum annuum, Costa Rica, Cuba, crops. Synonyms Cicer arietinum, Dominica, Chloridea rhexiae (J.E. Coronilla varia, Dominican Larval stages tunnel Smith) Cucurbita pepo, Republic, Ecuador, 5-15 cm into the soil C. virescens (Fabricius) Desmodium El Salvador, French and pupate for 2-3

22 Helicoverpa virescens tortuosum, Guiana, Grenada, weeks before Heliothis rhexiae (J.E. Eucalyptus spp., Guatemala, emergence. Smith) Geranium spp., Grenadines, Guyana, H. spectanda Strecker G. carolinianum, Haiti, Honduras, Exhibits a facultative Noctua virescens Glycine max, Jamaica, Lesser diapause to survive Fabricius Gossypium spp., Antilles, Martinique, low winter Xanthia prasina Walker Helianthus annuus, Mexico, Nicaragua, temperatures or hot X. viridescens Walker Ipomoea batatas, Panama, Paraguay, and dry summers. In Lactuca sativa, Peru, Puerto Rico, Arizona and Linum Saint Kitts Nevis, California, USA, it usitatissimum, Saint Lucia, enters summer Lonicera japonica, Trinidad, Tobago, diapause when larvae Medicago lupulina, Uruguay, USA, are exposed to 43°C Nicotiana tabacum, Vincent, Virgin for 8 h per day (Butler Petunia spp., Islands, Venezuela et al., 1985). Phaseolus spp., P. vulgaris, Pisum Cotton bolls, tomato sativum, Solanum fruit, tobacco leaves lycopersicon and maize cobs are (=Lycopersicon attacked, resulted in esculentum), significant economic Sorghum bicolor, losses (King, 1994). Trifolium incarnatum, Vicia sativa, V. villosa, Zea mays

23 19. *Hypera zoilus Clover Seed, as Arctium lappa, Algeria, Bulgaria, Probably a native of (Fabricius) leaf contaminant Glycine max, Canada, Czech southern Europe. It weevil Helianthus Republic, was first reported in Synonyms tuberosus, Czechoslovakia the USA in 1880 and Brachyrhinus punctatus Medicago falcata, (erstwhile), is presently Latreille, M. sativa, Denmark, Estonia, widespread in the Curculio punctatus Melilotus spp., Ethiopia, Finland, USA and Canada The Fabricius, Phleum pratense, France, Germany, first recorded in Japan C. zoilus (Scopoli), Solidago spp., Gibraltar, Greece, in 1978. (CAB Hypera austriaca Trifolium Ireland, Italy, Japan, International, 2007). (Schrank), incarnatum, Latvia, Lithuania, H. media (Marsham), T. pretense, Norway, Poland, Inhabits soil H. opima (Scopoli), Triticum aestivum, Sweden, (Larrimer, 1926). H. punctata (Fabricius), Zea mays Switzerland, Turkey, Smith and H. rufa (Boheman), UK, USA, Michelbacher (1945) Phytonomus punctatus Yugoslavia reported considerable (Fabricius), (erstwhile) defoliation/ damage Rhynchaenus punctatus on lucerne. Fabricius Spraying of infested Order: Coleoptera fields in the spring Family: when clover or lucerne is 2 to 6'' high with malathion or carbaryl has been recommended as treatment (Metcalf and Metcalf, 1992).

24 20. *Loxostege sticticalis Beet Pod, as Allium cepa, Bulgaria, China, Pre-pupae exhibit Linnaeus meadow contaminant Arachis spp., Italy, Kazakhstan, diapause. Pupa hides moth, beet Arachis hypogaea, Mongolia, in a white silk Order: Lepidoptera webworm, Asparagus Netherlands, cocoon, glued to soil Family: Crambidae sugarbeet officinalis, Romania, Russia, particles. webworm A. adsurgens, Tajikistan, Intermittent Atriplex patula, Turkmenistan, abundance with long Avena sativa, Beta Ukraine, Yugoslavia periodicity is a feature vulgaris var. (erstwhile) of L. sticticalis. In altissima, Brassica China and USSR juncea subsp. (erstwhile), this juncea, B. napus species showed subsp. napus, intermittent B. nigra, B. abundance with oleracea, B. rapa, population cycles of Cannabis sativa, ~20 years periodicity Capsicum annuum, in the 20th century Chenopodium (Knor, 1986; album, Anonymous, 1987a, C. ficifolium, b). Citrullus lanatus, Cucumis melo, Migration and C. sativus, Daucus intermittent carota, abundance enable this Echinochloa crus- species to suddenly galli, Glycine max, emerge in an area. Gossypium spp., Helianthus annuus, Knor (1986) Hibiscus trionum, described outbreak of Illicium verum, population on a large

25 Lactuca sativa, number of agricultural Linum crops in Western usitatissimum, Siberia. Medicago falcata, M. sativa, Melilotus albus, Nicotiana tabacum, Pisum sativum, P. sativum subsp. sativum, Polygonum aviculare, Raphanus sativus, Ricinus communis, Sesamum indicum, Solanum tuberosum, Sorghum bicolor, Triticum spp., Vicia faba, Zea mays

21. *♠Lygus lineolaris Tarnished Seed, pod, as Amaranthus Bermuda, Canada, Has a very wide host Palisot de Beauvois plant bug contaminant cruentus, Anethum El Salvador, range in North graveolens, Apium Georgia, Guatemala, America including Synonyms graveolens, Honduras, Mexico, 328 plant species, of Capsus flavonotatus Asparagus USA which 130 are Provancher, officinalis, Aster economically C. lineolaris Palisot de spp., A. pilosus, important. This Beauvois, Bellis perennis, represents 55 plant

26 C. oblineatus Say, Beta vulgaris, families belonging to C. strigulatus Walker, Brassica napus var. 30 of the 70 orders of Lygus pratensis var. napus, B. oleracea angiosperms in North rubidus Knight var. botrytis, America (Young, B. oleracea var. 1986). Order: Hemiptera capitata, Calendula Family: Miridae officinalis, Cosmos Causes significant spp., Cucumis yield losses in sativus, Dahlia different crops hybrids, Daucus including P. vulgaris carota, Erigeron and P. lunatus. It is a spp., Fragaria principal mired pest ananassa, of these crops in Gladiolus hybrids, eastern and southern Glycine max, USA (Schwartz and Gossypium Foottit, 1992). hirsutum, Helianthus spp., Adults overwinter in Lespedeza cuneata, dead plants and soil Malus spp., (Cleveland, 1982). Medicago sativa, Papaver nudicaule, Phaseolus lunatus, P. vulgaris, Pinus echinata, Populus spp., Prunus persica, Pyrus communis, Rubus spp., Salvia officinalis, Sinapis

27 alba, Solanum tuberosum, Tragopogon porrifolius, Trifolium incarnatum, Verbena spp., Vicia sativa, Zinnia elegans

22. *Naupactus peregrinus White- Pod, soil as Glycine max Argentina, USA Cryptic and (Buchanan) fringed contaminant nocturnally active and beetle collection is difficult. Synonyms As a result, exotic N. Graphognathus peregrinus entering peregrinus (Buchanan), the state may remain Pantomorus peregrinus undetected for many years until their Order: Coleoptera population builds up Family: Curculionidae to economically important levels.

Parthenogenetic species, but in South America bisexual populations are known and only females have been collected in USA.

28 23. *Naupactus South Seed, pod, as Actinidia chinensis, America, Argentina, A generation is xanthographus (Germar) American contaminant Annona cherimola, Chile, Uruguay completed in 19-20 fruit tree Citrus spp., (Wibmer and months (Caballero, Synonym weevil Eriobotrya O'Brien, 1986) 1972). Larvae are Pantomorus japonica, Glycine positively geotropic xanthographus (Germar) max, Malus and enter the soil and domestica, live at a depth of 30- Order: Coleoptera Medicago sativa, 120 cm. Larval stage Family: Curculionidae Olea europaea lasts for 11-14 subsp. europaea, months. Pupation Persea americana, occurs in soil. Adults Prunus armeniaca, live up to eight P. amygdalus, months. P. avium, P. domestica, Recognized by P. persica, Pyrus Canada as a potential spp., P. communis, quarantine pest in Solanum mid-1980s, and has tuberosum, Vitis since been included in vinifera the list of Pests Regulated by Canada.

24. *♠♦ Ostrinia nubilalis Corn Seed, as Amaranthus Algeria, Austria, Yield losses in maize, (Hübner) borer, contaminant retroflexus, Belgium, Bulgaria, sorghum, cotton, corn moth, Arctium minus, Canada, Cyprus, capsicum, potato and Synonyms European Artemisia vulgaris, Czechoslovakia other crops have been Micracris nubilalis corn Avena sativa, (erstwhile), reported (CAB Botys, borer, Capsicum sp., Denmark, Egypt, International, 2007). Pyrausta nubilalis European C. annuum, France, Georgia,

29 Meyrick maize Chrysanthemum Germany, Greece, Full-grown larva over borer, sp.,Cynara Hungary, Iran, winters in tunnels in Order: Lepidoptera European scolymus, Datura Ireland, Israel, Italy, stubble, stalk, maize Family: Pyralidae stalk borer stramonium, Lebanon, Libya, ear, etc. Echinochloa crus- Moldova, Morocco, galli, Glycine max, Netherlands, Gossypium sp., Norway, Poland, Helianthus annuus, Portugal, Romania, Hordeum vulgare, Russia, Spain, Humulus lupulus, Sweden, Malus domestica, Switzerland, Syria, Pennisetum Turkey, Tunisia, glaucum, Ukraine, UK, USA, Phaseolus vulgaris, Yugoslavia Prunus persica, (erstwhile) Setaria italica, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. tuberosum, Sorghum sp., S. halepense, Triticum aestivum, Zea mays

30 25. *Platynota stultana Omnivoro Seed, pod as Actinidia arguta, Mexico, USA Not on EPPO's A1 or Walsingham us leaf internal Albizia spp., A2 list. However, it roller infestation Amaranthus spp., is, mentioned in the Synonyms Ambrosia spp., alert list Platynota chiquitana Annona cherimola, (http://www.eppo.org) Barnes & Busck, Apium graveolens, . Sparganothis chiquitana, Arachis spp., Aster P. stultana is a S. stultana spp., Beta vulgaris, quarantine pest in Capsicum annuum, Chile Order: Lepidoptera Chenopodium (www.kernag.com/ph Family: Tortricidae album, ytotxt/chile.html); Chrysanthemum China spp., Citharexylum (www.kernag.com/ph spinosum, Citrus ytotxt/china.html) and spp., C. limon, New Zealand C. maxima, (www.kernag.com/ph C. reticulata, ytotxt/newzeala.html.) C. sinensis, Cotoneaster spp., Cyclamen spp., Dianthus caryophyllus, Eucalyptus spp., Gardenia spp., Glycine max, Gossypium spp., Juglans regia, Juniperus spp., Malus spp., Medicago sativa,

31 Mentha spp., Pelargonium spp., Persea americana, Phaseolus spp., Pinus sp., Portulaca grandiflora, Prunus persica, Punica granatum, Pyrus spp., Ribes spp., Rosa spp., Rubus spp., Senecio spp., Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), Sorghum bicolor, Taxus spp., Trifolium spp., Vigna unguiculata, Vitis vinifera, Zea mays

32 26. *♠♦Popillia japonica Japanese Seed, as Acer spp., Aesculus Azores, Canada, Damage to soybean, Newman beetle contaminant spp., Althaea spp., China, Japan, maize, tree species, Asparagus Portugal, Russia, and small fruits is Synonyms officinalis, Betula UK, USA significant. Grubs and Aserica japonica spp., Castanea adults control requires (Motsch.), spp., Glycine max, hundreds of millions Autoserica japonica Hibiscus spp., of US$ each year, and (Motsch.), Juglans nigra, in renovating or Maladera japonica Lagerstroemia replacing damaged (Motschulsky), indica, Malus spp., turf or ornamental Serica japonica Motsch. Platanus spp., plants (Potter, 1998). Polygonum spp., Order: Coleoptera Populus spp., Regarded as an A1 Family: Prunus spp., quarantine pest for Rheum hybridum, EPPO (OEPP/ EPPO, Rosa spp., Rubus 1980) and is also of spp., Salix spp., quarantine Sassafras albidum, significance for Sorbus americana, Caribbean Plant Tilia spp., Ulmus Protection spp., Vitis spp., Zea Commission (CPPC), mays Junta de Acuerdo de Cartagena, North American Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO) and Organismo Internacional Regional de Sanidad

33 Agropecuaria(OIRSA ).

Within the USA, P. japonica is an object of USDA/APHIS quarantine, restricting interstate shipment of plant material with soil and interstate movement of aircraft from regulated airports.

27. * cylindricollis Sweet Seed, as Caragana Afghanistan, Adults overwinter in Fåhraeus clover contaminant arborescens, Albania, Austria, surface trash and in weevil Glycine max, Belgium, Bulgaria, soil to a depth of 1″. Synonyms Medicago lupulina, Canada, China, Eggs are dropped Sitona alpinensis Tanner, M. sativa, Czechoslovakia indiscriminately in S. meliloti Watson, Melilotus (erstwhile), soil and pupation Sitones cylindricollis officinalis subsp. Denmark, Estonia, builds up in soil. Fåhraeus, alba, M. officinalis, Finland, France, S. procerus Casey Trifolium Germany, Hungary, A major pest of alexandrinum, Iran, Israel, Italy, lucerne in South Order: Coleoptera T. repens, Lithuania, Morocco, central countries Family: Curculionidae Trigonella spp., Netherlands, causing so much Vicia sativa, Norway, Poland, damage in some areas Vigna spp. Portugal, Russia, that planting of Spain, Sweden, lucerne has been

34 Switzerland, Turkey, abandoned (Hastings Turkmenistan, USA, and Pepper, 1949). Uzbekistan, Yugoslavia In Eastern (erstwhile) Uzbekistan, up to 87.5% of root nodules of lucerne were destroyed by larvae of S. cylindricollis and other Sitona species (CAB International, 2007).

