Vol. 12 · No. 2 Summer 2008 The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology

Editor-in-Chief: R. Albert Mohler, Jr. Learning from the Church Fathers Executive Editor: Russell D. Moore Editorial: Stephen J. Wellum Editor: Stephen J. Wellum 2 Standing on the Shoulders of Todd L. Miles Book Review Editor: Chad Owen Brand Irenaeus in the Hands of Soteriological Inclusivists: Associate Editor: Christopher W. Cowan 4 Validation or Tendentious Historiography? Assistant Editor: Brian Vickers John Piper Contending for Christ Contra Mundum: Advisory Board: Timothy K. Beougher 18 John B. Polhill Exile and Incarnation in the Life of Athanasius Chuck Lawless Nick Needham Peter J. Gentry Augustine of Hippo: Esther H. Crookshank 38 The Relevance of His Life and Thought Today Mark A. Seifrid Carl Trueman Randy Stinson And Reformed : Design: Jared Hallal 52 Some Brief Notes and Proposals Typographer: John Rogers Michael A. G. Haykin Recovering Ancient Church Practices: Editorial Office & Subscription Services: 62 A Review of Brian McLaren, Finding Our Way Again: SBTS Box 832 2825 Lexington Rd. The Return of the Ancient Practices Louisville, KY 40280 (800) 626-5525, x4413 68 The SBJT Forum Editorial E-Mail: [email protected] 78 Book Reviews Yearly subscription costs for four issues: $20, individual inside the U. S.; $30, ATLA Religion Database on CD-ROM, published by the American Theological individual outside the U. S.; $35, institutional inside the U. S.; $45, institutional Library Association, 250 S. Wacker Dr., 16th Flr., Chicago, IL 60606, E-mail: outside the U. S. Opinions expressed in The Southern Baptist Journal of Theol- [email protected], WWW: http://atla.com/. ogy are solely the responsibility of the authors and are not necessarily those of THE SOUTHERN BAPTIST JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY is published quarterly by the editors, members of the Advisory Board, or The Forum. We encourage the The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 2825 Lexington Road, Louisville, KY submission of letters, suggestions and articles by our readers. Any article submis- 40280. Summer 2008. Vol. 12, No. 2. Copyright ©2008 The Southern Baptist sions should conform to the Journal of Biblical Literature stylistic guidelines. Theological Seminary. ISSN 1520-7307. Second Class postage paid at This periodical is indexed in Religion Index One: Periodicals, the Index to Book Louisville, KY. Postmaster: Send address changes to: SBTS Box 832, Reviews in Religions, Religion Indexes: Ten Year Subset on CD-ROM, and the 2825 Lexington Road, Louisville, KY 40280. Editorial: Standing on the Shoulders of Giants Stephen J. Wellum

Stephen J. Wellum is Professor One of my most favorite portions of of Scripture—sola Scriptura and semper of Christian Theology at The South- Scripture is Hebrews 11, the great chap- reformanda respectively—“tradition” also ern Baptist Theological Seminary. ter of faith. In order to encourage these serves an important, critical, and correc- Dr. Wellum received his Ph.D. degree early Christians to run the race that is set tive role for us today as we seek to apply in theology from Trinity Evangelical before them in light of a number of seri- and live out the Scripture. As the old Divinity School and has also taught ous external and internal pressures (see statements remind us—“there is noth- ­theology at the Associated Canadian for example, 10:32-39 and 5:11-6:12), the ing new under the sun” and “those who Theological Schools and Northwest author of Hebrews not only presents the cannot learn from history are doomed Baptist Theological College and Semi- supremacy of Christ in all of his beauty to repeat its mistakes”—we neglect our nary in Canada. He has contributed to and splendor, but he also challenges them theological forefathers to our detriment. several publications and a collection to persevere as did the ancients of old. By In reality, tradition and the study of his- of essays on theology and worldview naming many an Old Testament saint, torical theology ought to be viewed as a issues. who not only believed in the covenantal kind of laboratory in which the strengths promises centered in Christ but also and weaknesses of past practices, ideas, acted upon those promises even though and doctrines are tested under the pres- our Lord Jesus Christ had not yet come, sures of real-life circumstances, denials, the author challenges these Christians— and challenges with the goal of learning even in a greater way—to take at his from the past in order to better address Word, to live in light of his promises that the issues, debates, and challenges of our now have been fulfilled in Christ and contemporary world. thus to persevere to the end, no matter However, today, one of our problems what may come, as people of faith looking in the evangelical church, which no doubt unto Jesus. In this way, Hebrews 11, along reflects our larger culture, is that we do not with countless other biblical examples, know history, let alone church history and presents us with the importance of role historical theology well. This is especially models as we live our Christian lives. the case in regard to the era that we have Scripture constantly reminds us that none now dubbed: “the Patristic era.” It is safe of us function as islands to ourselves; to say that for most evangelicals, includ- rather we stand on the shoulders of those ing Baptists, we are more familiar with who have come before us, seeking to learn key people and theological ideas from the from them, positively and negatively, Reformation and post-Reformation era both in terms of their way of life as well than we are of the people and ideas from as their theological convictions and for- the earliest years of the church. However, mulations. for the life and health of the church today, In this way, even though all of our this lacuna in our knowledge of church life and thought must be subservient to history must be remedied for at least two Scripture and ever being reformed in light important reasons. 2 First, we often forget, especially living ignore to our peril and which it is very in the West due to the incredible influence difficult to improve upon no matter how of the gospel upon our larger society and much we try. In fact, many of the culture, how pluralistic the first centuries the church sought to combat in these of the church were. In our day, we wrestle statements—such as Arianism, Modal- with the implications of living in and ism, Adoptionism, Apollinarianism, proclaiming the gospel in light of a post- , and so on—have not only modern, post-Christian, and pluralistic been demonstrated to be false starts, but culture. But what we sometimes fail to also, unfortunately, are still with us today. remember is that in the early years of the If it was not for the hard work, theologi- church, as the gospel spread from Jeru- cal convictions, and personal sacrifices salem to Judea and then to the uttermost and perseverance of the early church parts of the world, it was first proclaimed fathers and theologians such as Irenaeus, in the philosophically and religiously plu- Athanasius, Augustine, Jerome, Cyril, and ralistic culture of the Greco-Roman world, many others, our understanding of these very much similar to our present day. It important areas would be greatly impov- should not surprise us, then, that some of erished. Truly, we stand on the shoulders the issues we wrestle with today—such of giants and we honor them by knowing as the exact status of people outside of more about them, learning what they have Christ from other religions, or how to taught, and seeking to apply insights from defend the gospel to people who did not them, in light of Scripture, for us today. believe in truth or who come from entirely It is for these two reasons, as well as different worldview frameworks, or how many more, that this edition of SBJT is to live faithfully in the midst of a pagan devoted to the Patristic era of church his- and corrupt society—teach us invaluable tory. Even though we can only provide lessons as we face a similar or analogous a snapshot of this era through some of situation. No doubt, it must be admitted its key theologians, it is our that that their culture was more pre-Christian the articles and forum contributions will in outlook, while ours is post-Christian whet our appetites for more. Knowing (which raises a number of challenges that this era of church history will not only the early church did not have to face), but enable us to be alert to trends in our own with that said, the early church has a lot day that basically re-invent ideas from the to teach us in how to live and proclaim past, but it will also help us better to live the gospel faithfully today. and proclaim the gospel faithfully today, Second, it is also vital to remember for God’s glory and for our good. that the Patristic era, in light of various heretical challenges, hammered out central doctrines of the Christian faith, especially in the area of the doctrine of God in its Trinitarian and Christological orthodoxy. It has often been stated that the early church councils gave us theological statements that are no doubt subservient to Scripture, but which we neglect and 3 Irenaeus in the Hands of Soteriological Inclusivists: Validation or Tendentious Historiography? Todd L. Miles

