IAN CAMPBELL

The Addis Ababa Massacre

Italy's National Shame

HURST & COMPANY, LONDON CONTENTS

List ofMaps xi List ofTables xiii

List ofFigures XV Abbreviations xxiii

Notes on Transliteration XXV Glossary & Explanatory Note xxvii Acknowledgements xxxiii Foreword by Professor Richard Pankhurst xli

Introduction 1

1. Background 9 Prelude 9

Addis Ababa on the Eve 22 Invasion and Occupation 25 Policies of Repression 29 Warnings and Forebodings 45 Yekatit 12 47 2. The Trigger 49 Speeches and Shocks 49 Slaughter at the Palace 51 3. An Hour of Mayhem 59 The Circle of Death 59 Slaughter in Arada 72 Escape to Qechene 81 Foreign Dispatches 82

vii CONTENTS

4. Death in the Afternoon 91 Curfew (1.00-1.30 pm) 91 Arrests, Detention and Murder (1.30-5.00 pm) 92 A State of Siege 104

5. Carta Bianca 111 'Do As You Please!' (4.30-5.00 pm) 111 Terror Unleashed (5.00-6.45 pm) 115 126 Fire and Fury (6.45 pm Friday-6.00 am Saturday) Villages of D eath 137 6. The Second Day 159 The Morning After 159 The Killing Continues 161 The Transport Operations 166 Inside the Municipality 174 Saturday Afternoon 175 Mohamedally under Attack 179 Another Night of Fire and Fury 182 7. The Third Day 187 Sunday Morning 187 'Reprisals Should Cease' 191 Sunday Afternoon 194 Blackshirts out of Control (Sunday Night) 196 A Deadly New Development 200

8. The Aftermath 205 The Battlefield 205

Horrors at the Central Police Station 208 Flight from the City 215 Adrenalin Runs High 216

Terror on the Outskirts 219

Body Disposal at Gulele 221 The Detained 223 The Mystery of Engert's Refugees 234 9. Roman Justice 239 Elimination of the Undesirables 239 The Suspects 242 The Young Ethiopians 256 The Nobility and Notables 274 viii CONTENTS

10. The Reckoning 279 Who Gave the Order? 279 The Participants 282 The Victims 295 Unsung Heroes 299 The Death Toll 308 Conclusion 327 Robbery With Violence 330

11. The Cover-Up 333 Perfect Tranquillity 333 The Emperor Returns 339 In Memoriam 343 Appeals for Justice 346 The Final Sabotage 348

12. Reflections 351

Epilogue 355 Appendix I: Young Ethiopians Executed Following Yekatit 12 379 Appendix II: Partial List ofAddis Ababa-based Nobles and Notables Executed Following Yekatit 12 391 Appendix III: Telegram of 19 February 1937 from Minister Alessandro Lessona to Provincial Governors 395

Appendix: IV: Phonogram of 21 February 1937 from the Fascist Party Office to the Chef de Cabinet 397

Appendix V: Photography 399

Notes 407 Bibliography 447 Index 463

ix LIST OF MAPS

1. Addis Ababa before the Occupation 20 2. The Circle of Death and the route taken by Sara Gebre-Iyyesus 67 3. Arada, showing areas where the massacre was principally focused from 12 noon to 1.00 pm Friday, 19 February 1937 74 4. Qechene, showing the flight ofpeople from the Circle of Death 85 5. Location of British, American and French legations 88 6. Districts particularly subjected to attack on Friday afternoon 100 7. The Jan Hoy Meda District, the first area to be burned 118 8. The Exemption Zone and areas most severely burned on Friday night 139 9. Western Arada 151

10. Execution and body collection centres 171 11. Villages within sight of the Italian Hospital (Ospedale Italiana) burned on Sunday night 199 12. Addis Ababa before Yekatit 12, showing density of buildings 314

xi LIST OF TABLES

10.1: Number and fate of detainees in Addis Ababa following Yekatit 12 317 the 10.2: Estimate of deaths based on an analysis of each phase of

massacre 323

10.3: Estimates of death toll based on three methods 327 A. 1: Estimated death toll ofYoung Ethiopians following Yekatit 12 389

xiii LIST OF FIGURES

Permission to publish all photographs has been sought and granted in all cases where the source of the photograph can be identified and the copyright is still in force.

In some instances the source cannot be identified—particularly where sev¬ eral prints were made from the same negative—or has been forgotten. In such cases, if readers can bring the source and the owner of the copyright to the attention of the author, permission will be sought and credit provided in sub¬ sequent editions of this book. Comments on the provenance of the photographs and the circumstances in which they were taken are to be found in Appendix V.