In field cage tests in 1971-74 in Canada, one adult weevil per seedling destroyed 100% of the seedlings of sweet clover (Craig, 1978).

Severe losses also recorded from many states of USA (CAB International, 2007).

28. *Solenopsis interrupta Red Seed, as Abelmoschus Antigua and Highly invasive pest. Santochi imported contaminant esculentus, Arachis Barbuda, Argentina, fire ant hypogaea, Carya Australia, Bahamas, Its long-distance

35 Synonyms illinoinensis, Brazil, British transport occurs when Solenopsis invicta Buren, Citrullus lanatus, Virgin Islands, mated queen ants or S. saevissima var. Citrus spp., China, Costa Rica, colonies are shipped wagneri Santschi, Fragaria ananassa, North America (as a from one location to S. wagneri Santschi Glycine max, whole), Paraguay, another on virtually Ipomoea batatas, Puerto Rico, South any article of Order: Hymenoptera Pinus spp., America (as a commerce, Family: Formicidae Solanum whole), Trinidad and particularly those melongena, Tobago, USA contaminated with Sorghum bicolor, soil that often clings Zea mays to the bottoms of support pallets. It is thought to have been inadvertently transported to the Port of Mobile, Alabama, USA around 1930s, in the ballast of cargo ships from the Paraguay River drainage in South America (Vinson, 1997).

Although exact economic costs of fire south-eastern USA have been more than half a billion to ant damage and control

36 are unknown, estimates for the several billion US$ per year (Williams et al., 2001).

29. *Spermophagus moerens Seed Seed Acacia spp., Costa Rica, El Causes hidden Boheman beetle Albizzia sp., Salvador, Honduras, infestation in seed. A. saponaria, Lesotho, Mexico, Order: Coleoptera Arachis hypogea, Nicaragua, South Family: Bruchidae Caesalpinia Africa, USA, pulcherrima, Venezuela Cajanus cajan, Calliandra sp., C. eriophylla, C. tapiorum, Cassia fistula, Chaemaechrista glandulosa, Coursetia sp., Desmanthus spp., D. unciniatum, Erythrina sp., Glycine hispida, G. max, Leucaena glauca, L. leucocephala, Mimosa spp., Neptunia plena,

37 Olneya tesota, Pithecellobium pallens, Prosopis juliflora, Robinia pseudo-acaciae, Samanea saman, Sesbania spp.

30. *Spodoptera eridania Southern Seed, as Abelmoschus Antigua and Classified as A1 pest Stoll armywor contaminant esculentus, Alcea Barbuda, Argentina, in EPPO list of m rosea, Allium cepa, Barbados, Bermuda, quarantine pests, but Synonyms Amaranthus spp., Brazil, Chile, Cuba, it is not listed as a Laphygma eridania Apium graveolens, Denmark, Dominica, quarantine pest by (Stoll), Arachis hypogaea, Dominican any other Regional Noctua eridania Stoll, Beta spp., Brassica Republic, Ecuador, Plant Protection Prodenia eridania (Stoll), oleracea, French Guiana, Organization (RPPO). P. externa (Walker), Capsicum annuum, Galapagos Islands, P. nigrofascia (Hulst), Chenopodium Grenada, Mainly a sub-tropical P. xylomiges Cramer, quinoa, Guadeloupe, species and Spodoptera amygia Chrysanthemum Guyana, Honduras, temperature of 20- (Guenée), morifolium, Jamaica, Martinique, 25°C is optimum for S. bipunctata (Walker), Citrullus lanatus, Mexico, Nicaragua, its development and S. derupta (Morrison), Citrus spp., Paraguay, Peru, continuous breeding. S. externa (Walker), Coriandrum Puerto Rico, Saint S. ignobilis (Butler), sativum, Cucurbita Lucia, Saint Vincent S. inquieta (Walker), maxima, Daucus and the Grenadines, S. linea (Fabricius), carota, Dianthus Trinidad, Tobago, S. nigrofascia (Hulst), caryophyllus, USA S. phytolaccae (Smith), Dianthus spp.,

38 S. putrida (Guenée), Digitaria spp., S. recondita (Möschler), Dioscorea spp., S. strigifera (Walker), Gladiolus hybrids, Xylomyges eridania Glycine max, (Stoll), Gossypium spp., X. eridania (Stoll) Helianthus spp., Ipomoea batatas, Order: Lepidoptera Manihot esculenta, Family: Noctuidae Medicago sativa, Musa spp., Nerium oleander, Nicotiana tabacum, Odontoglossum spp., Oryza sativa, Pelargonium spp., Persea americana, Pharbitis purpurea, Phaseolus vulgaris, Rheum hybridum, Ricinus communis, Salix spp. Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. melongena, S. tuberosum, Sonchus oleraceus, Trifolium spp., Vaccinium macrocarpon,

39 Vicia faba, Vigna unguiculata, Zea mays, Zinnia spp.

31. *♠Spodoptera frugiperda Fall Seed, as Agrostis spp., Argentina, Bolivia, Tropical species Smith armywor contaminant A. gigantean, Alcea Brazil, Canada, adapted to warmer m rosea, Allium cepa, Caribbean (as a parts of the world. Synonyms Amaranthus spp., whole), Central The optimum Caradrina frugiperda, Andropogon America (as a temperature for larval Laphygma frugiperda virginicus, Arachis whole), Chile, development is 28°C. Guenee, hypogaea, Colombia, Costa L. inepta Walker, Asparagus Rica, Cuba, In Nicaragua, L. macra Guenee, officinalis, Atropa Dominica, infestation during mid Noctua frugiperda Smith, belladonna, Avena Dominican to late whorl stage of Phalaena frugiperda sativa, Beta Republic, Ecuador, maize development Smith & Abbot, vulgaris, El Salvador, French caused yield losses of Prodenia autumnalis B. vulgaris var. Guiana, Germany, 15-73% (Hruska and Riley, altissima, Brassica Grenada, Gould, 1997). P. plagiata Walker, oleracea, Guadeloupe, P. signifera Walker, B. oleracea var. Guatemala, Guyana, Listed in the EPPO Trigonophora frugiperda capitata, B. rapa, Haiti, Honduras, A1 list of quarantine Geyer B. rapa subsp. Jamaica, Martinique, pests, but is not listed rapa, Capsicum Mexico, Montserrat, as a quarantine pest Order: Lepidoptera annuum, Carex Nicaragua, Panama, by any other Regional Family: Noctuidae spp., Carya spp., Paraguay, Peru, Plant Protection C. illinoinensis, Puerto Rico, Saint Organization (RPPO). Cenchrus incertus, Kitts and Nevis,

40 Chenopodium Saint Lucia, Saint album, C. quinoa, Vincent and the Chloris gayana, Grenadines, South Chrysanthemum America (as a spp., whole), Suriname, C. morifolium, Trinidad and Cicer arietinum, Tobago, Virgin Citrullus lanatus, Islands, Uruguay, Citrus aurantium, USA, Venezuela C. limon, C. reticulata, C. sinensis, Codiaeum variegatum, Convolvulus spp., Cucumis sativus, Cyperus rotundus, Dahlia pinnata, Dianthus caryophyllus, Echinochloa colona, Fagopyron esculentum, Fragaria chiloensis, Gladiolus sp., Glycine max, Gossypium herbaceum, Hevea brasiliensis,

41 Hibiscus cannabinus, Hordeum vulgare, Ipomoea batatas, Lactuca sativa, Malus domestica, Medicago sativa, Mucuna pruriens, Musa spp., Nicotiana tabacum,Oryza sativa, Panicum miliaceum, Pelargonium spp., Pennisetum clandestinum, P. glaucum, Pharbitis purpurea, Phaseolus spp., Phaseolus vulgaris, Phleum pratense, Pisum sativum, Platanus occidentalis, Plumeria spp., Poa annua, P. pratensis, Portulaca oleracea, Prunus persica, Saccharum

42 officinarum, Secale cereale, S. italica, S. viridis, Solanum melongena, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. tuberosum, Sorghum bicolor, S. caffrorum, S. halepense, S. sudanense, Spinacia oleracea, Trifolium spp., T. pratense, T. repens, Triticum aestivum, Urochloa spp., Vaccinium macrocarpon, Vigna unguiculata, Viola spp., Vitis spp., V. vinifera, Xanthium strumarium, Zea mays, Z. mexicana, Zingiber officinale

43 32. *♠Spodoptera littoralis Cotton Seed, as Abelmoschus Algeria, Angola, One of the most (Boisduval) leafworm contaminant esculentus, Acacia Bahrain, Benin, destructive pests nilotica, Actinidia Botswana, Burundi, within sub-tropical Synonyms arguta, Alcea Cameroon, Congo, and tropical range. Hadena littoralis rosea, Allium cepa, Congo Democratic Pods of cowpea and Boisduval, A. fistulosum, Republic, Cyprus, seed inside pods are Noctua gossypii, Amaranthus spp., Egypt, Equatorial badly damaged. Prodenia littoralis Anemone spp., Guinea, Eritrea, (Boisduval), Antirrhinum majus, Ethiopia, Gambia, Shows differences in P. litura Fabricius sensu Apium graveolens, Ghana, Greece, response to cold both auctorum, Arachis hypogaea, Guinea, Iran, Iraq, between strains and P. retina (Freyer), Asparagus Israel, Italy, Ivory within developmental P. testaceoides Guenee officinalis, Beta Coast, Jordan, stages of the pest vulgaris, Kenya, Lebanon, (Powell and Gostick, Order: Lepidoptera B. vulgaris var. Libya, Madagascar, 1971). It is a potential Family: Noctuidae altissima, Brassica Madeira, Malawi, pest of areas where oleracea, Mali, Malta, the average annual B. oleracea var. Mauritania, minimum temperature capitata, B. rapa, Mauritius, Morocco, does not go below Caladium spp., Mozambique, -10°C. Callistephus Namibia, Niger, chinensis, Camellia Nigeria, Oman, There are many sinensis, Canna Portugal, Rwanda, reports of resistance spp., Capsicum Saudi Arabia, to some of the spp., C. annuum, Senegal, Seychelles, insecticides (CAB Casuarina Sierra Leone, International, 2007). equisetifolia, Somalia, South Chloris gayana, Africa, Spain, Standard treatment Convolvulus spp., Sudan, Swaziland, used in UK is cold Chrysanthemum Syria, Tanzania, storage for 2-4 days at

44 indicum, Citrullus Togo, Tunisia, 7°C, followed by lanatus, Citrus Turkey, Uganda, methyl bromide spp., C. aurantium, UAE, Yemen, fumigation at 15- Coffea arabica, Zambia, Zimbabwe 20°C (Mortimer and Corchorus Powell, 1988). This capsularis, has also been adopted C. olitorius, as an EPPO Cryptomeria spp., quarantine procedure Cucurbita pepo, (OEPP/ EPPO, 1990). Cynara scolymus, Dalbergia sissoo, Listed as A2 Datura spp., quarantine pest of Daucus carota, EPPO (OEPP/ EPPO, Dianthus barbatus, 1981). Caribbean D. caryophyllus, Plant Protection Eucalyptus Commission (CPPC), globulus, Ficus North American Plant carica, Fragaria Protection vesca, Gerbera Organization spp., Gladiolus (NAPPO) and hybrids, Glycine Organismo max, Gossypium Internacional barbadense, Regional de Sanidad Guizotia Agropecuaria abyssinica, (OIRSA) also Helianthus annuus, considered it to be of H. tuberosus, quarantine Hibiscus significance. cannabinus, H. mutabilis,

45 Indigofera tinctoria, Ipomoea batatas, Jatropha curcas, Lactuca sativa, Lantana spp., Luffa aegyptiaca, Malus sylvestris, Medicago sativa, Melilotus spp., Mentha spicata, Monstera deliciosa, Morus spp., Musa spp., Musa x paradisiaca, Nicandra physaloides, Nicotiana tabacum, Opuntia spp., Oryza sativa, Persea americana, Phaseolus vulgaris, Phoenix dactylifera, Piper spp., Pistia stratiotes, Pisum sativum, Populus alba, Portulaca oleracea, Prunus domestica, Psidium

46 guajava, Punica granatum, Quercus petraea, Raphanus sativus, Ricinus communis, Rosa spp., Saccharum officinarum, Salvia officinalis, Senecio spp., Sesamum indicum, Sesbania sesban, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. melongena, S. tuberosum, Sorghum bicolor, Spinacia oleracea, Tectona grandis, Theobroma cacao, Trifolium alexandrinum, T. repens, Trigonella foenum- graecum, Triticum aestivum, Verbena spp., Vicia faba, Vigna angularis, V. mungo, V. radiata,

47 V. unguiculata, Viola odorata, Vitis vinifera, Zea mays, Zinnia elegans

33. *#Tenebrio molitor European Seed and Glycine max, Cosmopolitan but Infests a wide range Linnaeus meal meal Hordeum vulgare, not yet reported from of stored grains, grain worm Lens culinaris India products, processed Synonym subsp. culinaris, food products and Tenebrio molitoria Triticum aestivum, even material. Fourcroy Zea mays Cosmopolitan Order: Coleoptera distribution is Family: Tenebrionidae probably as a result of both accidental introductions by man through agricultural trade of grain and grain products, together with purposeful introductions into some countries where the larvae are reared as fish bait or food for birds.

48 34. *Tetramorium Guinea ant Seed, as Arachis hypogaea, Australia, China, Common tramp bicarinatum (Nylander) contaminant Glycine max, Costa Rica, Cuba, species usually found Solanum French Polynesia, inside houses, Order: Hymenoptera melongena, Vigna Taiwan greenhouses, shade Family: Formicidae unguiculata houses and in landscaped areas near houses. It can easily be transported along with soil, debris and packing material.

35. *Tetranychus arabicus Spider Seed, as Ficus carica, Egypt Eggs laid in soil. Attiah mite contaminant Glycine max, Gossypium spp., Reported to have Class: Arachnida Malus domestica resistance to dicofol, Family: Tetranychidae parathion-methyl and phosalone from Egypt (http://www.pesticide resistance.org/DB/spe cies_profile.php?arthr opodid=794).