Todd L. Miles is Assistant Professor of Introduction which must be rooted in faithful exegesis Theology at Western Seminary in Port- Defending orthodox Christian doc- of God’s inspired word, Holy Scripture. land, Oregon. Miles received his Ph.D. trines does not allow for much creativity. Admittedly, these are broad boundaries, from The Southern Baptist Theological After all, the church has been commanded but they are boundaries nonetheless and Seminary. He has published articles in to contend for, not amend or alter, “the the gospel-defender is faced with the theological journals and is the author of faith once for all delivered to the saints” reality that there are only so many ways Son and Spirit: A Christian Theology of (Jude 3). Faithful contending certainly of saying the same thing. Of course, those Religions (Nashville: Broadman & Hol- demands discernment, wisdom, and who choose to ignore the boundaries do man, forthcoming). knowledge, an ability to listen and detect not face this dilemma. When historical a challenge to the gospel that is often and systematic theology are ignored, all concealed in a pastiche of modern sensi- bets are off, as it were, and the theologian bilities and fallen philosophies. Faithful is limited only by conscience and imagi- contending also requires a Christ-like nation (a troubling thought given the character united with a commitment to fallen nature of humanity). Further, new the Lord; a Spirit-enabled co-mingling of ideas sell well. Sadly, there is not as much grace and truth that is so beautifully and interest in saying the same thing as there remarkably exemplified and personified is in saying something new. What is the in the Lord Jesus Christ. Faithful defend- faithful contender to do? A critical tool in ing may require creativity in articulation; the gospel-defender’s arsenal is appeal to the ability to present a defense of the gos- church history. If it can be demonstrated pel that communicates to those governed that an idea runs contrary to the histori- by differing worldviews. But because the cal doctrines of the church, then one has faith was “once for all delivered,” that gone a long way towards demonstrating “creativity in articulation” is limited to that the idea does not belong in the “faith expressing truths that have been previ- once for all delivered to the saints.” On ously revealed. Though often difficult the other hand, marshalling the support to discern, creating new ways to say the of church history is an invaluable way of same thing is altogether different than validating a proposal as orthodox. creating new things to say. Making appeals to church tradition has The faithful defense of the gospel always been and is rightfully a powerful comes with boundaries that have histori- technique in demonstrating the validity of cally been governed by systematic theol- a position. One need look no further than ogy, developed throughout the history of the Magisterial Reformers to find appeals the church. Faithful systematic theology to the church fathers used with great must be built upon solid biblical theology, persuasiveness. For example, John Calvin 4 quoted from, among others, Ambrose, Exclusivism, Inclusivism, and Augustine, Athanasius, Clement of Rome, Religious Pluralism Cyprian, Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, Origen, The emergence of the postmodern age, and Tertullian. His references to Augus- the rise of relativism as the prevailing epis- tine and Athanasius are most insightful, temological standard, and the shrinking because it is through appeal to these men of the world due to rapid advancements in that Calvin sought to make his case that transportation and communications tech- the Roman church had departed from the nology have caused a radical alteration in orthodox faith.1 But the writing of history the theological landscape. The changes (historiography) is by its very nature sub- that have occurred in culture and the jective. Interestingly, Peter Enns explains, academy with regard to the perception of historiography is not the objective restate- the nature and accessibility of truth have ment of facts, but involves a “shaping of occasioned a subsequent call for the revi- these facts for a particular purpose.”2 sioning of evangelical theological method As such, historical appeals can often be and the reformulation of Christian doc- tendentious, distorting historical reality trine. This is perhaps best exemplified for the purpose of garnering support for in Christian theology’s interaction with contemporary proposals. The subjective world religions. “Religious pluralism” no nature of historiography demands that longer simply reflects the recognition that historical appeals be scrutinized for accu- there are a multiplicity of worldviews or racy and legitimacy. that has to confront the major One area in which the church is strug- religions of the world. Rather, there is a gling to hang on to its doctrinal moor- call for a renewed Christian theology of ings is soteriology and the fate of the religions—an investigation into the bibli- unevangelized. Some are suggesting that cal understanding of world religions and gospel proclamation and conscious faith how the major religions of the world fit in Christ are not necessary for salvation into the redemptive purposes of God.3 because the Holy Spirit is applying the The typical taxonomy for discussing work of Christ to those who do not believe the relationships between salvation, the in Christ (usually through no fault of claims of Jesus Christ, and world religions their own), even in the context of other employs the categories of exclusivism (or religions. In an attempt to validate this particularism), inclusivism, and plural- proposal as orthodox, appeals are made ism. Exclusivism is the historic orthodox to the great Patristic theologian, Irenaeus. Christian position and maintains that If it can be demonstrated that the proposal salvation is possible only through con- is not materially different than what was scious faith in Jesus Christ. Inclusivism being taught by one such as Irenaeus, then argues that one can only be saved by the it can be argued that the proposal is really life, death, and resurrection of Christ, but not a “new proposal” at all, but is part and that conscious faith in the work of Christ parcel of what the church had taught and is not necessary. In other words, inclu- ought to teach today. sivists defend the ontological necessity of the death and resurrection of Christ, but deny the epistemological necessity of conscious faith in Christ for salvation. 5 Religious pluralism rejects the claims of theological hermeneutics in particular) both exclusivists and inclusivists, believ- opens up toward a trinitarianism that is ing that one can find salvation through much more robust than that which has various religious traditions, belief sys- emerged to date from a christological tems, and ethics.4 starting point.”7 Many recent attempts by inclusivists to It is my firm conviction that contrary answer the question of how Christianity to those who assert either an independent and world religions relate center on the work of the Holy Spirit apart from the Son possibility that the Holy Spirit is at work or a work of the Son that is subordinate to in a salvific sense in other religions. These the Spirit in world religions, the roles of proposals are motivated by a struggle Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit are inex- over the seemingly irreconcilable axi- tricably linked, and they are linked in this oms that (1) God has a universal salvific way: the Holy Spirit always seeks to glo- will and (2) salvation is based upon the rify the Son. When Jesus said of the Holy historical work of Jesus Christ.5 While Spirit, “He will glorify Me, because He maintaining the work of Christ as the will take from what is Mine and declare it basis for redemption, some inclusivists to you” (John 16:14), Christ was not merely posit that the Spirit could be applying that defining one aspect of the work of the work to individuals apart from conscious Holy Spirit. Rather, he was declaring the faith in Christ. That is, the Holy Spirit is nature of the relationship between him- at work in the world, perhaps even in and self and the Holy Spirit within the broad through world religions, drawing people scope of trinitarian