Chapter 1 1. Emperor Haile Selassie making radio broadcast: courtesy IES 22 2. 'Downtown' Addis Ababa in 1935: courtesy IES 23 3. An 'urban village': courtesy IES 24 4. Staffleaving Italian legation: collection, author 26 5. Blackshirts, 6th 'Tevere' Division: postcard, Ediz. dArte V.E. Boeri, Rome 30 6. Rodolfo Graziani: public domain 32 7. Ethiopian victim executed: Ethiopian Review,]zn.-]\xne. 1946 40 8. Italians with victims' heads: courtesy & © Richard Pankhurst 41 9. Graziani borne aloft: collection, author 44

10. Dr Werqineh Ishete: courtesy IES 46 11. The Gennete-Li'ul Palace: courtesy Richard Pankhurst 47

Chapter 2 12. Italian machine-gun company: collection, author 50

xv LIST OF FIGURES

51 13. The attack of Yekatit 12: courtesy IES 14. Askaris attacking the Ethiopians: courtesy Vieri Poggiali 52 Dr Birhanu Abebe 53 15. People try to run away: courtesy 54 16. Temesgen Gebre: Temesgen Gebre, 2001 EC 54 17. Ciro Poggiali: courtesy &© Vieri Poggiali

Chapter 3 18. Taddesse Zewelde: Taddesse Zewelde, 1955 EC 60 Rahel Kassahun 62 19. Tekle-Maryam Kiflom: courtesy & © Dr 20. Sara Gebre-Iyyesus in 1939: courtesy & © Yeweynishet Beshahwired 62

21. Yeweynishet Beshawired as a child: courtesy & © Yeweynishet Beshahwired 63 Birhanu Abebe 64 22. Slaughter near the Viceregal Palace: courtesy Dr 23. Welette-Birhan Gebre-Iyessus: courtesy & © Yeweynishet Beshahwired 65

24. Zenebech Belachew: courtesy & © Yeweynishet Beshahwired 65 25. The adarash ofBejirondLetyibelu Gebre: © Ian Campbell 66 26. The Cathedral of St George: courtesy Dr Birhanu Abebe 73 27. Ambassador Imru Zelleqe as a child: courtesy & © Imru Zelleqe 76 28. Location of Imru Zelleqe s family home: detail from Fig. 26 77 29. Twenty-four massacre victims: courtesy Vieri Poggiali, in Poggiali, C., 1971 79 30. Taddesse Tiruneh during the Occupation: courtesy & © Taddesse Tiruneh 82

31. Ethiopian Balillas at Casa Fascio: courtesy Efrem Gebre - Amlak 83 32. William L. Bond: collection, author 84

33. Emperor Haile Selassie with Cornelius Engert: courtesy, American Diplomacy, www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat 84 34. The American legation, 1935: collection, author 87 35. M. and Mme Bodard: collection, author 87

Chapter 4

36. A corner of a detention centre: Deptde la Pressec.1946 93 37. Yekatit 12 Memorial: close-up of heavy truck: © Ian Campbell 95 38. Seeking refuge at Municipality: courtesy Vieri Poggiali 96 39. Violent attacks on Ethiopians continue: Dept de la Presse cl946 97 xvi LIST OF FIGURES

40. Surprise attacks: Dept de la Presse cl946 98 41. Ethiopians entering Municipality: courtesy Vieri Poggiali 99 42. The Church of Kidane Mihret: courtesy Dr Birhanu Abebe 102 43. Aerial photograph: the former imperial gibbv. courtesy F.L.C./ Adagp, Paris 105 44. An L3 CV-33 tank: collection, author 106 45. A Fiat 3000 Model 21 Tank: postcard, Ballerini & Fratini, Florence 1937 107

46. A Fiat 611 Autoblinda armoured car: www.italiantanks.weebly.com 107

Chapter 5

47. Blackshirts at Casa Littoria: courtesy Milena Battistoni 112 48. Guido Cortese: public domain 113

49. Proclamation of the massacre: collection, author 114

50. Blackshirts entering a residence: courtesy Dr Birhanu Abebe 117 51. Blackshirts with Ethiopian victim: Dr Birhanu Abebe 119 52. 'Every soldier band became a court-martial': Dept de la Presse, cl946 119 53. Ras Mekonnin Bridge before the Occupation: collection, the author 121

54. Yekatit 12 Memorial: victims tied to a truck: © Ian Campbell 122 55. Victims tied by the ankles: Siniddu Gebru, 1942 EC 122 56. Victim tied to truck: Dept de la Presse, c.1946 123 123 57. Gebre-Sillasse Oda after the Liberation: Gebre-Sillasse Oda, 1985 EC 124