36. *Tetranychus Spider Seed, as Arachis hypogaea, Egypt Eggs laid in soil and it cucurbitacearum Sayed mite contaminant Glycine max, is reported to have Gossypium spp. resistance to dicofol Class: Arachnida and parathion-methyl Family: Tetranychidae (http://www.pesticide resistance.org/DB/spe cies_profile.php?arthr

49 opodid=800)

37. *Tetranychus pacificus Pacific Seed, pods Asclepias spp., Canada, Mexico, Quarantine pest in McGregor spider Ceanothus spp., USA Japan and Australia. mite Chenopodium All fresh fruits Class: Arachnida album, Citrullus entering Japan and Family: Tetranychidae lanatus, Australia have to be Cotoneaster spp., certified free of T. Cucumis melo, pacificus (Ahumada Ficus carica, et al., 1996). Fragaria spp., Glycine max, Gossypium barbadense, G. hirsutum, Helianthus spp., Medicago sativa, Melia azadirachta, Phaselus vulgaris, Prunus spp., Ribes spp., Robinia pseudoacacia, Rosa spp., Rubus spp., Salvia spp., Swietenia spp., Ulmus spp., Vicia spp., Vitis vinifera, Zea mays

50 Nematodes

38. *Ditylenchus africanus Peanut Seed, soil Arachis hypogaea, South Africa Attacks mainly peanut pod clods mixed Chenopodium pods causing 100% nematode with seeds album, Datura loss in some fields. stramonium, Single pod may Eleusine indica, contain 10,000 Glycine max, nematodes (Venter et Gossypium al., 1993). hirsutum, Helianthus annuus, Lupinus albus, Medicago sativa, Nicotiana tabacum, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Solanum tuberosum, Sorghum bicolor, Tagetes minuta, Triticum aestivum, Vigna unguiculata, Xanthium strumarium, Zea mays

51 39. *#Heterodera glycines Soybean Soil clods Aeschynomene Argentina, Brazil, Has considerable cyst mixed with indica, Beta Canada, Chile, number of races nematode seeds vulgaris, Cajanus China, Colombia, which have different cajan, Geranium Ecuador, Egypt, host ranges, optimum sp., Glycine max, Indonesia, Iran, temperature for Kummerowia Italy, Japan, Korea development is 28- striata, Lamium (DPR), Korea 310C and little amplexicaule, (Republic), development occurs at Lespedeza cuneata, Mangolia, Puerto temperature below Lupinus albus, Rico, Russia, 150C or above 330C. Penstemon sp., Taiwan, USA The optimum Phaseolus vulgaris, temperature for Pisum sativum, hatching of juveniles Sesbania exaltata, is 240C. Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), Stellaria media, Verbascum thapsus, Vicia villosa, Vigna aconitifolia, V. angularis, V. mungo, V. radiata

52 40. *#Heterodera Pea cyst Soil clods Cicer arietinum, Algeria, Belgium, Has very large and goettingiana nematode mixed with Glycine max, Bulgaria, China, varied host range seeds Lathyrus cicera, France, Germany, comprising several L. odoratus, Israel, Italy, Japan, families of plants. L. sativus, Lens Jordan, Malta, culinaris subsp. Netherlands, Poland, culinaris, Lupinus Portugal, Scotland, albus, L. luteus, Slovenia, Spain, Medicago sativa, Turkey, Ukraine, P. sativum, Pisum UK, USA sativum subsp. sativum, Vicia cracca, V. ervilia, V. benghalensis, V. faba, V. monantha

41. *♦Heterodera schachtii Sugarbeet Soil clods Cicer arietinum, Albania, Algeria, Has very large and nematode mixed with Glycine max, Australia, Austria, varied host range seeds Lathyrus cicera, Azerbaijan, comprising several L. odoratus, Belgium, Bulgaria, families of plants. L. sativus, Lens Canada, Cape Verde, culinaris subsp. Chile, China, culinaris, Lupinus Croatia, Czech albus, L. luteus, Republic, Denmark, Medicago sativa, Estonia, Finland, P. sativum, Pisum France, Germany, sativum subsp. Greece, Hungary, sativum, Vicia Iran, Iraq, Ireland,

53 benghalensis, Israel, Italy, Jordan, V. cracca, Kazakhstan, Latvia, V. ervilia, V. faba, Mexico, Moldova, V. monantha Netherlands, New Zealand, Pakistan, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Turkey, Tunisia, UK, Ukraine, Uruguay, USA

Fungi

42. *Calonectria crotalariae Cylindrocl Soil, plant Actinidia chinensis, Australia, China, Losses attributable to (Loos) Bell & Sobers adium debris Anthurium spp., Japan, Korea Cylindrocladium black rot Arachis hypogaea, Republic of, USA black rot (CBR) on Synonyms (CBR) in Desmodium peanuts have been peanut, tortuosum, Glycine estimated to as high Cylindrocladium red crown max, Howea as 53% (Pataky et al., crotalariae (Loos) Bell & rot in forsteriana, 1983) and a 50% loss Sobers,

54 Calonectria theae var. soybean, Medicago sativa can be expected on crotalariae Loos susceptible soybean with 100% red crown rot incidence (Berner et al., 1988).

43. *Colletotrichum trifolii Anthracno Seed, plant Glycine max, Australia, Morocco, Races 1, 2, 3 and 4 Bain & Essary se, crown debris Medicago spp., South Africa are known to occur rot M. sativa, and were Trifolium repens, differentiated by Vigna angularis, RAPD (Mackie et al., V. radiata 2003).

44. *#Diaporthe Stem Seed, fruit, Glycine max Argentina, Bulgaria, In Europe, yield was phaseolorum var. canker of plant debris Canada, Ecuador, reduced by 50-62% caulivora Athow & soybean France, Italy, Korea, when stem canker Caldwell [teleomorph] Russia, USA, occurred early (Vidic Yugoslavia and Jasnic, 1988). Synonyms (erstwhile) Diaporthe phaseolorum Zhang et al. (1998) f.sp. caulivora Kulik detected genomic [teleomorph], differences among D. Phomopsis phaseoli f.sp. phaseolorum var. caulivora Kulik caulivora isolates and

55 [anamorph] D. phaseolorum var. meridionalis isolates, from Italy and USA, respectively, using RFLP.

Pioli et al. (2003) separated four major taxa of the Diaporthe/ Phomopsis complex on the basis of RAPD analysis.

45. *Diaporthe Stem Seed, fruit, Aeschynomene Argentina, Bolivia, Physiological races phaseolorum var. canker of plant debris americana, A. Brazil, Ghana, Italy, were reported in meridionalis F.A. Fern. soyabean, indica, Cajanus Nigeria, Tanzania, South America (Pioli [teleomorph] southern cajan, Crotalaria USA et al., 2003). stem spp., Glycine canker max, Gossypium hirsutum, Indigofera hirsute, Jacquemontia tamnifolia, Lupinus spp., Phaseolus lunatus, Piper nigrum, Sesbania exaltata, S. macrocarpa, Solanum

56 lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. nigrum, Triticum aestivum, Xanthium strumarium

46. *Fusarium oxysporum Yellows Seeds, Fruits, Glycine max, Brazil, China, Czech Alves-Santos et al. f.sp. phaseoli J.B. Kendr. of bean, plant debris Lupinus albus, Republic, Egypt, (2002a, b) reported & W.C. Snyder wilt of L. luteus, Greece, Italy, Japan, presence of 7 races. bean Phaseolus spp., Kenya, Mexico, They also P. coccineus, Poland, Rwanda, characterized non P. vulgaris Slovakia, Spain, pathogenic and USA, Yugoslavia pathogenic strains as (erstwhile) well as highly virulent

pathogenic strains by RAPD analysis. Woo et al. (1996) characterized its isolates on the basis of pathogenicity, vegetative compatible groups (VCGs), RFLPs and RAPD analysis and also reported five pathogenic races in it.

57

Yield loss of a minimum 10 % has been estimated in USA from Fusarium wilt in commom beans (Salgado et al., 1995).

47. *Fusarium redolens Root rot Seed, fruit, Asparagus Africa (as a whole), Bogale et al. (2007) Wollenw. of pea, plant debris officinalis, Czech Republic, aligned translation wilt of Dianthus Finland elongation factor 1α Synonyms pepper, caryophyllus, (TEF-1α) gene Fusarium oxysporum var. wilt of Elaeis spp., sequences from F. redolens (Wollenw.) tomato Glycine max, redolens and F. Gordon, Pinus strobus, oxysporum and F. redolens var. solani Pisum sativum, designed F. redolens- SHerb., Spinacia oleracea specific primers F. solani var. redolens which distinguished (Woll.) Gordon this species from all other Fusarium species.

58 48. *Fusarium solani f.sp. Dry root Seed, plant Glycine max, Barbados, Brazil, Pathogenic and non- phaseoli (Burkholder) rot of debris Phaseolus spp., Guadeloupe, Japan, pathogenic Fusarium Snyder & Hansen beans, P. coccineus, Martinique, Poland, species of different foot rot of P. vulgaris USA formae-speciales and Synonym bean, races were diagnosed Fusarium solani var. fusarium and also distinguished martii race 3 (Appel & root rot of from Macrophomina Wollenw.) Wollenw. beans phaseolina by a single primer RAPD with uniform PCR conditions (Jana et al., 2003).

49. *Fusarium tucumaniae Sudden Seed, Soil, Glycine max Argentina, Brazil, Aoki et al (2003) reported that studies Aoki, O'Donnell, Homma death plant debris North and South and Lattanzi, sp. nov. syndrome America on DNA sequences from the nuclear ribosomal intergenic Synonym spacer region and the single copy nuclear Fusarium solani gene translation (Martius) Saccardo f. sp. elongation factor 1-a, glycines Roy together with detailed morphological comparisons of conidial features, indicate that SDS of soybean in North and South America is

59 caused by two phylogenetically and morphologically distinct species. They described Fusarium virguliforme sp. nov., formally known as F. solani f. sp. glycines, is for the SDS pathogen in North America, and F. tucumaniae sp. nov. was proposed for the South American pathogen. Soybean yield losses from SDS can range from only slight to 100% (http://www.soybeans .umn.edu/crop/disease s/sudden_death.htm- accessed on 21.09.2011

50. *Fusarium virguliforme sudden Seed, Soil, Glycine max North America, USA Aoki et al (2003) O'Donnell & Aoki, sp. reported that studies death plant debris nov. syndrome on DNA sequences from the nuclear

60 of soybean ribosomal intergenic spacer region and the Synonyms single copy nuclear gene translation Fusarium solani f.sp. elongation factor 1-a, glycines Roy, together with detailed Fusarium martii Appel & morphological Wollenw. var. viride comparisons of Sherb., Mem. conidial features, (Aoki et al., 2003) indicate that sudden death syndrome (SDS) of soybean in North and South America is caused by two phylogenetically and morphologically distinct species. They described Fusarium virguliforme sp. nov., formally known as F. solani f. sp. glycines, is for the SDS pathogen in North America, and F. tucumaniae sp. nov. was proposed for the South American pathogen.

61 Yield loss due to SDS in the top 10 soybean producing countries varies from 2 ×103 in Canada to 9 ×105 metric tons in the United States (Wrather et al., 2001). Soybean yield losses from SDS can range from only slight to 100%, depending on the soybean variety (http://www.plantheal th.info/sds_basics.htm ). In 2009, a Michigan grower noted a greater than 50 percent yield loss http://ipmnews.msu.e du/fieldcrop/fieldcrop /tabid/56/articleType/ ArticleView/articleId/ 3030/Soybean- sudden-death- syndrome-SDS- Fusarium- virguliforme.aspx).

62 51. *Microsphaera diffusa Powdery Seed, plant Glycine max, Brazil Grau (2006) reported Cooke & Petrak mildew of debris Pisum sativum yield losses of 0-10 soybean bushels per acre from Synonym 1976 to 1978 in Iowa, Erysiphe glycines Tai USA.

52. *#♦Peronospora Downy Seed, fruit, Glycine max, G. Argentina, Australia, Bernard (1989) manshurica (Naumov) mildew of plant debris soja Bermuda, Bolivia, reported over 30 Syd. ex Gäum. soybean Brazil, Bulgaria, races. Race 35 was Canada, China, the most pathogenic, Synonyms Croatia, Cuba, infecting 12 of the 16 Peronospora sojae Czech Republic, differential cultivars Lehman & F.A. Wolf, Czechoslovakia (Marcinkowska, P. trifoliorum var. (erstwhile), 1991). Three more manshurica Naumov Denmark, Ethiopia, races were identified France, Germany, and designated as Hungary, Iran, races Zhong 1, 2 and Israel, Italy, Japan, 3 (Li et al., 1992). Kazakhstan, Korea (DPR), Korea Lai et al. (2004) (Republic), Latvia, developed PCR for its Mexico, Moldova, identification in New Zealand, soybean. Losses of Philippines, Poland, 10% were reported Puerto Rico, (Bernard, 1989). Romania, Russia,

63 Serbia and Dunleavy (1987) Montenegro, Siberia, reported an average Slovakia, South yield reduction of Africa, Sweden, 11.8%. Losses of 10% Taiwan, Thailand, have been reported Turkey, Ukraine, from Romania UK, USA, Vietnam, (Rosca, 1975). Zimbabwe

53. *#Phakopsora Soybean Seed Aeschynomene Barbados, Belize, Classical and real- meibomiae (Arthur) rust (contaminant spp., A. Americana, Bolivia, Brazil, time fluorescent PCR Arthur ), plant debris Calopogonium Chile, Colombia, assays were used to spp., Centrosema Costa Rica, Cuba, detect, identify and Synonyms pubescens, Dominican differentiate P. Aecidium crotalariae Crotalaria spp., Republic, Ecuador, pachyrhizi and P. Henn., C. incana, C. Guatemala, Mexico, meibomiae (Frederick Malupa vignae (Bres.) juncea, C. pallida, Puerto Rico, et al., 2002). Ono et al. [anamorph], Desmodium spp., Trinidad and Phakopsora D. tortuosum, Tobago, United P. meibomiae, aeschynomenes (Arthur) Erythrina States Virgin referred to as the New Arthur [anamorph], berteroana, Islands, USA, World type, is a much P. crotalariae (Dietel) E. fusca, Glycine Venezuela weaker pathogen Arthur, max, Lablab (Sweets et al., 2004). P. diehlii Cummins, purpureus, P. psoraleae H.S. Pachyrhizus Jackson & Holw., erosus, P. vignae (Bres.) Arthur, Macroptilium Physopella lathyroides, aeschynomenes (Arthur) Phaseolus

64 Arthur, coccineus, P. concors (Arthur) P. lunatus, Arthur, P. vulgaris, Pisum P. meibomiae Arthur, sativum, Uredo aeschynomenes Rhynchosia spp., Arthur [anamorph], Vigna spp., U. concors Arthur V. mungo, [anamorph], V. unguiculata U. teramni Mayor [anamorph], U. vignae Bres. [anamorph]

54. *Phialophora gregata Brown Seed, fruit, Glycine max, Argentina, Brazil Heterodera glycines (Allington & D. W. stem rot of plant debris Phaseolus spp., Canada, Egypt, was reported as a Chamb.) W.Gams soybean P. vulgaris, Vigna Japan, Puerto Rico, vector (Carris et al., and adzuki angularis, USA 1986). Bonato and bean V. radiata Costamilan (1996) reported mean yield reductions of 9- 38.2% in Brazil. Mengistu and Grau (1987) reported 13- 30% yield losses in USA.