life and redemptive into a reconciled relationship with their history. Therefore, those who posit an Creator apart from the gospel. independent salvific work of the Holy Of course, to make such an asser- Spirit in world religions are denying the tion will require that one engage in a essential relationship of the Son and the fair amount of theological revisionism Spirit in the economic Trinity. That is, I at the Christological, pneumatological, believe that the pneumatological inclusiv- ecclesiological, and soteriological lev- ism posited by some current evangelicals els, just to name a few. Specifically, one fails on the grounds of proper theological must create a hypostatic independence method, historical theology, biblical theol- between the Son and the Spirit in order ogy, and systematic theology. to posit a relative autonomy of the Spirit A full-scale critique of pneumatologi- in his global operations. But evangelicals cal inclusivism at all of those levels lies such as Clark Pinnock and Amos Yong outside the scope of this article but my are not intimidated by the prospects. attempts can be found elsewhere.8 The Indeed, Pinnock suggests, “Let us see purpose of this article is to examine the what results from viewing Christ as an appeals by inclusivists to the theology aspect of the Spirit’s mission, instead of . . . and writings of Irenaeus to support their viewing Spirit as a function of Christ’s.”6 claims. As any student of church history Yong believes that only a pneumatological realizes, the doctrine of the Holy Spirit approach will lead to a robust trinitarian had not received much attention until theology. “I propose that a pneumatologi- the last century. As Killian McDonnell cal approach to theology (in general and observes, “Anyone writing on pneuma- 6 tology is hardly burdened by the past example. Paul Knitter quotes Khodr at and finds little guidance there.”9 It is the Baar Consultation in 1990: precisely because of the relative dearth The Spirit is omnipresent and fills of writing on the Holy Spirit that current everything in an economy distinct theologians must be careful when making from the Son. The Word and the appeals to church history to support their Spirit are called the “two hands of the Father”. We must here affirm proposals. I want to demonstrate that any their hypostatic independence attempt to appeal to Irenaeus for support and visualize in the religions an all-comprehensive phenomenon of in advocating an independent economy of 13 grace. the Holy Spirit from the Son is to engage in serious misrepresentation. Irenaeus, Irenaeus is also a favorite of evan- far from justifying the claims of relative gelical pneumatological inclusivists Clark independence, actually speaks against Pinnock and Amos Yong. For example, such a proposal. Pinnock appeals to Irenaeus’s work on recapitulation as evidence of a wider Irenaeus and the “Two Hands” of hope: “The work of Christ as last Adam the Father who represents all humanity was empha- Irenaeus is the earliest and most sig- sized by Irenaeus. God came into the nificant figure in most contemporary world in Jesus in order [sic] save humanity pneumatological inclusivists’ appeals to from sin and death, to restore and perfect church history. This is so, not because he the creation. This indeed is a broad con- developed a theology of the relationship cept of redemption.”14 From Irenaeus’s between Christ and the Holy Spirit, but recapitulation model of the atonement, because of the “two hands of God” meta- which Pinnock sees as a “broad concept phor that he employed a number of times of redemption,” Pinnock attempts to in his monumental work Against Heresies.10 characterize Irenaeus as emphasizing a Discussion of Irenaeus’s work will focus broader hope in salvation, thereby reject- on Against Heresies and Demonstration of ing the “sort of harsh views” that were the Apostolic Preaching.11 introduced by soteriological exclusivists such as Augustine.15 Illegitimate Appeals to Irenaeus’s Pinnock’s commitment to Irenaeus as “Two Hands of God” an advocate of a wider hope causes him In the current postmodern climate, to interpret Irenaeus’s works in that light. where many theologians are rethinking Although Irenaeus did not write anything how to reconcile the exclusive claims of that could be interpreted as expressly Christ and the reality of religious plural- supporting an inclusive view of salva- ism, much has been made of Irenaeus’s tion, Pinnock is not discouraged by the teaching on the “two hands of God.”12 silence. Irenaeus may not have possessed Appeals are made to Irenaeus to assert a an explicit openness to salvation outside “hypostatic independence” of the Spirit the church, but he cannot be blamed for from the Son, authorizing pneumatology this attitude. He was “unaware of the exis- as the starting point for a theology of tence of a large number of unevangelized religions. In the non-evangelical world, people and thus of our entire problem. We Georg Khodr provides an excellent cannot say what he might have thought 7 had he lived in our day.”16 fully trinitarian hermeneutical vision that Another example of Pinnock’s appeals builds on Irenaeus’s insight concerning to Irenaeus is when he quotes from Against the relationship between the Spirit and Heresies 3.12.13: “God by various dispensa- the Word.”22 Yong understands rightly tions comes to the rescue of humankind.” that the metaphor is a polemic against Pinnock, who is already committed to Gnosticism and its doctrine of creation. viewing Christ as an aspect of the Spirit’s It teaches the full ontological equality of mission in Scripture, uses Irenaeus’s the Son and the Spirit with the Father. quote to suggest that “[t]he Spirit is ever But Yong advances the metaphor beyond working to orient people, wherever they ontological equality when he suggests: are, to the mystery of divine love.”17 In his More important theologically, how- argument, Pinnock asserts that the Spirit ever, is that the two hands explicitly has been at work in the cosmos dispensing posits an intratrinitarian egalitarian- grace in advance of the incarnation. Else- ism. . . . Yet at the same time, because of its non-subordinationist vision of where, Pinnock uses the same quote from Spirit and Word, it also contained Irenaeus and immediately writes, “Spirit the seeds for the radically relational trinitarianism developed by the is present everywhere, and God’s truth 23 fourth century Greek fathers.” may have penetrated any given religion and culture at some point.”18 Perhaps Yong knows that Irenaeus Both Pinnock and Yong place great would not have used the figure of speech emphasis on Irenaeus’s “two hands” to assert an “intratrinitarian egalitarian- metaphor. Yong is more contextual and, ism,” but he is happy to use Irenaeus’s therefore, slightly more circumspect than metaphor as a springboard to advance his Pinnock in his use of the figure of speech. own proposals.24 In Spirit-Word-Community, Yong traces For Pinnock’s part, Irenaeus’s metaphor the development of Irenaeus’s metaphor suggests a “double mission” of the Son and summarizes, “Throughout Against and the Spirit.25 Elsewhere, he claims that Heresies, then, Spirit/Wisdom and Word Irenaeus’s “two hands” metaphor teaches are thus understood as the two hands a joint mission of the Son and the Spirit: of God which formed the visible world, “The missions are intertwined and equal; including its inhabitants, and accomplish one is not major and the other minor.”26 the purposes of God.”19 He also traces the Ironically, in the very next paragraph, development of the motif to the Magiste- Pinnock states, “We begin by placing rial Reformers who recaptured the image, Christology in the context of the Spirit’s arguing for the inseparability of the Word global operations, of which incarnation is and the Spirit, with strong regard to illu- the culmination.”27 mination. Yong, however, finds fault with Pinnock also appeals to Irenaeus in the Reformers for not following through an attempt to justify an ethical criterion with a full re-appropriation of the meta- for salvation. He quotes Irenaeus from phor.20 In Yong’s economy, Irenaeus devel- Against Heresies 4.13.1: “The Lord did not oped a “motif which has since proven abrogate the natural precepts of the law to be a rich source for reflection in the by which man is justified, which those Christian theological tradition.”21 In con- who were justified by faith and pleased trast to the Reformers, Yong “proposes a God did observe previous to the giving 8 of the law.”28 Immediately following this tion, Irenaeus was first introduced to the quotation, Pinnock begins a discussion of Gnostic teachings of Valentinus and his Vatican II and its experimentation with followers. In the years following, during “holy pagans;” those who meet an ethical his service as Bishop of Lyons, Irenaeus