58. Setting fire to homes: courtesy Dr Birhanu Abebe 127 59. Flame-throwers in use in Addis Ababa: courtesy Dr Birhanu Abebe 128 60. Yekatit 12 Memorial: babies thrown into burning homes: © Ian Campbell 130 61. Houses burning at night: courtesy Dr Birhanu Abebe 131 62. Yekatit 12 Memorial: collapsing homes: © Ian Campbell 133 63. Addis Ababa burning: courtesy Richard Pankhurst 137 64. Arada, aerial view, showing areas burned on Friday night: courtesy IES 142 65. St Georges Cathedral: Ethiopia Observer, Oct. 1959 144 66. The Municipality Office in the 1960s: courtesy Dr Birhanu Abebe 146

xvii LIST OF FIGURES

67. Rear view of Municipality Office: collection, author 149 68. Addis Ababa burning: flames across a gulley: Dept de la Presse, c.1946 153

Chapter 6

69. Charred corpses: courtesy Dr Birhanu Abebe 160 70. Citizens struck down: courtesy Dr Birhanu Abebe 160 71. Housewife amid burning house: collection, author 162 72. Indiscriminate killings: Fitur Abraham, 1947 EC 163 73. Body disposal (i): stacked corpses: courtesy Richard Pankhurst 166 74. (ii): loading bodies: courtesy Vieri Poggiali 167 75. (iii): offloading at Gulele: collection, author 167 76. (iv): bodies for incineration: courtesy Vieri Poggiali 168 77. Pits are dug: courtesy Vieri Poggiali 168 78. (v): burning bodies: courtesy Dr Birhanu Abebe 170 79. Blackshirt with bodies at Gulele: Fitur Abraham, 1947 EC 172

80. Another scene at Gulele: Fitur Abraham, 1947 EC 173 81. Gulele in 2001: © Ian Campbell 173 82. The Mohamedally complex: © Ian Campbell 180

Chapter 7

83. Burning continues at Gulele: courtesy Vieri Poggiali 188 84. Greviously battered bodies: in Pankhurst, S., 1945 190 85. Bodies on a river valley path: Nuova Storia Contemporanea, III, 4,1999 190 86. Order to end the massacre: ACS (Fondo Graziani, b. 48,/42,5.7) 193 Chapter 8 87. Bodies lying in the remains of houses: Ethiopian Review, Jan.— June 1946 206 88. The Bank of Italy: postcard, publ. M. Graziani 207 89. of bodies Disposal at Gulele: courtesy Vieri Poggiali 222 90. St. Prison in the Georges 1990s: courtesy Mombasa Surafael 226 91. Taddesse Tiruneh at former St George s Prison: © Ian Campbell 229 92. Prisoners at Central Prison: courtesy Vieri Poggiali 230 93. Tekle-Tsadiq Mekuriya: Temesgen Gebre, 2001 EC 233 Chapter 9 94. Military 'tribunal': courtesy Insmli, Poggiali, s. 116 240 xviii LIST OF FIGURES

95. Bejirond Letyibelu Gebre: courtesy & © Weyzero Amsale Letyibelu 244 96. Moges Asgedom: Taddesse Zewelde, 1955 EC 244 97. Abriha Deboch: Taddesse Zewelde, 1955 EC 245

98. Sibhat Tiruneh: courtesy Cord Bahlburg 246 99. Simi'on Adefris: courtesy His Holiness Abune Berhane-Yesus 247 100. Beshahwired Habte-Weld: courtesy & © Muskingum College, Ohio 248

101. Beshahwired Habte-Weld in captivity: Dept de la Presse, c. 1946 248 102. Qennyazmach Belihu Degefu: courtesy Yeweynishet Beshahwired 249 103. Qennyazmach Belihu Degefu in captivity: Siniddu Gebru, 1942 EC 249 104. Mohammed Sayed before execution: Dept de la Presse, c.1946 250 105. Dejazmach Welde-Amanuel before Execution: Siniddu Gebru, 1942 EC 250 106. Qen. Welde-Yohannis Welde-Ab before execution: Dept de la

Presse, c. 1946 250 107. L/Meqwas Hayle-Maryam Welde-Gebriel before execution: Dept de la Presse, c.1946 253 108. Qen. Tekle-Maryam Welde-Gebriel before execution: Dept de la

Presse, c. 19 253 109. Kifle Nesibu before execution: Siniddu Gebru, 1942 EC 254 110. Grazmach Mesfin Qeleme Werq before execution: Siniddu Gebru, 1942 EC 254

111. Taddesse Meshesha before execution: Dept de la Presse, c. 1946 255 112. Yosef and Binyam Werqineh: courtesy Loughborough University Archives 262 113. YosefWerqineh before execution: Siniddu Gebru, 1942 EC 263 114. Binyam Werqineh before execution: Siniddu Gebru, 1942 EC 263 115. Feqade-Sillasse Hiruy with his father: courtesy & © Dr Shastine Abate 264