65 55. *Phomopsis longicolla Pod and Seed, fruit, Abelmoschus Argentina, Australia, Detected species- Hobbs stem plant debris esculentus, Brazil, Cameroon, specific pathogen in blight, Abutilon Canada, Cuba, soybean seeds by Phomopsi theophrasti, Allium Czechoslovakia RFLP and TaqMan s seed cepa, A. sativum, (erstwhile), France, chemistry (Zhang et decay Alysicarpus Hungary, Italy, al., 1999). vaginalis, Arachis Korea (Republic), hypogaea, Nepal, Puerto Rico, Capsicum Romania, Russia, frutescens, Cicer Senegal, Slovakia, arietinum, Glycine Sri Lanka, Taiwan, max, Kummerowia USA, Venezuala, striata, Lotus Yugoslavia corniculatus, (erstwhile) Lupinus spp., Melilotus alba , Phaseolus acutifolius, P. coccineus, P. lunatus, P. vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), Strophostyles helvola, Trifolium pratense,Vigna unguiculata

66 56. *♠Phytophthora Foot rot, Bulb, corm, Abies concolor, Argentina, Australia, Pane et al. (2000) cryptogea Pethybr. & damping tuber , fruit, A. procera, Austria, Brazil, identified Laff. off, black plant debris Actinidia chinensis, Bulgaria, Canada, Phytophthora capsici, neck of Allium cepa, Chile, China, P. cryptogea and P. chrysanthe Antirrhinum majus, Croatia, Czech nicotianae using mum, Apium graveolens, Republic, RAPD. collar rot, Asparagus Czechoslovakia blight, officinalis, Aster (erstwhile), Drenth and Irwin die-back, spp., Baccharis Denmark, Egypt, (2001) used PCR- wilt, pilularis, Banksia Finland, France, based diagnostics for crown rot, spp., Begonia spp., Germany, Greece, detection of different corm, Beta vulgaris, Hungary, Iran, species of stem and Brassica oleracea Ireland, Italy, Japan, Phytophthora. leaf rot of var. botrytis, Jordan, Korea gloxinia Cajanus cajan, (Republic), Calathea spp., Netherlands, New Calendula Zealand, Ireland, officinalis, Papua New Guinea, Callistephus Poland, Russia, chinensis, Serbia and Capsicum annuum, Montenegro, South Carpobrutus spp., Africa, Spain, Carthamus Sweden, Taiwan, tinctorius, UK, USA, Castanea spp., Zimbabwe Ceanothus prostratus, Cedrus deodara, Celosia argentea, Centaurea spp.,

67 C. cyanus, Cerasus vulgaris, Chamaecyparis spp., Chrysanthemum spp., C. frutescens, C. vestitum, Cichorium spp., C. intybus, Citrullus lanatus, Citrus spp., Clarkia spp., Consolida ambigua, Cotoneaster spp., Cucumis melo, C. sativus, Cucurbita spp., C. maxima, C. moschata, C. pepo, Cupressus spp., Cyamopsis tetragonoloba, Cyphomandra betacea, Dahlia spp., Daucus carota, Dianthus barbatus, D. caryophyllus, Erica spp., Erysimum cheiri,

68 Eucalyptus spp., Euphorbia pulcherrima, Fragaria spp., Gerbera spp., G. jamesonii, Gladiolus sp., Glycine max, Gynura bicolor, Gypsophila paniculata, Hebe spp., Helianthus annuus, Humulus lupulus, Juglans regia, Juniperus chinensis, Lactuca sativa, Liatris spicata, Limonium sinuatum, Lupinus spp., Malus domestica, Maranta spp., Matthiola incana, Medicago sativa, Nasturtium officinale, Nicotiana tabacum, Onobrychis viciifolia, Papaver

69 nudicaule, Parthenium argentatum, Pericallis cruenta, Persea americana, Petroselinum crispum, Petunia hybrida, Phaseolus vulgaris, Picea spp., Pinus spp., Pinus lambertiana, P. mugo, P. nigra, P. radiata, Pistacia lentiscus, P. vera, Pisum spp., Populus simonii, Prunus amygdalus, P. armeniaca, P. avium, P. mahaleb, P. persica, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Rhododendron catawbiense, R. maximum, Rubus idaeus, Saintpaulia ionantha, Salvia officinalis,

70 Simmondsia chinensis, Sinningia speciosa, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. marginatum, S. melongena, S. tuberosum, Spinacia oleracea, Syzygium samarangense, Tagetes erecta, Tanacetum cinerariifolium, Triticum aestivum, Tulipa spp., Vaccinium oxycoccous, Vicia faba, V. sativa, V. villosa, V. Viola, Vitis vinifera, Zinnia elegans

57. *Phytophthora Stem rot, Seed, soil, Aeschynomene Australia Irwin and Mackie macrochlamydospora wilt plant debris indica, Glycine 2000 reported that it J.A.G. Irwin disease of max, Indigofera is a Group VI soybean, hirsute, Kennedia Phytophthora species,

71 Phytophth rubicunda, Vigna producing non- ora wilt of angularis papillate sporangia soybean and antheridia are always amphigynous. It produces large (up to 90 µm), thick- walled chlamydospores that distinguish it from all other Group VI species.

Drenth and Irwin, (2001) used PCR- based diagnostics for detection of different species of Phytophthora.

Stovold and Smith (1991) reported infection up to 30% and loss of yield in soybean.

72 58. *#Phytophthora sojae Phytophth Seed, fruit, Glycine max, Argentina, Fifty five Kaufm. & Gerd. ora root plant debris Lupinus spp. Australia, Brazil, physiological races [teleomorph] and stem Canada, Central had been identified on rot, root Russia, Chile, China, the basis of their Synonyms and stem France, Iran, Italy, reaction to host Phytophthora rot of Japan, Korea differentials (Abney megasperma f.sp. soybean Republic of, Russia, et al., 1997; Ryley et glycinea T.L. Kuan & Pakistan, Ukraine, al., 1998; Leitz et al., Erwin, USA 2000). Yield losses up P. megasperma var. to 72% were reported sojae Hildebr. (Ryley et al., 1989). [teleomorph], P. sojae f.sp. glycines Faris et al.

59. *Verticillium nigrescens Seed Seed, soil, Glycine max, China, Japan, USA Millar and Roy Pethybridge reduction plant debris Gossypium spp., (1982) reported of soybean Solanum isolating it from tuberosum leaves, pods and seeds of soybean.

Bacteria

60. *♠Burkholderia cepacia Slippery Seed, bulb, Allium spp., Argentina, Australia, Amplification of (ex Burkholder) skin of plant debris A. cepa, Brazil, Canada, genomic DNA via Yabuuchi et al. onion, A. sativum, Egypt, Italy, Japan, repetitive sequence- sour skin Brassica rapa Korea, Nigeria, based PCR using

73 Synonyms of onion subsp. pekinensis, Papua New Guinea, primers specific for Pseudomonas cepacia (ex Cymbidium spp., USA, Venezuela repetitive extragenic Burkholder) Palleroni & Dendrobium spp., palindromic elements, Holmes, Euphorbia followed by cloning P. kingii Jonsson, pulcherrima, of the amplified P. multivorans Stanier, Glycine max, fragments can detect Palleroni & Doudoroff Gossypium spp., the presence of as few Hordeum vulgare, as 10 cells in a mixed Lactuca sativa, sample (Matheson et Malus domestica, al., 1997). Nicotiana tabacum, Paphiopedilum Yield losses of 5-50% spp., Phaseolus were recorded vulgaris, Pisum (Schwartz and sativum, Solanum Mohan, 1995). lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. tuberosum, Zea mays

61. *#Curtobacterium Bacterial Seed, fruit, Glycine max, Australia, Brazil, Detected in infected flaccumfaciens pv. tan spot, plant debris Ipomoea spp., Canada, Mauritius, seeds of P. vulgaris flaccumfaciens (Hedges) bean wilt Lablab purpureus, Romania, Russia, by PCR (Tegli et al., Collins & Jones Phaseolus Tunisia, USA 2002). Sporadic yield coccineus, losses up to 19% have Synonyms P. lunatus, been recorded in Bacterium flaccumfaciens P. vulgaris, Vigna soybean in USA Hedges, angularis, (Dunleavy, 1984).

74 Corynebacterium V. radiata, flaccumfaciens pv. V. unguiculata, flaccumfaciens (Hedges) Zornia spp. Dowson, Phytomonas flaccumfaciens (Hedges) Bergey et al., Pseudomonas flaccumfaciens (Hedges) Stevens

62. ♣Pseudomonas Bacterial Seed, fruit, Brassica rapa Argentina, Australia, Taylor et al. (1996) savastanoi pv. alfalfa plant debris subsp. pekinensis, Austria, Barbados, reported that a phaseolicola stem Cajanus cajan, Belgium, Brazil, number of races (1, 2, (Burkholder) Gardan et blight, Centrosema spp., Bulgaria, Burundi 5, 6 and 7) were al. bacterial Datura Canada, Chile, distributed worldwide bean stramonium, Colombia, Congo and race 6 is Synonyms blight, Desmodium spp., Democratic predominant. Other Bacterium medicaginis bacterial Glycine max, Republic, Costa races were found var. phaseolicola pear Ipomoea batatas, Rica, mainly in Africa: (Burkholder) Link & canker, Lactuca sativa, Czechoslovakia races 3 and 4 in East/ Hull, bacterial Lablab purpureus, (erstwhile), Central Africa and B. puerariae Hedges, stone fruit Phaseolus spp., Denmark, races 8 and 9 in Phytomonas medicaginis canker, P. acutifolius, Dominican Southern Africa. P. var. phaseolicola bacterial P. coccineus, Republic, Egypt, savastanoi pv. Burkholder, trees P. lunatus, Ethiopia, Fiji, phaseolicola can be P. puerariae (Hedges), canker, P. vulgaris, Pisum France, Georgia, specifically identified Bergey et al., P. vignae grease sativum, Pyrus Germany, Greece, using PCR (Audy et.

75 (Gardn. & spot of communis, Vigna Guadeloupe, al., 1996; Borowicz et Kendr.) Karassilnikov, beans, angularis, Hungary, India, al., 2002). Pseudomonas cerasi halo blight V. radiata, Ireland, Israel, Italy, (=cerasus) Griffin, of beans V. unguiculata Japan, Jersey, Yield losses of 43% P. holci Kendrick, Kenya, Lesotho, in UK and 23-43% in P. medicaginis Lithuania, USA were observed P. medicaginis f.sp. Madagascar, under experimental phaseolicola Malawi, Martinique, conditions (Allen et (Burkholder) Dowson, Mauritius, Mexico, al., 1998). P. medicaginis var. Morocco, phaseolicola Mozambique, Reported from India, (Burkholder) Stapp & Netherlands, New but a number of races Kotte, Zealand, Pakistan, are known to occur P. phaseolicola Peru, Poland, worldover, hence it is (Burkholder) Dowson, Romania, Russia, of quarantine P. syringae pv. Rwanda, Saint significance. phaseolicola Vincent and the (Burkholder) Young et Grenadines, Saudi al., Arabia, South P. vignae Gardner & Africa, Spain, Kendrick, Suriname, Xanthomonas Swaziland, Sweden , medicaginis var. Switzerland, phaseolicola Tanzania, Turkey, (Burkholder) Elliott, Uganda, UK, USA, X. phaseolicola Venezuela, Yemen, Yugoslavia (erstwhile), Zambia, Zimbabwe

76 63. *#Pseudomonas Bacterial Seed, fruit, Actinidia chinensis, Argentina, Australia, Detected and viridiflava (Burkholder) leaf blight plant debris Allium cepa, Belgium, Brazil, identified by LOPAT Dowson of tomato, A. fistulosum, Bulgaria, China, determinative tests bacterial Anethum Czech Republic, (Lelliott et al. 1966) Synonyms leaf graveolens, Apium Egypt, France, and a PCR assay Bacterium viridiflavum necrosis of graveolens, Germany, Greece, (Jakob et al., 2002). (Burkholder) Burgvits, basil, Brassica spp., Hungary, Iran, Italy, Chlorobacter viridiflavus bacterial B. oleracea var. Japan, Jordan, Atypical isolates (Burkholder) Patel & rot of botrytis, Kenya, Korea could be identified by Kulkarni, Chinese B. oleracea, (Republic), Nepal, RFLP method using Phytomonas viridiflava cabbage, B. oleracea, Macedonia, 16S rDNA digestions Burkholder bacterial B. rapa subsp. Morocco, with selected rot of pekinensis, Netherlands, New endonucleases , SacI lettuce, Calendula Zealand, Poland, and HinfI (Gonzalez bacterial officinalis, Portugal, Serbia and et al., 2003). Czelleng soft rot of Capsicum spp., Montenegro, et al. (2006) isolated tomato, C. annuum, Slovakia, Spain, and characterized the Hydrange C. frutescens, Switzerland, gene mviNpv encoding a bud Carthamus Tanzania, Turkey, a putative novel blight tinctorius, Uganda, UK, USA, membrane associated Chrysanthemum Venezuela, virulence factor of P. indicum, Yugoslavia viridiflava. They also Cichorium endivia, (erstwhile) reported that a Citrus aurantium, mutation in mviNpv C. macrophylla, influence motility as C. sinensis, well as virulence of P. Coriandrum viridiflava. sativum, Cryptotaenia canadensis,