criterion for salvation but do not meet any sought to fight the growing influence sort of faith in Christ criterion.29 The flow of Gnosticism. A brief overview of the of Pinnock’s argument leads the reader Gnostic threat as perceived by Irenaeus to believe that Irenaeus’s writing on the is important because it is only by under- non-abrogation of the Law in the life of standing this context that Irenaeus’s use a justified believer supports the inclu- of the “two hands of God” can be prop- sivist assertions of both Vatican II and erly understood. His five-volumeAgainst Pinnock. But is this a legitimate reading Heresies was the first systematic refuta- of Irenaeus? On analysis, it is clear that tion of the Gnostic by a Christian Irenaeus was addressing the need for both leader and his link to the Apostle John via belief and a changed life that continually Polycarp no doubt served to enhance the grows into conformity with the character credibility of the work.32 and nature of God. Such is the way that Irenaeus is utilized Gnosticism by pneumatological inclusivists. Our next Though beginning to flourish, the task is to examine Irenaeus in order to Gnostic movements of the second century determine whether or not he can be legiti- were fragmented and disunited.33 Rather mately used or appealed to in this manner. than a particular uniform set of teach- It is significant that Terrance Tiessen, who ings, Gnosticism is best known for its has offered an inclusivist proposal of his syncretism.34 Such syncretism and eclec- own, did his doctoral work on Irenaeus ticism presented a unique challenge and and his teaching on the unevangelized. opportunity to the early church. Without In a telling footnote, he writes: a systematized set of doctrines, it was up to early church leaders to formulate The work of the Holy Spirit is given much attention in recent discussion many biblical doctrines such as salva- of the state of the unevangelized. For tion, knowledge of God, revelation, and this reason, the paucity of material creation in the context of fighting urgent in Irenaeus is somewhat disappoint- ing. However, it is not surprising heretical challenges. It is beyond the scope when one considers the time in of this article to give a thorough account- which he wrote and the Gnostic 30 ing of the diverse teachings of Gnosticism context he addressed. and the challenges that Gnostic theology Irenaeus and His Theology presented the early church, but some par- Background ticular Gnostic teachings must be covered Irenaeus, born in Minor, served to set the stage for Irenaeus’s writing.35 It as Bishop of the church in Lyons, France is evident that Irenaeus considered the from A.D. 178 until his death in 200. He Gnostics to be worse than the godless had the distinction of being discipled by heathen. He took it upon himself to pres- Polycarp of Smyrna, who was himself the ent their teaching in a coherent form and disciple of the Apostle John.31 On a trip systematically refute it.36 Discussion will to Rome during a time of great persecu- be limited to those areas that are germane 9 to the topic of Word and Spirit to which inextricably bound to the Son. Irenaeus Irenaeus responded, namely revelation, had discourses on the Father and the Son salvation, and creation.37 often in isolation from the other Triune Irenaeus was most concerned with members, but never the Holy Spirit.40 the radical dualism of Gnosticism that Irenaeus was not silent on the Holy Spirit impacted creation, epistemology, Chris- however. He taught the equal divinity of tology, soteriology, Scripture, the church, the Holy Spirit, and was the first theolo- anthropology, and hamartiology. 38 This gian to bring attention and focus to the sharp Gnostic dualism expressed itself work of the Holy Spirit in creation.41 But most fundamentally in the nature of even when discussing the role of the Spirit God and the nature of man. God was the in creation, ecclesiology, or revelation, ineffable unknowable Absolute, while the Son was always in view. Throughout material existence was evil and the active Irenaeus’s writings, the Spirit was never enemy of the spirit and spiritual living. mentioned in isolation from either or both Because of its material nature, the world the Father and the Son.42 was base and brought only despair. This Irenaeus consistently taught a sym- caused a seemingly unbridgeable gap metric order within the Godhead. The between God and the world. It fell to reli- Son is sent by the Father to reveal the gion to attempt to bridge that gap. Father. The Spirit is sent by the Son to There was diverse Gnostic teaching on reveal the Son. The Spirit reveals the Son creation, but given the nature of both the and brings people to the Son. The Son unknowable Absolute and the inherent in turn presents these to the Father.43 As evil nature of matter, Gnosticism was con- will be demonstrated, this general order sistent in denying that God was actively is repeated over and over again in the involved in creation. In some Gnostic doctrines of Irenaeus. For example, in thought, the Archons or created discussing the process of regeneration, the world. These evil gods also created Irenaeus writes, the and flesh of humankind (not the And for this reason the baptism of spirit), whose body was shaped “in the our regeneration proceeds through image of the divine Primal (or Archetypal these three points: God the Father Man) and animated it with their own psy- bestowing on us regeneration through His Son by the Holy Spirit. 39 chical forces.” In other Gnostic teaching, For as many as carry [in them] the emanations came from the unknowable Spirit of God are led to the Word, that is to the Son; and the Son brings Absolute. One of the lower emanations them to the Father; and the Father (very distant from God) was responsible causes them to possess incorruption. for creation. Without the Spirit it is not possible to behold the Word of God, nor with- out the Son can any draw near to The Teaching of Irenaeus on Son the Father; for the knowledge of the and Spirit Father is the Son, and the knowledge of the Son of God is through the Although, Irenaeus did not develop a Holy Spirit; and, according to the theology of Son and Spirit per se, refer- good pleasure of the Father, the Son ences to the relationship between the ministers and dispenses the Spirit to whomsoever the Father wills and as Son and the Spirit abound in his writ- He wills.44 ings. In Irenaeus’s economy, the Spirit is 10 In Proof 7 of Demonstration of Apos- the Spirit” and the Word who is the tolic Preaching, he summarized well the “announcer of the prophets.” Thus while roles of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit the Spirit speaks to the prophets, it is in revelation and salvation. Irenaeus actually the Son who is speaking to and described the Son as “the knowledge of through the prophets. The purpose in the Father,” while knowledge of the Son Irenaeus’s thought was not to confuse the comes “through the Holy Spirit.”45 The Spirit and Son, or to separate the Spirit Word reveals the Father and the Spirit and the Son, but rather to demonstrate reveals the Word.46 This economy stems that the mission of the Spirit is to reveal from their inner-trinitarian relationships. the Son.51 Irenaeus, like most of the early church fathers, did not see a large distinction Soteriology between who God is in his being and the Irenaeus did not treat the procession economic Trinity: how God’s acts flows of the Spirit in a systematic manner, but out of who God is.47 This general economy much can be inferred from his writings. is very clear from Irenaeus’s writings on The Spirit’s role is determined by who the doctrines of revelation, salvation, he is: The Spirit of the Word. MacKenzie ecclesiology, and creation. suggests that this points to a procession of the Spirit. In summarizing Proofs 5-8 Inspiration of Demonstration of Apostolic Preaching, Irenaeus’s understanding of inspiration MacKenzie writes, was that the Holy Spirit spoke through the The cry of the Spirit, “Abba Father”, prophets and through the writers of both is the utterance of the Son in His the Old and New Testaments.48 As in all eternal relation to the Father in the things, the purpose of the Spirit’s speak- relations which the Godhead is. We therefore have at least an implicitly ing is to reveal the Word. This economy pointed trinitarian formula indicat- is evident from Proof 5 of Demonstration of ing the procession of the Spirit: that He comes “through” the Son in such Apostolic Preaching, where Irenaeus com- a way that the Son is personally mented on Eph 4:6: present with us.52

