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Soil Quality Characteristics As Affected by Continuous Rice Cultivation

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Soil Quality Characteristics As Affected by Continuous Rice Cultivation agriculture Article Soil Quality Characteristics as Affected by Continuous Rice Cultivation and Changes in Cropping Systems in South China Xiangning Ren 1,2,3, Feixiang Chen 1,2,3, Tao Ma 1,2 and Yueming Hu 1,2,3,4,* 1 College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; [email protected] (X.R.); [email protected] (F.C.); [email protected] (T.M.) 2 Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Land Use and Consolidation, Guangzhou 510642, China 3 South China Academy of Natural Resources Science and Technology, Guangzhou 510610, China 4 State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining 810016, China * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-186-8888-2020; Fax: +86-20-8528-3140 Received: 12 August 2020; Accepted: 23 September 2020; Published: 30 September 2020 Abstract: This study was conducted to elucidate how changes in critical soil quality characteristics relate to continuous rice cultivation and changes in cropping systems and fertilization in South China over the time span 1980 to 2017. Soil pH, soil organic matter (SOM), total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorus (AP) and potassium (AK) were determined for the samples taken in 2017 and compared to results from the paired samples collected in 1980 by grouping all samples into four cropping systems: continuous paddy fields, new paddy fields developed from uplands, continuous uplands, and new uplands developed from paddy soils. The results show a significant increase in soil pH, AP and AK in all cropping systems, which was, however, coupled with low fertilizer use efficiency. Additionally, a significant increase in SOM came with new paddy soils, whereas a little SOM accumulation and a significantly weakened correlation of TN to SOM occurred in continuous paddy soils. Both low fertilizer use efficiency and deteriorated soil C sequestration function imply a sub-health status of continuous paddy soils. The changes in cropping systems and fertilization, which essentially resulted from expeditious economic growth, should be responsible for the dynamics of C and N and the consequences to soil quality. More experimental studies on balanced fertilization vs. local commonly used fertilization are suggested to probe the mechanisms underlying the C and N dynamics in paddy soils. Keywords: CN ratio; carbon sequestration function; excessive fertilization; fertilizer use efficiency; paddy soil; soil organic matter 1. Introduction Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most essential staple food crops that not only feeds about 50% of the world’s population but supports and affects the livelihoods and economies of several billion people [1]. As of the year 2017, the world’s rice planted area was up to 167.24 Mha and contributed about 26% to the global crop planted area and food production, respectively [2]. For example, the Indo Gangetic Plain of South Asia, one of the most vital paddy-rice produce bases in the world, has about 60 Mha of land cultivated with paddy rice and produces about 32% of global rice production [3]. In China, the paddy rice planted area was as high as 31.0 Mha and accounted for 30.2% of the total crop planted area and contributed 34.5% to the total food production in 2017 [2]. However, the productivity of the rice-rice cropping system is still low and appears to continues to decline because of continuous submergence-induced worse soil environment (e.g., weakened soil structure, increased bulk density and reduced hydraulic conductivity) [4] and subsequent deterioration of soil quality due to the Agriculture 2020, 10, 443; doi:10.3390/agriculture10100443 www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture Agriculture 2020, 10, 443 2 of 11 imbalanced fertilization and limited organic carbon (OC) recycling [5]. On the other hand, lots of field experiments with controlled and balanced fertilization designs have demonstrated a great potential of paddy soils for sequestering atmospheric CO2 and mitigating the global warming by storing more OC in soils [6,7]. So far, few data are available to reveal what happened and are going to take place to the fertility and quality of paddy soils that have normally undergone with local management such as either insufficient fertilization in south Asia and southeast Asia while excessive fertilization in China. Since about 1980, the rapid economic growth and corresponding demands for agriculture in China have resulted in an increasing concern about the sustainability of the nation’s agricultural soils that have been intensively cultivated with excessive inputs of fertilizers and other chemicals. According to the People’s Republic of China National Bureau of Statistics PRC NBS [8], China’s total grain output increased from 321 million tons (Mt) in 1980 to 617.9 Mt in 2017, with an average annual growth rate of 2.0%. At the same time, the consumption of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) fertilizers