77 Cucumis melo, C. sativus, Cucurbita maxima, Cyclamen persicum, Eschscholzia californica, Euphorbia pulcherrima, Eutrema wasabi, Forsythia suspensa, Glycine max, Hydrangea spp., Lablab purpureus, Lotus corniculatus, Lupinus angustifolius, Medicago sativa, Nicotiana rustica, Ocimum basilicum, Papaver spp., P. nudicaule, Passiflora edulis, Pastinaca sativa, Petroselinum crispum, Petunia hybrida, Phaseolus coccineus, P. lunatus,

78 P. vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Prunus armeniaca, P. avium, Pseudopanax spp., Pyrus communis, Raphanus sativus, Rosa spp., Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), Sorghum bicolor, S. sudanense, Tanacetum coccineum, Trifolium pratense, Tropaeolum majus, Vaccinium corymbosum, Vicia faba, Vigna angularis, V. unguiculata, Viola spp., Vitis vinifera, Zea mays, Zinnia elegans

79 64. *♠Rhizobium rhizogenes Bacterial Seed Abies alba, Algeria, Australia, Velazquez et al. (Riker et al.) Young et al. gall, (contamina- A. concolor, Brazil, Bulgaria, (2005) reported that bacterial nt), rooted A. firma, Canada, China, the legume Synonyms stem gall, cuttings, A. grandis, Estonia, France, endosymbionts Agrobacterium biovar 2 beet bare-rooted A. nordmanniana, French West Indies, contain nod and nif (Riker et al., ) Conn, A. crown seedlings Acalypha spp., Indonesia, Italy, genes responsible for radiobacter (Beijerinck gall, burr Acer spp., Japan, Malawi, nodule formation and & Van Delden) Kerr et knot, A. saccharinum, Malaysia, Portugal, nitrogen fixation, al., crown Achillea Russia, Siberia, respectively, whereas A. rhizogenes (Riker et gall, millefolium, South Africa, Spain, the pathogenic strains al.) Conn, crown gall Actinidia chinensis, Taiwan, Ukraine, carry vir genes A. tumefaciens biovar 2, of beet, Aesculus spp., USA responsible for the A. tumefaciens biotype 2, crown A. hippocastanum, formation of tumors Bacterium rhizogenes knot, gall, Ageratum or hairy roots. Also, Riker et al., hairy root houstonianum, reported for the first Erwinia rhizogenes of apple, Alcea rosea, time that the (Riker et al.) Dowson, root gall, Allamanda spp., occurrence of two Phytomonas rhizogenes root knot, Althaea cannabina, rhizobial strains Riker et al. Rosaceae Allium cepa, Alnus belonging to R. crown gall rubra, Amaranthus rhizogenes was able caudatus, Anagallis to induce hairy roots arvensis, Anemone or tumors in plants spp., Antirrhinum and nodulate P. majus, Apium vulgaris under natural graveolens, conditions. Symbiotic Apocynum plasmids (pSym) cannabinum, containing nod and Aporocactus nif genes and pTi- or flagelliformis, pRi-type plasmids Aralia cordata, containing vir genes

80 Arbutus unedo, were found in these Ardisia crispa, strains. Armoracia rusticana, Detected by PCR Artemisia spp., (Aida et al., 2004). Asclepias Wide diversity has curassavica, been reported among A. syriaca, strains from various Asparagus plant hosts, planting densiflorus, sites and even the A. officinalis, same gall. Variability A. setaceus, Aster exists between strains spp., A. amellus, from the same tumour Atropa belladonna, also. Begonia spp., Bellis perennis, Benincasa hispida, Beta vulgaris var. altissima, Betula spp., B. pendula, Borago officinalis, Brassica spp., B. napus var. napus, B. nigra, B. oleracea, B. oleracea var. subvar. cymosa, B. rapa subsp. rapa, Bryophyllum pinnatum, Cajanus

81 cajan, Calendula spp., Callistephus chinensis, Calocedrus decurrens, Calotropis procera, Calystegia sepium, Camellia japonica, C. sinensis, Campanula pyramidalis, Canavalia ensiformis, Cannabis sativa, Capsicum annuum, Caragana arborescens, Carthamus tinctorius, Carya illinoinensis, Castanea dentata, C. sativa, Catharanthus roseus, Ceanothus spp., Celtis occidentalis, Centaurea cyanus, Cerasus vulgaris, Chaenomeles japonica,

82 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana, Chenopodium album, C. giganteum, Chimonanthus praecox, Chrysanthemum coronarium, C. frutescens, Cichorium spp., Cirsium arvense, Citrullus lanatus, Citrus aurantium, C. limetta, C. limon, C. maxima, C. sinensis, Citrus x paradisi, Clematis spp., Codiaeum variegatum, Coleus blumei, Conium maculatum, Corchorus capsularis, Coriandrum sativum, Cornus florida, Corylus avellana, Cosmos

83 bipinnatus, Crataegus spp., Cucumis melo, C. sativus, Cucurbita maxima, C. pepo, Cunninghamia lanceolata, Cupressus macrocarpa, Cydonia oblonga, Cynara scolymus, Dahlia pinnata, Daphne mezereum, Datura innoxia, D. metel, D. stramonium, Daucus carota, Delonix regia, Dianthus barbatus, D. caryophyllus, Digitalis purpurea, Dioscorea spp., D. alata, Diospyros kaki, D. lotus, Elaeagnus angustifolia, Episcia dianthiflora, Epilobium

84 hirsutum, Eriobotrya japonica, Erodium cicutarium, Erysimum cheiri, Eucalyptus citriodora, Euonymus fortunei, Euphorbia helioscopia, E. marginata, E. pulcherrima, Ficus carica, F. elastica, Foeniculum vulgare, Forsythia intermedia, F. suspensa, Fragaria vesca, Fraxinus spp., F. americana, Fuchsia magellanica, Galinsoga parviflora, Gardenia spp., Geranium carolinianum, Glycine max, Gossypium

85 hirsutum, Gypsophila paniculata, Hatiora gaertneri, Helianthus annuus, H. tuberosus, Hibiscus sabdariffa, Humulus lupulus, Hydrangea spp., Ilex aquifolium, Impatiens balsamina, Ipomoea batatas, Juglans cinerea, J. nigra, J. regia, Juniperus chinensis, J. virginiana, Kalanchoe spp., K. blossfeldiana, Kerria japonica, Lactuca sativa, Lantana camara, Larix spp., Lathyrus L. odoratus, L. sativus, Lespedeza spp., Lens culinaris

86 subsp. culinaris, Leucanthemum vulgare, Ligustrum spp., Linum usitatissimum, Lonicera periclymenum, L. tatarica, Lupinus spp., Lycium spp., Lythrum salicaria, Macadamia ternifolia, Maclura pomifera, Malva spp., Mangifera indica, Manihot esculenta, Medicago sativa, Momordica balsamina, Morus alba, M. nigra, Musa x paradisiaca, Myoporum spp., Myosotis spp., Nerium oleander, Nicandra physaloides, Nicotiana alata, N. glauca, N. rustica,

87 N. tabacum, Oenothera biennis, Pachysandra terminalis, Paeonia lactiflora, P. officinalis, Parthenocissus spp., P. quinquefolia, P. tricuspidata, Passiflora spp., Pastinaca sativa, Pelargonium spp., P. grandiflorum, P. graveolens, Penstemon hybrida, Pericallis cruenta, Persea americana, Petroselinum crispum, Petunia hybrida, Phaseolus lunatus,P. vulgaris, Philadelphus spp., Philodendron spp., Phlox spp., P. drummondii, P. paniculata, Pinus spp., Piper spp., Pisum spp.,

88 P. sativum, Platycladus orientalis, Populus spp., P. alba, P. balsamifera, P. canescens, P. deltoides, Primula obconica, Prosopis chilensis, P. juliflora, Prunus spp., P. americana, P. amygdalus, Prunus angustifolia, P. armeniaca, P. avium, P. cerasifera, P. domestica, P. mume, P. nigra, P. persica, P. salicina, P. serotina, P. serrulata, P. spinosa, P. tomentosa, P. umbellata, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Punica granatum,

89 Pyracantha coccinea, Pyrus spp., P. communis, Raphanus sativus, Rheum hybridum, Rhododendron spp., Ribes nigrum spp., R. rubrum, Ricinus communis, Rosa centifolia, R. chinensis, R. multiflora, R. rugosa, Rosmarinus officinalis, Rubus spp., R. idaeus, R. loganobaccus, R. occidentalis, Rosa spp., Rudbeckia laciniata, Ruta graveolens, Saintpaulia ionantha, Salix spp., S. alba, S. babylonica, S. caprea, Salvia officinalis, Scabiosa atropurpurea,

90 Schinus molle, Sciadopitys verticillata, Scorzonera hispanica, Sechium edule, Sedum spp., S. sieboldii, S. spectabile, Sequoia sempervirens, Sesamum indicum, Sinapis alba, Solanum spp., S. laciniatum, S. lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. melongena, S. nigrum, S. tuberosum, Solidago canadensis, Sorbus americana, Spiraea vanhouttei, Stapelia spp., Symphoricarpos albus, Syringa spp., S. vulgaris, Tagetes erecta, T. patula, Tanacetum

91 coccineum, Taraxacum officinale, Taxus baccata, T. brevifolia, T. media, Theobroma cacao, Thuja occidentalis, T. plicata, Tilia platyphyllos, Torreya californica, Tragopogon porrifolius, Trifolium pratense, T. repens, Tropaeolum majus, Ulmus americana, U. glabra, U. pumila, Urtica urens, Vaccinium spp., Valeriana officinalis, Viburnum spp., Vicia faba, V. sativa, V. Villosa, Vigna radiata, Vinca major, V. minor, Vitis labrusca,

92 V. vinifera, Wisteria sinensis, Xanthium strumarium, Zinnia elegans

65. *Xanthomonas Bacterial Seed, plant Cannabis sativa, Japan, Korea, Overwinters in crop campestris pv. cannabis leaf spot debris Cucumis sativus, Romania refuge and infected Severin of hemp Glycine max, seeds (McPartland et Humulus lupulus, al., 2000). It is a Morus spp., regulated quarantine Nicotiana tabacum, pest in New Zealand. Phaseolus vulgaris Hot water treatment either at 500C for 30 mins. or at 600C for 10 mins. has been recommended (http://www.biosecuri ty.govt.nz/files/biosec /consult/ihs-cannabis- ss-draft.pdf).

Viruses

66. ♠ø♦Arabis mosaic virus Forsythia Seed, Alstroemeria sp., Australia, Austria, Transmitted by seed (ArMV) yellow nematode Anagallis arvensis, Belgium, Bulgaria, in 20 species of 14 net, hop (Xiphinema Apium graveolens, Canada, Croatia, families and causes Family: bare-bine bakeri, Arabis sp., Czech Republic, up to 100% infection

93 : Nepovirus X. diversica- A. hirsute, Denmark, Finland, (Murant, 1985). Seed udatum, Armoracia France, Germany, transmission up to X. coxi) rusticana, Hungary, India 12% was reported in (Murant, Asparagus (Palampur, G. max (Richardson, 1985) officinalis, Astilbe Himachal Pradesh 1990). Seed sp., Bellis perennis, on rose and not on transmission rates of Beta vulgaris var. soybean), Ireland, 2, 13 and 60-100% altissima, Buxus Italy, Japan, were reported in sempervirens, Kazakhstan, Latvia, tomato, beet and Capsella bursa- Lithuania, lettuce, respectively pastoris, Luxembourg, (Murant, 1983). Chamaecyparis Moldova, lawsoniana, Netherlands, New Most of the isolates of Chenopodium Zealand, Norway, ArMV are album, C. quinoa, Poland, Romania, indistinguishable Cucumis sativus, Russia, Slovenia, serologically, but Cucurbita pepo, South Africa, those from hop and Cyphomandra Sweden, one from barley in betacea, Daphne Switzerland, Turkey, Switzerland are mezereum, Daucus Ukraine, UK, distinguishable from carota, Delphinium Yugoslavia the type strain. (Jones sp., Dianthus (erstwhile). et al., 1989). caryophyllus, Euonymus Causes yield losses up europaeus, to 75% (Summit plant Forsythia laboratories, 2010). intermedia, Fragaria vesca, Reported on rose Fraxinus excelsior, from Himachal Glycine max, Pradesh but not

94 Hedera helix, reported on grain Hordeum vulgare, legumes including Humulus lupulus, soybean in India, Jasminum hence it is of officinale, Lactuca quarantine sativa, Lamium significance. amplexicaule, Ligustrum vulgare, Melilotus officinalis, Mentha arvensis, Myosotis arvensis, Narcissus sp., Nicotiana clevelandii, N. rustica, N. xanthi, Petunia hybrida, P. violacea, Phaseolus coccineus, Plantago lanceolata, P. major, Poa annua, Polygonum aviculare, P. persicaria, Prunus avium, P. domestica, P. persica, Ranunculus repens,

95 Rheum hybridum, R. rhaponticum, Ribes nigrum, Rosa spp., Rubus idaeus, R. hedycarpus subsp. procerus, Sambucus nigra, Senecio vulgaris, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S.nigrum, Stellaria media, Syringa vulgaris, Taraxacum officinale, Trifolium repens, Tulipa spp., Urtica dioica, U. urens and Vitis vinifera (CAB International, 2007; Murant, 1985; Richardson, 1990)

96 * 67. Bean mild mosaic virus Bean mild Seed, Glycine max, Colombia, El Seed transmission up (BMMV) mosaic (Cerotoma Phaseolus Salvador, Russia to 6% was reported in acutifolius, (Karasev et al., 1989 P. vulgaris (Kumar et ruficornis, Family: Tombusviridae Diabrotica P. vulgaris Waterworth; 1981) al., 1994). The virus Genus: Carmovirus (Waterworth, 1981) is extremely balteata, infectious in legumes Epilachna varivestis, and spreads Gynandro- uncontrollably among beans in the brotica variabilis) greenhouse, often without inciting symptoms. After an acquisition access time of 18 h, D. undecimpunctata howardi can transmit the virus for at least 30 h after removal from virus-infected plants (Waterworth, 1981).