Well also does Paul His apostle say: The Holy Spirit brings people to the Son One God, the Father, who is over all and through all and in us all. For over all is and the Son “brings them to the Father . . . the Father: and through all is the Son, to possess incorruption.”53 In principle, for through Him all things were this does not limit the work of the Holy made by the Father; and in us all is the Spirit, who cries Abba Father, and Spirit in the life of non-Christians, but in fashions man into the likeness of the salvific economy of Irenaeus, the Holy God. Now the Spirit shows forth the Word, and therefore the prophets Spirit is tied immediately and expressly announced the Son of God; and the to the church. In responding to the false Word utters the Spirit, and therefore teachings of the “heretics” and “Gnostic is Himself the announcer of the prophets, and leads and draws man impiety,” Irenaeus declares, to the Father.49 “For in the Church,” it is said, “God hath set apostles, prophets, The Spirit “shows forth the Word” teachers,” and all the other means so that the prophets announce the Son through which the Spirit works; of of God.50 But it is the Word who “utters which all those are not partakers 11 who do not join themselves to the broader context that makes strong claims Church, but defraud themselves of of ecclesiological exclusivism.58 life through their perverse opin- ions and infamous behavior. For Salvation and the church are clearly where the Church is, there is the linked in Irenaeus’s theology, but this Spirit of God; and where the Spirit is consistent with his understanding of of God is, there is the Church, and every kind of grace; but the Spirit is the trinitarian economy. “The Father is truth. Those, therefore, who do not indeed above all, and He is the Head of partake of Him, are neither nour- Christ; but the Word is through all things, ished into life from the mother’s breasts, nor do they enjoy that most and is Himself the Head of the Church; limpid fountain which issues from while the Spirit is in us all, and He is the the body of Christ; but they dig for themselves broken cisterns out of living water, which the Lord grants to earthly trenches, and drink putrid those who rightly believe in him, and love water out of the mire, fleeing from Him.”59 The Spirit’s role in salvation does the faith of the Church lest they be convicted; and rejecting the Spirit, not and cannot stand alone in Irenaeus’s that they may not be instructed.54 economy. Believers are carried to the Son by the Spirit, through whom they Irenaeus was clearly granting to the Spirit then ascend to the Father.60 The mission a role in salvation that is exalted and nec- of the Spirit is important, but the reality essary, but he did not leave any room for a of the Spirit’s work in the church makes relative autonomy. The Spirit, in bringing salvation a trinitarian work. Ochagavia salvation, is simultaneously building the summarizes well: church, which is the body of Christ. The convictions of Irenaeus on the economy of In conclusion we can say that the Spirit works upon the faith revealed the Spirit are consistent: God has granted by Christ and transmitted by the to the church apostles, prophets, and apostles to the Church. A purely teachers. The Spirit has spoken to and charismatic Church–as we find it in the Montanist Tertullian–is through these to bring people to the Son. completely absent from Irenaeus’s The Spirit continues this work in the Son.55 perspective. In his conception the Where the Spirit is, there is the church. To Church is very much rooted in the visibility of the Word made flee from the “faith of the Church” is equal flesh–that corpus de terra, to speak to “rejecting the Spirit.” To reject the Spirit with Irenaeus’s realism–and in the apostles and their successors in the is to have no part in Christ. 61 episcopacy. Interestingly, Pinnock laments that the real weakness in the traditional theology In the economy of Irenaeus, Jesus Christ of the Spirit has been its “almost exclu- is the head of his church. The Holy Spirit sively ecclesial understanding of his work, bears testimony to this reality. as if God’s breath were confined within In light of this, one wonders how an the walls of the church.”56 Of course this appeal can be made to Irenaeus in support is precisely what Irenaeus believed and of a wider hope for the unevangelized. explicitly taught.57 Given this, how can Whereas Pinnock quotes Irenaeus’s dis- Pinnock appeal to Irenaeus? Pinnock cussion in Against Heresies 3.1.13: “God does interact with Against Heresies 3.24.1 by various dispensations comes to the (quoted above) to teach that the Spirit rescue of humankind” to garner support guides the church into truth. But Pinnock for a universal work of the Spirit whereby is selective in his quotation, ignoring the “truth may have penetrated any given 12 religion and culture at some point,”62 saw this as a consistent theme throughout Irenaeus consistently united the witness redemptive history, citing the translation of the Spirit to the building of the Body of Elijah and Enoch: of Christ. Any attempt to call on Irenaeus By means of the very same hands for support of a paradigm that asserts a through which they were molded at relative autonomy between the Spirit and the beginning, did they receive this the Son is misleading. translation and assumption. For in Adam the hands of God had become accustomed to set in order, to rule, Creation and to sustain His own workman- ship, and to bring it and place it Perhaps the most important thing 67 where they pleased. that Irenaeus could say about God was that “God is creator.”63 Gnostics believed So for Irenaeus, all the work of the that God is completely transcendent Father, including creation and providence, and unknowable. The sharp dualism of is carried out by the two hands of God, Gnosticism entailed an inability of God namely, the Son and the Spirit.68 to create unless he did so through emana- tions or intermediaries. It is in the context Conclusion of creation that Irenaeus used the strik- In the hands of pneumatological inclu- ing metaphor of the “two hands of God” sivists such as Georg Khodr, this meta- to describe the work of the Son and the phor becomes a statement of “hypostatic Spirit. God was actively at work in the independence.”69 For Irenaeus, it was a creation of the world and he had no need polemic against Gnosticism. Pinnock is of intermediaries to help him, right to affirm that the missions of the Son and Spirit are intertwined;70 such usage . . . as if he did not possess his own hands. For with him were always of the metaphor is consistent with how present the Word and Wisdom, the Irenaeus used it. But to use the work of Son and the Spirit, by whom and in Irenaeus to enable one to view Christol- whom, freely and spontaneously he made all things, to whom also he ogy as a function of the Spirit’s global speaks, saying, “Let us make man mission,71 or to authorize an “intratrini- after our image and likeness.”64 tarian egalitarianism” per Amos Yong,72 is to stretch the metaphor past the point Irenaeus returned to the metaphor to of breaking. describe the creation of Adam, where the Historiography is, by its very nature, Son and the Spirit were both involved: subjective. Unless one is intentionally “For never at any time did Adam escape careful, references to history can be ten- the hands of God, to whom the Father dentious. This is the case with pneuma- speaking said, ‘Let us make man in our tological inclusivists’ appeals to Irenaeus. image, after our likeness.’”65 Irenaeus Readers are not free to interpret him also saw continuity between the creation however they wish; rather, readers have of the first Adam and the second Adam, a moral obligation to read and interpret attributing that continuity to his hands. in context.73 Christian scholars, of all “And for this reason in the last times . . . people, should recognize this. Irenaeus’s his hands formed a living man, in order “two hands” metaphor has become a that Adam might be created [again] after playground of free interpretation in the the image and likeness of God.”66 Irenaeus 13 hands of pneumatological inclusivists. Of Pinnock, “An Inclusivist View,” in Four course, authors can use metaphors, even Views on Salvation in a Pluralistic Age, 98). metaphors that have been developed by This taxonomy was earlier developed others. But when that use concurrently by A. Rice in his Christians and Religious smuggles in the illegitimate affirmation Pluralism: Patterns in the Christian Theol- of church history then the metaphor is ogy of Religions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis being used irresponsibly. This is what is Books, 1983). happening with pneumatological inclu- 5See, for example, P. F. Knitter, “A New sivists’ use of the “two hands” metaphor. Pentecost? A Pneumatological Theol- Appeals to Irenaeus, when the context is ogy of Religions,” Current Dialogue 19 ignored, make an attempt to claim the (1991): 34; C. H. Pinnock, A Wideness in support of church history that is simply God’s : The Finality of Jesus Christ in not there. a World of Religions (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1992), 13-14; J. Dupuis, Jesus Endnotes Christ at the Encounter of World Religions 1See A. N. S. Lane, “Calvin’s Use of the (trans. R. R. Barr; Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, Fathers and Medievals,” Calvin Theologi- 1991, 1993), 125-51. cal Journal 16 (1981): 149-205. 