increased from 12.69 to 60.65 Mt, with an average annual growth rate of 5.0%. China’s fertilizer usage accounted for more than 1/3 of the world’s fertilizer consumption at a rate that is four times the world average. These facts imply not only an irreplaceable role of chemical fertilizers in ensuring grain output and food security in China but also a high price of potential soil degradation due to excessive fertilizer inputs [9,10]. Meanwhile, there have been changes in land use intensity, especially the increased farmland fragmentation that resulted from rapid economy growth-triggered urbanization [11]; because these changes likely affect biodiversity and ecosystem functions [12,13] and disturb original hydrological and biogeochemical cycling across the agroecosystems [14]. Because of the close link of soil quality with land use intensity on a broad scale [15] and changes in cropping system on a landscape scale [16], it is critical for policy-makers and managers to understand the impacts of changes in cropping systems and farming activities that have been forced to respond to the rapid industrialization and urbanization in China. Assessment of soil quality has been recently emphasized on issues much wider than a term of production; because soil condition can be an indication of soil quality/health with respect to soil nutrient availability to vegetation and C cycling and is becoming an environmental quality and human health issue [17]. Unlike forest and grassland ecosystems where soil quality is mainly controlled by climatic and environmental variables [18], the soil quality characteristics in an agricultural system is more subject to production-oriented agronomic options, particularly cropping system, cultivation, water management, and fertilization [19,20]. Many soil characteristics have been identified as indicators of soil quality because of their relationships with soil processes and functions. Of these characteristics, soil organic matter (SOM) has been thought to be crucial due to its fundamental role in improving soil properties and in maintaining soil fertility despite their interactions, driving terrestrial C cycling, and mitigating global warming [19,21]. In addition, soil pH, soil total nitrogen content (TN), soil available phosphorus (AP) and available potassium (AK) levels are closely related to the thresholds of biological and chemical activities and plant nutrient availability [22]. The direct assessment of soil quality can be inferred from management-induced changes in soil properties [5,23]. This study was conducted to elucidate how soil quality characteristics vary with continuous rice cultivation and conversions between paddy rice and upland crops over a certain time-span by revealing differences in pH, SOM, TN, AP and AK among cropping systems and tracking the historical responses of rice grain yields and soil quality characteristics to the excessive fertilization. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Area The study area (named Conghua) locates in the northeast of Guangzhou of Guangdong Province in China, falling in a range of 23◦220 to 23◦560 N and 113◦170 to 114◦040 E (Figure1). It covers an area of 1741 km2 and consists of valleys, hills, and low mountains. This region belongs to a subtropical Agriculture 2020, 10, 443 3 of 11 Agriculture 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 11 monsoonmonsoon climate climate with with an an annual annual average average temperature temperature of of 19.5–21.4 19.5–21.4◦ C°C and and an an annual annual precipitation precipitation of of approximatelyapproximately 2000 2000 mm. mm. Figure 1. Location and geographical feature of the study area, Conghua of Guangzhou in China. Figure 1. Location and geographical feature of the study area, Conghua of Guangzhou in China. The cultivated lands amounted up to 28,287 ha in 1980 and 20,646 ha in 2015, accounting for 20% and 12%The of cultivated the total lands land area,amounted respectively. up to 28,287 According ha in 1980 to the and Second 20,646 ha National in 2015, Soil accounting Survey, highlyfor 20% weatheredand 12% of soils the (Hapludoxes)total land area, and respectively. paddy soils Accord (Haplaquepts)ing to the haveSecond been National attributed Soil toSurvey, all farming highly cultivation.weathered Amongsoils (Hapludoxes) all paddy soils, and waterlogged paddy soils paddy (Hap soilslaquepts) (Typical have Haplaquepts) been attributed have predominated. to all farming Double-croppingcultivation. Among systems all arepaddy common, soils, of whichwaterlogged and the paddy rice-rice soils system (Typical has been Haplaquepts) the most popular have (inpredominated. some cases followed Double-cropping by either systems fallow conditionsare common, or of a which winter and crop). the rice-rice The upland system crops has includebeen the peanut,most popular soybean, (in sweet some potato, cases followed vegetables, by either etc. The fallow dominant conditions rice cultivars or a winter included crop). YueThe Jingupland Si Miao, crops Yueinclude Xiu Zhan, peanut, Guang soybean, Feng sweet Xiang potato, 8, and vegetables, Guang Yuan et Zhanc.
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