68. *♦Bean pod mottle virus Bean pod Seed, beetles Glycine max, Brazil, Canada, Seed-transmitted at a (BPMV) mottle, (Cerotoma Desmodium Ecuador, Iran, Peru, rate of 0.037 to 0.1% pod mottle trifurcata, paniculatum, USA in G. max. It causes Family: Secoviridae of bean the main Lespedeza striata, yield-reductions Genus: vector of the Mucuna pruriens ranging from 3 to virus and var. utilis, 52.4% and seed coat other beetles Phaseolus vulgaris, discolouration. The

97 Colaspis Trifolium deleterious effects of flavida, incarnatum, Vigna BPMV infection are C. late, unguiculata not limited to seed Diabrotica yield but extend to balteata, seed quality, because D. undecim- it predisposes soybean punctata seeds to Phomopsis howardii, spp. infection, a major D. virgifera cause of poor seed virgifera quality in soybean. Epicauta More than 90% seed vittata, samples harvested Epilachna from BPMV-infected varivestis, field plots in the US, Popillia showed mottling. japonica), Combined infection soybean of BPMV and leafminer (Odontota (SMV) reduces yield horni), grafts by 66%. Seed coat (CAB mottling and dark International, pigments have often 2007; Fulton, been problematic for 1985; Werner soybean farmers and et al., 2002) industry as it reduces consumer acceptance (Ziems et al., 2001; Giesler et al., 2002).

Two distinct

98 subgroups of BPMV strains (subgroups I and II) as well as reassortants between the two subgroups have been reported (Giesler et al., 2002).

69. *#♦Broad bean stain Broad Seed, weevils Cicer arietinum, Africa (as a whole), Seed transmission virus (BBSV) bean stain (Apion Glycine max, Austria, Australia, rates of BBSV can be arrogans, Lathyrus sp. China, Czech very high, up to 20% Family: Secoviridae A. vorax, (L. odaratus), Lens Republic, Egypt, in V. faba (Mali et al., Genus: Comovirus Sitona sp., culinaris subsp. Ethiopia, Germany, 2003, Edwardson and S. crinita, culinaris, Hungary, Iran, Italy, Christie, 1991), 50% S. limosus, Macrotyloma Jordan, Lebanon, in P. sativum S. lineatus), axillare, Melilotus Libya, Morocco, (Fiedorow et al., pollen albus, Phaseolus Poland, Slovakia, 2002) and 27% in L. (Gibbs, 1987; vulgaris, Pisum Sudan, Syria, culinaris (Kumari et PaDIL - sativum, Spinacia Tunisia, Turkey, al., 1993; Al-Khalaf Plant oleracea, Trifolium UK, USSR et al., 2002). Yield Biosecurity hybridum, (erstwhile) (CAB losses can also be Toolbox, T. incarnatum, International, 2007; high, for example, 2011) Vicia faba, PaDIL - Plant pre-flowering V. palaestina, Biosecurity Toolbox, infection in some V. sativa, V. faba, 2011) lentils led to a 77.4% Vigna unguiculata seed yield loss (CAB (Mabrouk and International, 2007; Mansour, 1998). The PaDIL - Plant seeds from infected

99 Biosecurity plants are small in Toolbox, 2011; size as compared to Fidan and seeds from uninfected Yorganci, 1990; plants. The crinkling Edeme and and necrotic spots Hanson, 2000) (stains) on soyabean seeds makes them unsaleable. It has a number of different strains, which vary in the severity of symptoms they cause and seed transmission rates (Kumari et al., 1996).

70. *♠♦Cherry leaf roll virus Berteroa Seed, Arachis hypogaea, Australia, Albania, Seed transmission up (CLRV) ringspot, budwood, Atriplex hortensis, Belgium, Bulgaria, to 40% was reported blackline grafts, pollen, Betula pendula, Canada, Chile, in P. vulgaris Family: Secoviridae disease of rooted Chinopodium China, Croatia, (Richardson, 1990). It Genus: Nepovirus walnut, cuttings quinoa, Cornus Czech Republic, is seed-borne in many dogwood florida, Euonymus Czechoslovakia natural and ringspot, europaeus, Fagus (erstwhile), Finland, experimental hosts elm sylvatica, Fraxinus France, Germany, including birch, black mosaic, excelsior, Glycine Hungary, Italy, cherry and walnut. golden max, Juglans Netherlands, New Seeds from infected elderberry, regia, Lathyrus Zealand, Norway, walnut trees, stored at red elder odoratus, Poland, Portugal, 2-5oC, showed seed- ringspot, Ligustrum sp., Olea Romania, Russia, transmission rate of

100 sambucus europaea, Serbia and 62.5% after 45 days ringspot, Phaseolus vulgaris, Montenegro, and 16.6% after 1 sambucus Pisum sativum, Slovakia, Slovenia, year period. In the yellow Plantago sp., Spain, Switzerland, presence of other net, Pranus serotina, Turkey, UK, USA, viruses, it renders Walnut Prunus avium, Yougoslavia mature trees non- ringspot, Ptelea trifoliata, (erstwhile) (CAB productive in two to walnut Rubus idaeus R. International, 2007; four years. black line, hedycarpus subsp. Novak and Lanzova, walnut procerus, Rumex 1981) A wide range of yellow sp., Sambucus serological variants vein canadensis, exist. Isolates from S. ebulus, S. nigra, different natural host S. racemosa, species are Syringa vulgaris, serologically Ulmus americana, distinguishable from Vigna unguiculata each other whereas (CAB most isolates from a International, 2007; single host species are Schimanski et al., not (Jones, 1976; 1976; Tobias, 1985). Serological 1995; Richardson, variants have been 1990) reported from privet (Schmelzer, 1972), dogwood (Walkey et al., 1973), walnut (Savino et al., 1977; Cooper and Edwards, 1980) and American elm.

101 71. *Cocoa necrosis virus Cacao Seed, Glycine max, Colombia, Ghana, Seed transmission up (CoNV) necrosis, nematode Phaseolus lunatus, Indonesia, Nigeria, to 24% was reported cocoa (Brunt, 1984) P. vulgaris, Sri Lanka, in G. max, P. lunatus Family: Comoviridae necrosis Theobroma cacao Venezuela and P. vulgaris. The Genus: Nepovirus (CAB Ghana isolate is International, 2007; distinguished from Kenten, 1977; Nigerian isolates by Richardson, 1990) its greater virulence. Many variants have been recorded. Well- known strains include Bisa, Bosumtwe, Ikiri, Kpeve, Mampong, New Juaben, Nsaba and Offa Igbo (Brunt, 1984; Kenten, 1977).

72. *♦Cowpea severe mosaic Cowpea Seed, insects Canavalia Brazil, Costa Rica, Seed-transmitted up virus (CPSMV) severe (Acalymma ensiformis, El Salvador, Peru, to 10% in V. mosaic vittatum, Crotalaria juncea, Puerto Rico, South unguiculata and 8% Family: Secoviridae Ceratoma Glycine max, sp., Africa, Suriname, in V. unguiculata Genus: Comovirus arcuata, Macroptilium Trinidad, Tobago, subsp. sesquipedalis C. ruficornis, lathyroides, USA, Venezuela C. trifurcata, Phaseolus vulgaris, (Jager, 1979; Incidence up to 100% C. variegata, Psophocarpus Richardson, 1990) and 50% reduction in Chalcoder- tetragonolobus, fresh plant weight, mus Vigna radiata, number and weight of bimaculatus, V. unguiculata, pods have been

102 Diabrotica V. unguiculata reported in V. balteata, subsp. unguiculata (Jager, D. speciosa, sesquipedalis 1979). D. undecim- punctata, Isolates from D. virgifera, Arkansas, Trinidad Diphaulaca and Puerto Rico seem sp., to differ in host range Epilachna (Shepherd, 1964) or varivestis), symptomatology and pollen antigenic properties (Thongmeearkom and Goodman, 1978). Therefore, represent distinct strains (Jager, 1979).

73. ♠ø♦Grapevine fan leaf Grapevine Seed, Aristolochia Albania, Algeria, Seed transmission virus (GFLV) vein nematodes clematitis, Argentina, Armenia, was reported in C. banding, (Xiphinema Chenopodium Australia, Austria, amaranticolor, C. Family: Secoviridae grapevine index, amaranticolor, Bolivia , Bosnia and quinoa and G. max. Genus: Nepovirus yellow X. italiae), C. quinoa, Glycine Herzegovina, Brazil, Fanleaf strain, yellow mosaic grafts, pollen max, Sonchus Bulgaria, Canada, mosaic strain and oleraceus, Vitis Chile, China, veinbanding strain vinifera (CAB Croatia, Cyprus, have been reported International, 2007; Czech Republic, (ICTV dB Richardson, 1990) Czechoslovakia Management, 2006). (erstwhile), Egypt, France, Germany, Australia, Hungary,

103 Greece, Hungary, Israel, former India (not on grain Czechoslovakia legumes including (erstwhile), Tunisia, soybean), Iran, Turkey and the USA Israel, Italy, Japan, have declared Jordan, Kazakhstan, quarantine for GFLV Lebanon, (Walter, 1993). Yield Macedonia, reductions in Madagascar, Malta, grapevine in the range Mexico, Moldova, of 12-98% have been Morocco, New reported in different Zealand, Nigeria, countries viz., Chile, Philippines, Italy, France, Portugal, Romania, Germany and Russia, Serbia and Switzerland. Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Reported in India on South Africa, Spain, grapes, but not on Switzerland, Syria, grain legumes Tunisia, Turkey, including soybean. Ukraine, USA, The strain infecting Venezuela grain legumes is not known to occur in India, hence it is of quarantine significance.

104 74. *Mulberry ringspot virus Mulberry Seed, Glycine max, Japan Seed transmission up (MRSV) ringspot nematode Morus alba to 10% was reported (Longidorus in G. max. Symptoms Family: Secoviridae martini) persist and vary Genus: Nepovirus (Brunt and seasonally (Brunt and Tsuchizaki, Tsuchizaki, 1987). 1987)

75. *#♦Pea enation mosaic Pea Seed, aphids Anthyllis, Bulgaria, Canada, Seed-transmissible virus (PEMV) enation (Acyrthosiph Astragalus, China, (1.5%) in P. sativum mosaic on pisum, Chenopodium Czekhoslovakia (Richardson, 1990). Family: Luteoviridae A. solani, quinoa, (erstwhile); Egypt, The virus-infected L. Genus: Enamovirus Aphis C. amaranticolor, Germany, Iran, albus and V. faba gossypii, C. album, Lebanon, Morocco, plants produced fewer Aulacorthum Canavalia Poland, Sudan, root nodules, and solani, gladiata, Cicer Syria, Tunisia, UK, decreased mass by Macrosiph- spp., Gomphrena USA, USSR 60-70%. The root um avenae, globosa, Glycine (erstwhile), nodules of virus- M. euphor- max, Lathyrus Yugoslavia infected plants lost biae, Myzus odoratus, Lens (erstwhile) (CAB their capacity for ornatus, culinaris subsp. International, 2007; nitrogen fixation at an M. persicae, culinaris, Lotus sp., Cockbain, 1983; earlier date Rhopalosi- Lupinus albus, Jurik and Musil, (Blaszczak et al., phum padi, Medicago sp., 1989; Richardson, 1974). Schizaphis Melilotus sp., 1990; Makkouk et graminum) Nicotiana al., 1988; Makkouk Several PEMV (Peters, benthamiana, et al., 2002) isolates have been 1982) N. clevelandii, distinguished on the N. tabacum, basis of differences in

105 Phaseolus spp., aphid transmissibility Pisum sativum, and electrophoretic Trifolium sp., Vicia mobility (Demler et spp., V. faba (CAB al., 1996). Sequence International 2007; variability in PEMV-1 Blaszczak et al., and in PEMV-2 1974; Jurik and resulting in alterations Musil, 1989) in aphid transmissibility and systemic movement account for the complexity of strain interactions (Peters, 1982).