6C. Pinnock, Flame of Love: A Theology of 2Peter Enns, Inspiration and Incarnation: the Holy Spirit (Downers Grove: InterVar- Evangelicals and the Problem of the Old sity, 1996), 80. Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005), 7A. Yong, Spirit-Word-Community: Theolog- 60. He elaborates, “To put it another way, ical Hermeneutics in Trinitarian Perspective historiography is an attempt to relay to (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2002), 9. someone the significance of history” 8See, for example, T. L. Miles, “Severing (ibid). the Spirit from the Son: Theological 3H. Netland, Encountering Religious Plural- Revisionism in Contemporary Theolo- ism: The Challenge to Christian Faith & Mis- gies of Salvation” (Ph.D. diss., The South- sion (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2001), ern Baptist Theological Seminary, 2006); 12. Netland’s book provides an excellent Idem, Son and Spirit: A Christian Theology treatment of the issues surrounding of Religions (Nashville: Broadman & Hol- religious pluralism, although he leaves man, forthcoming). the door open for salvific faith through 9Killian McDonnell, “A Trinitarian Theol- general revelation (ibid., 323). ogy of the Holy Spirit?” Theological Stud- 4This taxonomy is used by D. Okholm and ies 46 (1985): 191. J. I. Packer notes that T. Phillips, ed., Four Views on Salvation in prior to the twentieth century, “Only one a Pluralistic Age (Grand Rapids: Zonder- full-scale study of the gifts of the Spirit van, 1996). Pluralism “maintains that the had been written in English, penned by major world religions provide indepen- the Puritan John Owen in 1679, 1680” dent salvific access to the divine Real- (Keep in Step with the Spirit [Old Tappan, ity” (ibid., 17). Inclusivism believes that NJ: Fleming H. Revell, 1984], 28). “because God is present in the whole 10Irenaeus, Against Heresies (in Ante-Nicene world . . . God’s grace is also at work in Fathers; trans. A. Roberts and W. H. some way among all people, possibly Rambaut; 10 vols. 1; New York: Charles even in the sphere of religious life” (C. H. Scribner’s Sons, 1899; repr., Grand Rap- 14 ids: Eerdmans, 1975). also idem, “An Inclusivist View,” also Alister E. McGrath, Christian 11Irenaeus, Demonstration of the Apos- 104-05. Theology (Malden, : Blackwell, tolic Preaching (in Irenaeus’s Demon- 18Pinnock, Flame of Love, 202. 1997), 11ff.; and Justo L. Gonzalez, stration of the Apostolic Preaching: A 19Yong, Spirit-Word-Community, 51. The Early Church to the Dawn of the Theological Commentary and Transla- Yong believes that the “doctrine of Reformation (vol. 1 of The Story of tion; trans. J. Armitage Robinson, in coinherence logically follows from Christianity; : Harp- Iain M. MacKenzie; Burlington, VT: Irenaeus’s two hands model and erCollins, 1984), 68ff. Ashgate, 2002). These two works of therefore presupposes it” (ibid., 33Tiessen, Irenaeus on the Salvation of Irenaeus provide his most thorough 53). the Unevangelized, 36. work on salvation and the Holy 20Ibid., 51. 34Justo L Gonzalez, From the Begin- Spirit. It is also in these two works 21Ibid. Yong then suggests that the nings to the Council of Chalcedon (vol. that the “two hands” metaphor is trinitarian doctrine of coinherence 1 of A History of Christian Thought; developed and utilized. follows logically from Irenaeus’s Nashville: Abingdon, 1970), 128-29. 12Interest in the metaphor is not lim- “two hands” metaphor (ibid). 35By way of brief summary, Gnostics ited to issues surrounding inclusiv- 22Ibid., 52. did share a common belief that they ism and theology of religions. Kevin 23Ibid. possessed a higher knowledge or Vanhoozer also utilizes the “two 24For example, Yong uses the “two teaching than that offered by the hands” metaphor in the develop- hands” metaphor to establish the church or its bishops. Matter was ment of his theological method Word representing concreteness seen to be inherently evil, while proposal in The Drama Of Doctrine: and the Spirit representing dyna- the spirit was inherently good or A Canonical-Linguistic Approach to mism. From this, Yong develops divine. The material body, there- Christian Theology (Louisville, KY: a metaphysics of spiritual dis- fore, was a “prison” or “tomb” to Westminster John Knox, 2005), 69. In cernment. Amos Yong, Beyond the the essentially good human soul utilizing the metaphor he does not Impasse: Toward a Pneumatological or spirit. Salvation was seen as explicitly reference Irenaeus. Theology of Religions (Grand Rapids: release from the “tomb” of the 13Paul F. Knitter, “A New Pentecost? Baker, 2003), 43, 130-39. body that came through special A Pneumatological Theology of 25Pinnock, Flame of Love, 58. knowledge or gnosis. Borrowing Religions,” Current Dialogue 19 26Ibid., 82. from and perverting Christian (1991): 36. 27Ibid. doctrine, Gnostics believed that the 14Pinnock, A Wideness in God’s Mercy, 28Pinnock, A Wideness in God’s Mercy, Spirit was an emanation or offshoot 36. 97. from the unknowable and ineffable 15Ibid., 41. 29Ibid., 98. God. Jesus Christ was an immate- 16Clark H. Pinnock, “An Inclusivist 30Terrance L. Tiessen, Irenaeus on rial being (the incarnation being View,” 101. Such a statement strains the Salvation of the Unevangelized impossible due to the inherent evil the limits of credulity. It could be (ATLA Monograph Series, no. 31; of matter) who was sent from God granted that Irenaeus did not have Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1993), to deliver a message of salvation the awareness of the world’s popu- 258 n. 3. to the other divine “offshoots” lation and diversity that twenty-first 31Geoffrey W. Bromiley, Historical trapped in a material prison. See century inhabitants possess, but it is Theology: An Introduction (Grand Olson, The Story of Christian Theol- farfetched to suggest that Irenaeus Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978), 19. ogy, 28-29; Gonzalez, A History of was “unaware of the existence of 32Roger E. Olson, The Story of Chris- Christian Thought, 128-40; McGrath, a large number of unevangelized tian Theology: Twenty Centuries Historical Theology, 40-41; Bromiley, people.” of Tradition and Reform (Downers Historical Theology, 18-19; William C. 17Pinnock, Flame of Love, 83. See Grove: InterVarsity, 1999), 69. See Placher, A History of Christian Theol- 15 ogy: An Introduction (Philadelphia: Ochagavia, Visibile Patris Filius: A of the Apostolic Preaching, 86. Westminster, 1983), 45-59; and Hans Study of Irenaeus’s Teaching on Rev- 53Irenaeus, Demonstration of the Apos- Jonas, The Gnostic Religion (Boston: elation and Tradition [Rome: Pont. tolic Preaching, 7. Beacon, 1963). Institutum Orientalium Studiorum, 54Irenaeus, Against Heresies 3.24.1. 36Irenaeus, Against Heresies 1, Preface 1964], 61). Ochagavia’s confusion is 55Tiessen summarizes the work of the 2. exaggerated and misplaced. The Spirit in the unevangelized: “Not to 37See especially Tiessen, Irenaeus on economy of the Father, Son, and have the Spirit is to be without life. the Salvation of the Unevangelized, Holy Spirit in Irenaeus’s thinking But, not to be a part of the church, 35-63. is Johannine. The Father sends the to which the Spirit gave apostles, 38Ibid., 41. Son who glorifies the Father. The prophets and teachers, and in and 39Jonas, The Gnostic Religion, 44. Son sends the Spirit who glorifies through which the Spirit does all 40Undoubtedly, this is due to the the Son. his work, is not to have a part in the lack of attention given to the Holy 46Tiessen explains, “The pattern is Spirit” (Irenaeus on the Salvation of the Spirit in early church doctrinal clear. The Father initiates a self- Unevangelized, 185-86). formulation, but the historian and manifestation according to his own 56Pinnock, “An Inclusivist View,” theologian can only examine the good pleasure. The Son mediates 105. texts before him. To suggest that this revelation to those whom the 57“For where the Church is, there is Irenaeus meant something other Father wills, and he does so by giv- the Spirit of God; and where the than what he wrote is to leave the ing them the Spirit. The Spirit leads Spirit of God is, there is the Church, path of exegesis and wander into them back to the Word, who pres- and every kind of grace; but the speculation. ents them to the Father, who gives Spirit is truth” (Against Heresies 41MacKenzie, Irenaeus’s Demonstration them eternal life, and the circle is 3.24.1). of the Apostolic Preaching, 83-84. complete” (Irenaeus on the Salvation 58Pinnock, Flame of Love, 221. 