116. Belay Hayle-Ab: courtesy Dr Birhanu Abebe 265 117. Meshesha Gebru before execution: Dept de la Presse, c.1946 267 118. Assefa Admasu before execution: Siniddu Gebru, 1942 EC 267 119. Gebremedhin Aweqe before execution: Dept de la Presse, c.1946 267 120. Mekonnin Hayle before execution: Dept de la Presse, c.1946 267 121. Desta Welde-Iyyesus before execution: Siniddu Gebru, 1942 EC 268 122. Yohannis Boru before execution: Siniddu Gebru, 1942 EC 268

xix LIST OF FIGURES

123. Captain Mitike Desta before execution: Dept de la Presse, c.1946 268 124. Tsige-Marqos before execution: Siniddu Gebru, 1942 EC 268 125. Mohammed Seyfu before execution: Dept de la Presse, c.1946 271 126. Debebe Gebru before execution: Siniddu Gebru, 1942 EC 271 127. Mulugeta Assefa before execution: Dept de la Presse, c.1946 271 128. Tekle-Birhan Dessalen before execution: Dept de la Presse, c.1946 271 129. Assefa Tedla before execution: Siniddu Gebru, 1942 EC 272 130. A.\onzlLth[oipia.n is shot: Ethiopian Review, Jan.-June 1946 273 131. Portable gallows: postcard, publ. Ferrania; collection, author 275 132. Portable gallows in use: courtesy Richard Pankhurst 277 133. A child is hanged: in Pankhurst, S., 1945 277

Chapter 10 134. Blackshirts of the 221st Regiment 'Italiani all'Estero': public domain 284 135. 'Many Enemies—Much Honour': postcard, Edizioni d'Arte, Boeri, Roma 285 136. Italian civilians looking at Ethiopian victim: Dept de la Presse, c-i946 288 137. Yekatit 12 Memorial: women struggling with Blackshirts: © Ian Campbell 297 138. Yekatit 12 Memorial: close-up of women being crushed: © Ian Campbell 298 139. Cornelius Engert with guards: collection, author 302 140- Hermann Bahlburg: https:de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann Bahlburg 303 141. Gates of the former Hermannsburg Mission in 2013: © Ian Campbell 304 142. Demisse in the Hayle-Maryam 1940s: courtesy & © Demisse Hayle-Maryam 305 143. Carlo Avolio: collection, the author 306

Chapter 11

144. The of Unveiling the Yekatit 12 Monument in 1942: Birhanina Selam, L, 27 Miazia, 1934 EC 341 145. staff Municipality recovering bones: Dept de la Presse, c.1946 343

xx LIST OF FIGURES

146. Holy Trinity Church: Berhanina SelamYl, 21 Megabit 1937 EC 345 147. The Yekatit 12 cenotaph: Berhanina Selam, 12,21 Megabit 1937 EC 345 148. Cover, Italy's War Crimes in Ethiopia-, in Pankhurst, S., 1945 346 149. Cover, La Civilisation de I'ltaliefasciste en Ethiopie: Dept de la Presse, c.1946 349

150. Cover, Documents on Italian War Crimes-. Ministry of Justice, Eth, 1950

Epilogue

151. Gebre-Sillasse Oda in 1991/92: Gebre-Sillasse Oda, 1985 EC 362

152. The new Yekatit 12 Monument: public domain 364 153. Dr Ladislas Shashka: Hungarian National Museum 365 154. Tamrat Istifanos: Taddesse Zewelde, 1955 EC 366 155. Sara Gebre-Iyessus in her mid-nineties in 2005: © Ian Campbell 367 156. Wellete-Birhan Gebre-Iyessus, Yeweynishet Beshahwired: © Ian Campbell 369 157. Taddesse Tiruneh in 2004: © Ian Campbell 369 158. Dr Birhanu Abebe: courtesy, IES 369 159. Ambassador Imru Zelleqe: courtesy &© Imru Zelleqe 370 160. Blatta Mehari Kassa in I960: courtesy & © Sennayt Siyum 370 161. Dawit Gebre Mesqel: © Ian Campbell 371 162. Demisse Hayle-Maryam in 2004: © Ian Campbell 371 163. Tekle-Tsadiq Mekuriya: courtesy Dr Birhanu Abebe 372 164. Dr Siyum Gebre-Egziabher: courtesy & © Dr Siyum Gebre- Igziabher 373 165. AAU students at 75th anniversary of Yekatit 12: © Ian Campbell 376 166. Former Patriots at the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity in Addis Ababa gather to denounce the Affile monument: © Ian Campbell 377

xxi