76. *#♠Peanut stunt virus Groundnut Seed, aphids Apium graveolens, China, France, Seed transmissions of (PSV) stunt, (Aphis Arachis hypogaea, Georgia, Hungary, 13-18% in G. max peanut craccivora, Coronilla varia, Italy, Japan, Korea, (Lizuka and Yoshida, Family: Bromoviridae stunt, A. Datura (DPR), Korea 1988) 0.1% in A. Genus: Cucumovirus robinia spiraecola, stramonium, (Republic), hypogaea (Kumar et mosaic Myzus Glycine max, Morocco, Poland, al., 1994) have been persicae), Lupinus albus, Spain, Sudan, USA reported. dodder L. luteus, Medicago sativa, Nicotiana Two major strains tabacum, viz., Eastern strain Phaseolus vulgaris, and Western strain Pisum sativum, have been reported Solanum which differ in host lycopersicon, range, serological

106 Tephrosia sp., relationships and Trifolium particle stability. hybridum, T. incarnatum, T. pratense, T. repens, T. subterraneum, T. vesiculosum, Vicia faba, Vigna angularis, V. unguiculata

77. *♠♦Raspberry ringspot Cherry Seed, Cynara Austria, Belgium, Seed-transmitted in virus (RpRSV) rasp leaf, nematodes cardunculus var. Bulgaria, G. max (Richardson, European (Longidorus scolymus, Daphne Czechoslovakia 1990). Many Family: Secoviridae rasp leaf elongatus, sp., Forsythia sp., (erstwhile), Czech serological variants of Genus: Nepovirus of cherry, L. Fragaria ananassa, Republic, Finland, RpRSV are known leaf macrosoma), Glycine max, France, Germany, and isolates differing distortion pollen Ligustrum vulgare, Greece, Hungary, considerably in host of Narcissus sp., Ireland, Italy, range and gooseberr Phlox sp., Prunus Kazakhstan, symptomatology were y, avium, Ribes sp., Luxembourg, also reported. Isolates raspberry Rubus idaeus, Netherlands, that have been most Lloyd Sambucus nigra, Norway, Poland, studied belong to two George Vitis vinifera, Russia, Serbia and serotypes, viz., yellow Weigela sp. (CAB Montenegro, Scottish and English blotch, International, 2007; Slovakia, Spain, (Brunt, 1992). ringspot Richardson, 1990) Switzerland, Turkey, disease of Ukraine, UK, USA,

107 flowering USSR (erstwhile), currant, Yugoslavia ringspot (erstwhile) (CAB disease of International, 2007; raspberry, Brunt, 1992) ringspot disease of redcurrant, ringspot disease of strawberry , ringspot of raspberry, spoonleaf of red currant

78. ♠♦Tomato black ring Black ring Seed, Allium Albania, Belarus, Seed transmission is virus of tomato, nematodes ampeloprasum, Belgium, Bulgaria, reported in at least 24 (TBRV) bouquet of (Longidorus A. cepa, Apium Canada, Chile, species in 15 families. potato, attenuatus, graveolens, Beta Czechoslovakia In many hosts >10%, Family: Secoviridae pseudo- L. elongatus), vulgaris var. (erstwhile), Croatia, and in some 100% of Genus: Nepovirus aucuba of pollen altissima, Brassica Finland, France, progeny seedlings potato, napus var. Germany, Greece, were infected ring spot napobrassica, B. Hungary, India (not (Murant, 1970). of bean, rapa subsp. rapa, on grain legumes ring spot Cajanus cajan, including soybean) Seed transmission up of beet, Capsicum sp., Ireland, Italy, Japan, to 25% was reported

108 ring spot Capsella bursa- Moldova, in C. cajan, 24% in P. of lettuce, pastoris, Cucumis Netherlands, vulgaris, 67.5% in V. yellow sativus, Cynara Norway, Poland, radiata and 87.5% in vein of cardunculus var. Romania, Russia, V. unguiculata celery scolymus, Serbia and (Richardson, 1990). Forsythia Montenegro, intermedia, Sweden, Total losses were Fragaria ananassa, Switzerland, Turkey, estimated at 20% on Gladiolus sp., UK, Yugoslavia Asparagus in Glycine max, (erstwhile) (CAB infection with other Lactuca sativa, International, 2007; viruses (Weissenfels Lamium Stobbs and Schagen, et al., 1976). amplexicaule, 1984) Ligustrum vulgare, The best known Narcissus, strains are beet Phaseolus vulgaris, ringspot strain, celery, Prunus persica, yellow vein strain, Ribes sanguineum, tomato black ring Robinia strain (type strain), pseudoacacia, lettuce ringspot strain, Rubus ideaus, potato bouquet strain Sambucus nigra, of Köhler and potato Solanum pseudo-aucuba strain lycopersicon of Köhler (Murant, (=Lycopersicon 1970). esculentum), S. melongena, S. Reported in India but tuberosum, Syringa not on grain legumes vulgaris, Vigna including soybean. radiata, The strain infecting

109 V. unguiculata, grain legumes is not Vitis vinifera known to occur in (Stobbs and India, hence it is of Schagen, 1984: quarantine Blaszczak and significance. Pospieszny, 1987; Richardson, 1990; Smrcka and Baburek, 1992)

79. *♠♦Tomato ringspot Apple Seed, Capsicum spp., Argentina, Australia, Varying degrees of virus (ToRSV) union nematodes Cerasus vulgaris, Belarus, Canada, seed transmission necrosis, (Xiphinema Cornus floride, Chile, China, have been reported in Family: Secoviridae chlorosis americanum, Gladiolus sp., Croatia, Cyprus, soyabean (76%), Genus: Nepovirus of X. Glycine max, Egypt, Finland, geranium (6.9%), red pelargoniu californicum, Fragaria France, Germany, clover (7%), m, X. rivesi), chiloensis, Hungary, Iran, Italy, strawberry, raspberry, grapevine grafts, pollen Hydrangea sp., Japan, Jordan, Korea pelargonium, and yellow Lotus corniculatus, (Republic), dandelion vein, Malus domestica, Lithuania, Mexico, (Scarborough and peach Nicotiana tabacum, New Zealand, Smith, 1975; Stace- yellow Pelargonium sp., Oman, Pakistan, Smith, 1984, 1987). bud Prunus armeniaca, Peru, Puerto Rico, mosaic, P. avium, Serbia and Widespread in prunus P. domestica, Montenegro, perennial plant stem P. persica, Ribes Slovakia, Slovenia, species and causes pitting, sp., Rubus idaeus, Tunisia, Turkey, severe decline in redcurrant R. hedycarpus UK, USA, productivity in North

110 chlorosis subsp. procerus, Venezuela, America. The virus is mosaic, Sambucus sp., Yugoslavia prevalent in dandelion ringspot of Solanum (erstwhile) and other weeds tomato, lycopersicon (Powell et al., 1982), yellow (=Lycopersicon and may be blotch curl esculentum), disseminated over of Taraxacum considerable distances raspberry, officinale, in wind-blown seeds yellow Trifolium pratense of infected dandelion bud Vaccinium (Rosenberger et al., mosaic of corymbosum, Vitis 1983). In studies on peach, vinifera raspberries, 10-80% yellow of raspberry canes vein of were partially or grapevine completely killed in three years after becoming infected (Freeman and Stace- Smith, 1968). Converse and Stace- Smith (1971) observed that fruit from infected canes weighed 21% less than normal fruit and the yield of diseased plants was reduced by >50%.

Four strains viz.,

111 tobacco strain, grape yellow vein strain, apple union necrosis nepovirus and euonymus chlorotic ringspot virus have been reported (Stace- Smith, 1987).

Weeds

80. *Abutilon theophrasti China jute, Seed as Allium cepa, Beta Bulgaria, Canada, Causes severe crop Medic. Chinese contamina- vulgaris, Brassica China, Croatia, loss in maize, soybean velvet leaf, tion oleracea var. Denmark, France, and cotton. In USA, it Synonyms lantern, capitata, B. rapa Germany, Greece, is listed as a noxious Abutilon avicennae velvet leaf subsp. rapa, Citrus Hungary, Italy, weed in the state of Gaertn. spp., Glycine max, Japan, Kazakhstan, Colorado, a secondary Sida abutilon L. Gossypium Korea (Republic), noxious weed in Iowa hirsutum, Netherlands, Poland, and Minnesota, a 'B' Helianthus annuus, Portugal, Romania, designated weed in Hordeum vulgare, Russia, Slovenia, Oregon and a class A Pennisetum Spain, Sweden, noxious weed in glaucum, Switzerland, Turkey, Washington state. Phaseolus vulgaris, Ukraine, UK, USA, Solanum Yugoslavia lycopersicon (erstwhile) (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. tuberosum,

112 Sorghum bicolor, Triticum aestivum, Zea mays

81. *Alectra vogelii Benth. Cowpea Seed as Acanthospermum Angola, Botswana, Serious constraint to witchweed, contamina- hispidum, Arachis Burkina Faso, the production of Synonyms vogel tion hypogaea, Glycine Cameroon, Congo, cowpea, groundnut Alextra angustifolia alectra, max, Lablab Ethiopia, Ghana, and soybean in the Engl. yellow purpureus, Mucuna Guinea, Kenya, semi-arid savannahs A. merkeri Engl., witchweed pruriens, Malawi, Mali, of sub-Saharan A. scharensis Engl. Phaseolus Mozambique, Africa. Yield losses of acutifolius, Namibia, Nigeria, 20% were reported in P. coccineus, Sierra Leone, South cowpea from Kenya P. vulgaris, Vigna Africa, Sudan, in the 1920s with total radiata, Switzerland, crop loss in the 1980s V. subterranean, Tanzania, Uganda, (Bagnall-Oakeley et V. unguiculata Zambia, Zimbabwe al., 1991).

It is also a constraint to common bean production in the Blantyre Shire Highlands of Malawi (Riches, 2001).

Prohibited as a noxious weed in USA (USDA-APHIS,

113 2003).

82. *Amaranthus blitoides Prostrate Seed as Glycine max, Albania, Australia, Significant weed in a S. Wats. pigweed, contamina- Gossypium Austria, Bulgaria, wide range of crops in spreading tion hirsutum, Canada, USA, Europe and the amaranth, Helianthus annuus, Czechoslovakia Middle East. Medicago sativa, (erstwhile), France, Olea europaea Germany, Greece, subsp. europaea, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Phaseolus vulgaris, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Pisum sativum, Lebanon, Mexico, Solanum Morocco, lycopersicon Netherlands, New (=Lycopersicon Zealand, Poland, esculentum), Portugal, Romania, Triticum aestivum, Russia, South Zea mays Africa, Spain, USA

83. *Amaranthus albus L. Tumble Seed as Arachis hypogaea, Albania, Argentina, Holm et al. (1979) pigweed contamina- Beta vulgaris, Australia, Austria, listed A. albus as a tion Glycine max, Belgium, Bulgaria, 'principal' weed in Gossypium Cambodia, Canada, Portugal and Mexico. hirsutum, China, Colombia, It is also listed as a Helianthus annuus, Cyprus, significant weed in a Medicago sativa, Czechoslovakia wide range of crops in Olea europaea (erstwhile), France, USA, Spain,

114 subsp. europaea, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Turkey and Solanum Hungary, Italy, Ukraine. tuberosum, Zea Mexico, Morocco, mays Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, Uruguay, USA

84. *#Ambrosia trifida L. Giant Seed as Glycine max, Canada, China, Weed of cultivated ragweed, contamina- Phaseolus sp., Czech Republic, agri-horticultural great tion Zea mays France, Germany, crops. ragweed Italy, Japan, Korea (Republic), Causes decrease in Lithuania, Mexico, the number of plant- Poland, Russia, parasitic nematodes Slovakia, Ukraine, found in soybean UK, USA fields (Wang et al., 1998).

85. *Digitaria velutina Velvet Seed as Arachis hypogaea, Botswana, Congo, It is a burden to (Forssk.) P. Beauv. fingergrass contamina- Eragrostis tef, Costa Rica, Ethiopia, farmers who, tion Glycine max, Guatemala, Kenya, typically, spend 50% Triticum aestivum, Mexico, of their working time Zea mays Mozambique, removing weeds from Senegal, South crops. There is a risk Africa, Sudan, of introduction of this Tanzania, Uganda, weed as a

115 USA, Zambia, contaminant in grains Zimbabwe or livestock fodder.

86. *Galium aparine L. Cleavers Seed as Avena sativa, Beta Afghanistan, It may be confused contamina- vulgaris, Brassica Australia, Belgium, with G. spurium tion napus, Glycine Canada, China, which is closely max, Gossypium Ethiopia, Finland, related to it. spp., Hordeum France, Germany, vulgare, Linum Greece , Hong Kong, usitatissimum, Hungary, Iceland, Medicago sativa, Israel, Japan, Korea, Oryza sativa, New Zealand Secale cereale, ,Norway, Pakistan Solanum Poland, Portugal, tuberosum, Russia ,Spain, Triticum aestivum, Sweden, Tunisia, Vitis vinifera Turkey, UK, USA

87. *#Helianthus ciliaris Texas Seed, Glycine max, Australia, Mexico, Cited as the 'worst Dc. blueweed rhizome Juglans regia, USA weed in West Texas', Sorghum bicolor, where it affects many Triticum aestivum, different crops and Vitis vinifera also occurs in non- crop situations.

116 88. *Ischaemum timorense Centipede Seed, Allium cepa, Cameroon, French Its economic impact Kunth. grass fragments Arachis hypogaea, Polynesia, Indonesia, on crops is not clear. Glycine max, Malaysia, Papua It has been found in Saccharum New Guinea immature areas of officinarum rubber and oil palm.