42Ibid., 84. of the Unevangelized, 181). 59Irenaeus, Against Heresies 5.18.2. 43Thus Irenaeus could rightly argue 47MacKenzie, Irenaeus’s Demonstration 60McDonnell, “A Trinitarian Theol- that the penultimate mission of of the Apostolic Preaching, 82. ogy of the Holy Spirit?” 208. the Holy Spirit is to bring people 48See for example, “ . . . to whom 61Ochagavia, Visibile Patris Filius, to God. “The Holy Spirit, through the Spirit through many men, and 133. whom the prophets prophesied, now by Paul, bears witness, that ‘he 62Pinnock, Flame of Love, 202. and the fathers learned the things believed God, and it was imputed 63Irenaeus, Against Heresies 2.1.1. of God, and the righteous were led . . .’” (Irenaeus, Against Heresies 64Irenaeus, Against Heresies 4.20.1. forth into the way of righteousness; 5.8.1). Letham points out that Irenaeus and who in the end of the times was 49Irenaeus, Demonstration of the Apos- taught here that the Son and Spirit poured out in a new way upon man- tolic Preaching, 5. are both coeternal with the Father kind in all the earth, renewing man 50Again Irenaeus, “The second point and that they both also share with unto God.” Irenaeus, Demonstration is: The Word of God, Son of God, him his work of creation. Robert of the Apostolic Preaching, 6. Christ Jesus our Lord, who was Letham, The Holy Trinity: In Scrip- 44Ibid., 7. manifested to the prophets accord- ture, History, Theology, and Worship 45So connected are the roles of the ing to the form of their prophesying (Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian and triune members in the thought of and according to the dispensation Reformed, 2004), 93. Irenaeus that Ochagavia is led to of the Father” (ibid., 6). 65Irenaeus, Against Heresies 5.1.3. comment, “The only difficult point 51Tiessen, Irenaeus on the Salvation of 66Ibid. is to distinguish the function of the the Unevangelized, 179-80. 67Irenaeus, Against Heresies 5.5.1. Son from that of the Spirit” (Juan 52MacKenzie, Irenaeus’s Demonstration 68Letham points out that though this 16 may seem to subordinate the Son to the Father, Irenaeus was clear that the two hands are not external to the Father, but “unmistakably divine, always with the Father” (The Holy Trinity, 94). 69Georg Khodr, quoted by Paul F. Knitter, “A New Pentecost?” 36. 70Pinnock, Flame of Love, 82. 71Ibid. 72Yong, Spirit-Word-Community, 52. 73 See Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text? The Bible, The Reader, and the Morality of Literary Knowledge (Grand Rapids: Zonder- van, 1998), 367-441.

17 Contending for Christ Contra Mundum: Exile and Incarnation in the Life of Athanasius1 John Piper

John Piper is the Pastor for Preach- Best-Loved Bishop but one, Athanasius. This devotion was ing at Bethlehem Baptist Church in Athanasius was born in A.D. 298 in owing to the kind of man Athanasius was. Minneapolis, Minnesota, where he has Egypt and became the bishop of Alex- Gregory remembered him like this: ministered since 1980. He has the andria on June 8, 328, at the age of thirty. D.theol. in New Testament from the Let one praise him in his fastings The people of Egypt viewed him as their and . . . another his unwea- University of Munich and taught for six bishop until he died on May 2, 373, at the riedness and zeal for vigils and psalmody, another his patronage of years at Bethel College in St. Paul, Min- age of seventy-five.2 I say he was “viewed” the needy, another his dauntlessness nesota. He is the author of more than by the people as their bishop during these towards the powerful, or his conde- thirty books, and more than twenty-five years because Athanasius was driven scension to the lowly. . . . [He was to] years of his preaching and teaching is the unfortunate their consolation, out of his church and office five times by the hoary-headed their staff, youths available free at desiringGod.org. the powers of the Roman Empire. Sev- their instructor, the poor their enteen of his forty-five years as bishop resource, the wealthy their steward. Even the widows will . . . praise their were spent in exile. But the people never protector, even the orphans their acknowledged the validity of the other father, even the poor their bene- bishops sent to take his place. He was factor, strangers their entertainer, brethren the man of brotherly love, 4 always bishop in exile as far as his flock the sick their physician. was concerned. (330-389) gave One of the things that makes that kind a memorial sermon in Constantinople of praise from a contemporary the more seven years after the death of Athanasius credible is that, unlike many ancient and described the affections of the Egyp- saints, Athanasius is not recorded as hav- tian people for their bishop. Gregory tells ing done any miracles. Archibald Robert- us that when Athanasius returned from son, who edited Athanasius’s works for his third exile in 364, having been gone Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, said, “He is for six years, he arrived . . . surrounded by an atmosphere of truth. Not a single miracle of any kind is related amid such delight of the people of the city and of almost all Egypt, of him. . . . The saintly reputation of Atha- that they ran together from every nasius rested on his life and character side, from the furthest limits of the alone, without the aid of any reputation country, simply to hear the voice of 5 Athanasius, or feast their eyes upon for miraculous power.” Then he goes on 3 the sight of him. with his own praise of Athanasius:

From their standpoint none of the foreign In the whole of our minute knowl- edge of his life there is a total lack appointments to the office of bishop in of self-interest. The glory of God and Alexandria for forty-five years was valid the welfare of the Church absorbed him fully at all times. . . . The Emper- 18 ors recognized him as a political not as yet any orthodox doctrine [of the force of the first order . . . but on Trinity], for if there had been, the contro- no occasion does he yield to the temptation of using the arm of flesh. versy could hardly have lasted sixty years Almost unconscious of his own before resolution.”8 The sixty years he has power . . . his humility is the more in mind is the time between the Council real for never being conspicuously paraded. . . . Courage, self-sacrifice, of in 325 and the Council of Con- steadiness of purpose, versatility stantinople9 in 381. The Council of Nicaea and resourcefulness, width of ready established the battle lines and staked sympathy, were all harmonized by deep reverence and the discipline of out the of Christ, and the Council 6 a single-minded lover of Christ. of Constantinople confirmed and refined the Nicene Creed. In the intervening Athanasius: Father of Orthodoxy sixty years there was doctrinal war over Contra Mundum whether the Nicene formulation would This single-minded love for Jesus stand and become “orthodoxy.” Christ expressed itself in a lifelong battle This was the war Athanasius fought for to explain and defend Christ’s deity and forty-five years. It lasted all his life, but to worship Christ as Lord and God. This is the orthodox outcome was just over the what Athanasius is best known for. There horizon when he died in 373. And under were times when it seemed the whole God this outcome was owing to the cour- world had abandoned orthodoxy. That is age and constancy and work and writing why the phrase Athanasius contra mundum of Athanasius. No one comes close to his (against the world) arose. He stood stead- influence in the cause of biblical truth fast against overwhelming defection from during his lifetime.10 orthodoxy, and only at the end of his life could he see the dawn of triumph. Arius Fires the Shot Heard ’Round But in a sense it is anachronistic to the Roman World use the word orthodoxy this way—to say The war was sparked in A.D. 319. A that the world abandoned orthodoxy. Was deacon in Alexandria named Arius, who it already there to abandon? Of course, had been born in 256 in Libya, presented biblical truth is always there to abandon. a letter to Bishop Alexander arguing that But orthodoxy generally refers to a historic if the Son of God were truly a Son, he or official or universally held view of must have had a beginning. There must what is true to Scripture. Was that there have been a time, therefore, when he did to abandon? The answer is suggested in not exist. Most of what we know of Arius the other great name given to Athanasius, is from others. All we have from Arius’s namely, “Father of Orthodoxy.”7 That own pen are three letters, a fragment of a phrase seems to say that orthodoxy came fourth, and a scrap of a song, the .11 to be because of Athanasius. And in one In fact he proved to be a very minor char- sense