89. *Lolium multiflorum Annual Seed as Avena sativa, Beta Afghanistan, Highly competitive Lam. ryegrass, contamina- vulgaris, Brassica Albania, Algeria, and capable of Italian tion napus var. napus, Argentina, Australia, producing large Synonym ryegrass, B. oleracea, Citrus Belgium, Brazil, quantities of seed. Lolium italicum A. westerwold spp., Glycine max, Bulgaria, Canada, Braun ryegrass Hordeum vulgare, Chile, China, Causes severe yield Lactuca sativa, Colombia, Denmark, losses in wheat. Every Linum Ecuador, Egypt, additional 10 plants/ usitatissimum, Ethiopia, Fiji, m² of L. multiflorum Lupinus France, Germany, reduced wheat yield angustifolius, Greece, Hungary, by 140-2000 Kg/ ha Medicago sativa, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, (Pedreros, 2001). Pisum sativum, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Prunus domestica, Kenya, Lebanon, Biotypes of L. Saccharum Libya, Morocco, multiflorum with officinarum, Secale Nepal, Netherlands, evolved resistance to cereale, Solanum New Zealand, herbicides have been tuberosum, Pakistan, Peru, reported in Brazil, Spinacia oleracea, Philippines, Poland, Chile, France, Italy, Triticale, Triticum Portugal, Romania, UK and USA (Heap, aestivum, Vitis Saudi Arabia, South 2003). vinifera Africa, Spain, Suriname,

117 Switzerland, Tunisia, Turkey, UK, Uruguay, USA, Zimbabwe, Yugoslavia (erstwhile)

90. *Polygonum Pale Seed as Allium cepa, Apium Afghanistan, Potentially a lapathifolium L. persicaria, contamina- graveolens, Avena Albania, Argentina, damaging weed in pale tion sativa, Beta Armenia, Australia, any spring-sown crop Synonyms smartweed, vulgaris var Austria, Azerbaijan, where it occurs. Persicaria lapathifolia white altissima, Brassica Belarus, Belgium, (L.) Gray, smartweed spp., B. napus var. Bulgaria, Canada, It hosts a number of P. nodosum Pers., napus, Daucus Chile, China, damaging pests e.g., Polygonum carota, Glycine Croatia, Cyprus, beet western yellows andrzejowskianum max, Helianthus Czechoslovakia virus and Potato leaf Klokov., annuus, Hordeum, (erstwhile), roll virus in British P. brittingeri Opiz, P. Linum, Medicago Denmark, Egypt, Columbia, Canada hypanicum Klokov, sativa, Ornithopus Finland, France, (Ellis, 1992). P. incanum F. W. sativus, Oryza Georgia , Germany, Schmidt, sativa, Pisum sp., Greece, Hungary, P. linicola Sutulov, P. Solanum Iceland, Indonesia, nodosum Pers., P. tuberosum, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, paniculatum Andrz., Triticum aestivum, Israel, Italy, Japan, P. scabrum Moench, Vitis vinifera, Zea Jordan, Korea P. tomentosum Schrank, mays (DPR), Korea P. zaporoviense Klokov (Republic), Lebanon, Lithuania, Morocco, Netherlands, New

118 Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Montenegro, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Thailand, Tunisia, UK, USA

91. *Polygonum persicaria Lady’s Seed as Allium cepa, Beta Afghanistan, Serious weed of L. thumb, contamina- vulgaris, Brassica Albania, Argentina, cultivated agri- ladysthumb, tion rapa, Daucus Australia, Austria, horticultural crops. Synonyms Redshank carota, Glycine Bangladesh, Belarus, Persicaria dolichopoda max, Helianthus Belgium, Bhutan, Considered as a weed (Ochi) Sasaki annuus, Hordeum Bolivia, Brazil, of 35 crops in 50 P. maculata (Raf.) S.F. vulgare, Medicago Bulgaria, Canada, countries (Holm et Gray, sativa, Nicotiana Chile, China, al., 1997). P. maculosa S.F. Gray, tabacum, Colombia, Czech P. mitis Delarbre, Phaseolus vulgaris, Republic, Denmark, Seeds remain viable P. persicaria (L.) Small, Pisum sativum, Ecuador, Egypt, in soil for 45 years P. ruderalis (Salisb.) Solanum Estonia, Finland, (Salisbury, 1961). C.F. Reed, tuberosum, France, Germany, P. vulgaris Webb & Triticum aestivum, Greece, Hungary, State of Minnesota in Moq., Zea mays Iceland, Iran, Iraq, the USA has declared Polygonum dubium Ireland, Italy, Japan, P. persicaria as a Stein, Kenya, Latvia, secondary noxious P. fusiforme Greene, Lithuania, Mexico, weed and several P. minus auct. Non Moldova, Nepal, states have

119 Huds., Netherlands, New categorized it as P. puritanorum Fern., Zealand, Norway, invasive (USDA- P. vulgaris Samp. Pakistan, NRCS, 2002). Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Montenegro, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda, Ukraine, UK, USA

92. *Raphanus Charlock, Seed as Allium cepa, Avena Afghanistan, It is classified as a raphanistrum L. jointed contamina- sativa, Beta Albania, Algeria, serious weed in nine charlock, tion vulgaris, Brassica Argentina, Armenia, countries and a Synonyms jointed napus var. napus, Australia, Austria, principal weed in 14 Raphanus landra radish, Coffea sp., Daucus Azerbaijan, Belarus, countries (Holm et Moretti ex DC. runch, white carota, Fragaria Belgium, Bolivia, al., 1991). R. segetum Clav. charlock, ananassa, Glycine Bosnia and wild radish, max, Gossypium Herzegovina, Brazil, Longevity of R. wild turnip spp., Helianthus Bulgaria, Canada, raphanistrum seed is annuus, Hordeum Chile, China, increased by burial in vulgare, Linum Colombia, Croatia, the soil (Piggin et al., usitatissimum, Cyprus, 1978). Lupinus sp., Czechoslovakia Kurth (1967) in Medicago sativa, (erstwhile), Germany reported Nicotiana tabacum, Denmark, Ecuador, that seeds could Olea europaea Egypt, Estonia, remain viable for 15 subsp. europaea, Ethiopia, Finland, to 20 years in the soil.

120 Pisum sativum, France, Georgia, Saccharum Germany, Greece, Cheam and Code, officinarum, Honduras, Hungary, (1995) reported that Solanum Iceland, Iran, Iraq, 25 wild radish plants/ tuberosum, Ireland, Israel, Italy, m2 reduced wheat Triticum aestivum, Japan, Jordan, yield by 7-11%, but Vitis vinifera, Kenya, Latvia, yield reduction Zea mays Lebanon, Libya, increased to 25-33% Lithuania, when its density was Luxembourg, 100 plants/ m2. Mexico, Moldova, Morocco, Mozambique, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Paraguay, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Ukraine, UK, Uruguay, USA, Zimbabwe, Yugoslavia (erstwhile)

121 93. *Richardia brasiliensis Mexican Seed as Allium cepa, Argentina, Australia, onsidered as crop Gomes clover, contamina- Arachis hypogaea, Brazil, Cuba, Ghana, seed contaminant in Mexican tion Cajanus cajan, Indonesia, Kenya, South Africa. Synonyms richardia, Camellia sinensis, Malawi , Richardia pilosa Ruia & tropical Capsicum annuum, Mozambique, Nuisance in lawns Pav., richardia, Carya illinoinensis, Myanmar, Nigeria, and gardens, and has R. rosea (St Hil.) white-eye Cinchona South Africa, also invaded and Schult., officinalis, Swaziland, Thailand, replaced native Richardsonia Citrullus lanatus, USA, Zambia, vegetation in South brasiliensis (Gomez) Citrus spp., Coffea Zimbabwe Africa (Wells et al., Hayne, arabica, Glycine 1986). R. emetica Mart.R. max, Gossypium rosea St Hil., spp., Helianthus R. scabra St Hil., annuus, Hevea Spermacoce hexandra brasiliensis, A. Rich. Ipomoea batatas, Lycopersicon esculentum, Malus domestica, Medicago sativa, Nicotiana tabacum, Oryza sativa, Phaseolus vulgaris, Philodendron sp., Prunus persica, P. salicina, Saccharum officinarum, Solanum tuberosum,

122 Sorghum bicolor, Stylosanthes gracile, Vitis vinifera, Zea mays

94. *Setaria faberi Herrm. Giant Seed as Glycine max, Belarus, Canada, It is most likely to be foxtail contamina- Medicago sativa, China, Czech confused with large tion Solanum Republic, France, forms of S. viridis tuberosum, Japan, Korea (vars. major, robusta- Zea mays (Republic), Russia, purpurea and robusta- Spain, USA alba) but S. faberi has larger spikelets (over 2.5 mm), more bristles and softly hairy rather than scabrous leaf surfaces.

95. *Thlaspi arvense L. Bastard Seed as Allium cepa, Afghanistan, Considered as a weed cress, contamina- A. porrum, Albania, Argentina, of 30 crops in 45 fanweed, tion Asparagus Armenia, Australia, countries (Holm et field officinalis, Avena Austria, Azerbaijan, al., 1997). It is pennycress, sativa, Beta Belarus, Belgium, classified as a serious pennycress, vulgaris, Brassica Bhutan, Bulgaria, or principal weed in stinkweed, napus var. napus, Canada, China, 12 countries (Holm et THLAR Carthamus Colombia, al., 1991). tinctorius, Cicer Czechoslovakia arietinum, Daucus (erstwhile), Prolific seed carota, Glycine Denmark, Estonia, producer, capable of

123 max, Gossypium, Finland, France, building up large Helianthus annuus, Georgia, Germany, reserves of seed in the Hordeum vulgare, Greece, Hungary, soil and exhibits long- Lens culinaris Iceland, Iran, term dormancy. subsp. culinaris, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Linum Japan, Jordan, In Canada, it has been usitatissimum, Kazakhstan, Korea shown that a light Medicago sativa, (DPR), Korea infestation can reduce Oryza sativa, (Republic), wheat yields by 35% Pisum sativum, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, and a heavy Solanum Lebanon, Lithuania, infestation by 50% tuberosum, Luxembourg, (Best and McIntyre, Triticum aestivum, Mongolia, 1975). Vicia faba, Netherlands, New Zea mays Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, UK, USA, Yugoslavia (erstwhile)

124 96. *Urochloa plantaginea Alexander Seed as Citrus spp., Daucus Argentina, Brazil, Seed survival under (Link) RD Webster grass, contamina- carota, Glycine Costa Rica, France, soybean crops in marmalade tion max, Gossypium, Guatemala, south Brazilian agro- Synonyms grass Helianthus annuus, Honduras, Mexico, ecosystems is 11 Brachiaria plantaginea Lactuca sativa, Nicaragua, USA years with survival Link, Oryza sativa, decreasing annually Panicum distans. Salzm. Phaseolus spp., by 37% (Voll et al., & Doell, Prunus domestica, 1996). P. plantagineum Link, Saccharum officinarum, In Brazil, Zea mays uncontrolled weed infestation decreased cotton yields by 94% (Blanco and Oliveira, 1976).

*Pest not reported from India # Pest included in Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003 (PQ Order) ♠ Pest included in the PQ Order for other crops, not for soybean ♦ Pest intercepted during quarantine processing ♣ Pest present in India but reported to have many races/ strains, world-over, hence, it is of quarantine significance Ø Pest present in India on other crops but not recorded on grain legumes including soybean in India, hence, it is of quarantine significance ▲ Pest present in India but with restricted distribution, hence it is of quarantine significance

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142 Glossary

Contaminant Soil, fungal spores, fruiting bodies, plant debris, live/ dead/ dormant insects/ stages thereof

Endangered An area where ecological factors favour the establishment of a area pest whose presence in the area will result in economically important loss (http://www.ippc.org)

Grain A commodity class for seeds intended for processing or consumption and not for planting (http://www.ippc.org)

Interception (of The detection of a pest during inspection or testing of an imported a pest) consignment (http://www.ippc.org)

Pathway Any means that allows the entry or spread of a pest (http://www.ippc.org)

Pest Any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal or pathogenic agent injurious to plant or plant products (http://www.ippc.org)

Pest risk The process of evaluating biological or other scientific and analysis economic evidence to determine whether a pest should be regulated and the strength of any phytosanitary measures to be taken against it (http://www.ippc.org)

Plant debris Dried plant parts or pieces thereof other than seed

Plant All activities designed to prevent the introduction and/or spread of quarantine quarantine pests or to ensure their official control (http://www.ippc.org).

Quarantine Official confinement of regulated articles for observation and research or for further inspection, testing and/or treatment (http://www.ippc.org).

Quarantine pest A pest of potential economic importance to the area endangered thereby and not yet present there, or present but not widely distributed and being officially controlled (http://www.ippc.org)

Seed A commodity class for seeds for planting or intended for planting and not for consumption or processing (http://www.ippc.org)

Seed-borne The pest present on, in or along with the seed

Seed- The pest present in or with the seed and transmitted to the next transmitted generation of growing seedlings

Stored products Stored grain, flour or processed plant products

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Acronyms and Abbreviations

ArMV Arabis mosaic virus

APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

APPPC Asia and Pacific Plant Protection Commission

AYRSV Artichoke yellow ringspot virus

BMMV Bean mild mosaic virus

BPMV Bean pod mottle virus

BBSV Broad bean stain virus

BCMV Bean common mosaic virus

CLRV Cherry leaf roll virus

CoNV Cocoa necrosis virus

CPPC Caribbean Plant Protection Commission

CPSMV Cowpea severe mosaic virus

EMBL European Molecular Biology Laboratory

EPPO European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

GFLV Grapevine fan leaf virus

ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research

IPPC International Plant Protection Convention

ISPM International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures

MRSV Mulberry ringspot virus

NBPGR National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources

NPPO North American Plant Protection Organization

OEPP Organisation Européenne et Méditerranéenne pour la Protection des

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OIRSA Organismo Internacional Regional de Sanidad Agropecuaria

PQ Order Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order 2003

PQP Potential Quarantine Pest

PRA Pest Risk Analysis

PSV Peanut stunt virus

RAPD Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA

RFLP Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism

RpRSV Raspberry ringspot virus

RPPO Regional Plant Protection Organization

TBRV Tomato black ring virus

ToRSV Tomato ringspot virus

USDA United States Department of Agriculture

WTO World Trade Organization

145

Other Useful References

Barnes RF and JB Beard (1992) Glossary of Crop Science Terms. Crop Science Society of America, Wisconsin, USA, 88 p. http://www.cabi.org/cpc/ Crop Protection Compendium, Wallingford, UK: CAB International. http://www.plantwise.org/ Plantwise. http://plantquarantineindia.nic.in/pqispub/html/pqo_amendments.htm Plant Quarantine Information System. http://www.ippc.org. International Plant Protection Convention.

John HW and Blanca Leon (1999) World Economic Plants: A Standard Reference, CRC Press, 747 p.

Metcalf CL and WP Flint (1985) Destructive and Useful Insects their Habits and Control, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd, New Delhi, India, 1087 p.

Nayar ER, A Pandey, K Venkateswaran, R Gupta and BS Dhillon (2003) Crop Plants of India A Check-list of Scientific Names. National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, India, 48 p.

PaDIL Plant Biosecurity Toolbox. http://www.padil.gov.au/pbt/index.php?q=node/17&pbtID=149.

Richardson MJ (1990) An Annotated List of Seed-borne Diseases. 4th Edition, International Seed Testing Association, Switzerland 346 p.

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