that is true in regard to the doctrine acter in the controversy he unleashed. He of the Trinity. The relationships between died in 336.12 the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit Athanasius was a little over twenty had not received formal statement in any when the controversy broke out—over representative council before the time of forty years younger than Arius (a lesson Athanasius. in how the younger generation may be R. P. C. Hanson wrote, “There was 19 more biblically faithful than the older13). Arian cause.”16 For the next forty years Athanasius was in the service of Alex- the eastern part of the Roman Empire ander, the bishop of Alexandria. Almost (measured from the modern Istanbul nothing is known of his youth. Gregory of eastward) was mainly Arian. That is true Nazianzus celebrates the fact that Atha- in spite of the fact that the great Council nasius was brought up mainly in biblical of Nicaea decided in favor of the full deity rather than philosophical training. of Christ. Hundreds of bishops signed it and then twisted the language to say He was brought up, from the first, in religious habits and practices, that Arianism really fit into the wording after a brief study of literature and of Nicaea. philosophy, so that he might not be utterly unskilled in such subjects, or ignorant of matters which he The Council of Nicaea (325) had determined to despise. For his Emperor Constantine had seen the generous and eager soul could not sign of the cross during a decisive battle brook being occupied in vanities, like unskilled athletes, who beat the thirteen years before the Council of Nicaea air instead of their antagonists and and was converted to Christianity. He was lose the prize. From meditating on every book of the Old and New Tes- concerned with the deeply divisive effect of tament, with a depth such as none the Arian controversy in the empire. Bish- else has applied even to one of them, ops had tremendous influence, and when he grew rich in contemplation, rich 14 in splendor of life. they were at odds (as they were over this issue), it made the unity and harmony of the This was the service he was to render for empire more fragile. Constantine’s Chris- forty-five years: biblical blow after blow tian advisor, Hosius, had tried to mediate against the fortresses of the Arian heresy. the Arian conflict in Alexandria, but failed. Robert Letham confirms the outcome So in 325 Constantine called the Council at of Gregory’s observation: “Athanasius’ Nicaea across the Bosporus from Constanti- contribution to the theology of the Trin- nople (today’s Istanbul). He pulled together, ity can scarcely be overestimated. . . . He according to tradition,17 318 bishops plus turned discussion away from philosophi- other attenders like Arius and Athanasius, cal speculation and back to a biblical and neither of whom was a bishop. He fixed the 15 theological basis.” order of the council and enforced its deci- In 321 a was convened in Alex- sions with civil penalties. andria, and Arius was deposed from The Council lasted from May through his office and his views declared heresy. August and ended with a statement of Athanasius at age twenty-three wrote the orthodoxy that has defined Christianity deposition for Alexander. This was to be to this day. The wording today that we his role now for the next fifty-two years— call the Nicene Creed is really the slightly writing to declare the glories of the incar- altered language of the Council of Con- nate Son of God. The deposition of Arius stantinople in 381. But the decisive work unleashed sixty years of ecclesiastical and was done in 325. The anathema at the end empire-wide political conflict. of the Creed of Nicaea shows most clearly Eusebius of Nicomedia (modern-day what the issue was. The original Creed of Izmit in Turkey) took up Arius’s theology Nicaea was written in Greek, but here it and became “the head and center of the is in English: 20 We believe in one God, the Father and within four years would persuade Almighty, Maker of all things vis- the emperor that Arius held substantially ible, and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the to the Creed of Nicaea—which was pure Son of God, begotten of the Father politics.19 the only-begotten, that is, of the When Athanasius’s mentor, Alexan- essence of the Father (e vk th/j ou vsi,aj tou/ patro.j), God of God (Qeo .n e vk der, Bishop of Alexandria, died on April Qeou/), and Light of Light (kai. Fw/j 17, 328, three years after the Council of e vk f wto .j), very God of very God Nicaea, the mantel of Egypt and of the (Qeo .n a vlhqino .n e vk Qeou a vlhqinou/), begotten, not made (gennhqe ,nta ou v cause of orthodoxy fell to Athanasius. poihqe,nta ), being of one substance He was ordained as Bishop on June 8 with the Father (o`moou ,sion tw|/ patri.); by whom all things were made in that year. This bishopric was the second heaven and on earth; who for us in Christendom after Rome. It had juris- men, and for our salvation, came diction over all the bishops of Egypt and down and was incarnate and was made man; he suffered, and the Libya. Under Athanasius Arianism died third day he rose again, ascended out entirely in Egypt. And from Egypt into heaven; from thence he cometh Athanasius wielded his empire-wide to judge the quick and the dead. And in the Holy Ghost. influence in the battle for the deity of And those who say: there was Christ. a time when he was not; and: he was not before he was made; and: he was made out of nothing, or out Athanasius, the Desert Monks, of another substance or thing (h" e vx and Antony e vte ,raj u`posta ,sewj h" ou vsi,aj), or the Son of God is created, or changeable, We’ve passed over one crucial and or alterable; they are condemned decisive event in his role as Alexander’s by the holy catholic and apostolic assistant. He made a visit with Alexander Church. to the Thebaid, the desert district in south- The key phrase, o`moou ,sion tw|/ patri. ern Egypt where he came in contact with (one being with the Father) was the early desert monks, the ascetics who added later due to the insistence of lived lives of celibacy, solitude, discipline, the emperor. It made the issue crystal- prayer, simplicity, and service to the poor. clear. The Son of God could not have Athanasius was deeply affected by this been created, because he did not have visit and was “set on fire by the holiness 20 merely a similar being to the Father of their lives.” (o`moiou ,sion tw| / p at ri), . but was of the very For the rest of his life there was an being of the Father (o`moou ,sion tw| / patri). . unusual bond between the city bishop He was not brought into existence with and the desert monks. They held him in similar being, but was eternally one awe, and he admired them and blessed with divine being. them. Robinson says, “He treats . . . the Astonishingly all but two bishops monks as equals or superiors, begging signed the creed, some, as Robertson says, them to correct and alter anything amiss 21 “with total duplicity.”18 Bishops Secundus in his writings.” The relationship became and Theonas, along with Arius (who a matter of life and death because when was not a bishop), were sent into exile. Athanasius was driven out of his office Eusebius of Nicomedia squeaked by with by the forces of the empire, there was one what he called a “mental reservation” group he knew he could trust with his 21 protection. “The solitaries of the desert, its way into the hands of Ponticianus, a to a man, would be faithful to Athanasius friend of St. Augustine, some time after during the years of trial.”22 380. Ponticianus told St. Augustine the One in particular captured Athana- story of Antony. As he spoke, Augus- sius’s attention, affection, and admiration: tine says, he was “violently overcome Antony. He was born in 251. At twenty by a fearful sense of shame.” This led to he sold all his possessions and moved to Augustine’s final struggles in the garden the desert but served the poor nearby. At in Milan and his eventual conversion. thirty-five he withdrew for twenty years “Athanasius’ purpose in writing Ant- into total solitude, and no one knew if he ony’s Life had gained its greatest success: was alive or dead. Then at fifty-five he Augustine would become the most influ- returned and ministered to the monks ential theologian in the church for the next and the people who came to him for 1,000 years.”25 prayer and counsel in the desert until he died at 105. Athanasius wrote the biog- Athanasius Embroiled in raphy of Antony. This was Athanasius’s Controversy ideal, the combination of solitude and Within two years after taking office compassion for the poor based on rock- as Bishop of Alexandria, Athanasius solid orthodoxy. became the flash point of controversy. Antony made one rare appearance in Most of the bishops who had signed the Alexandria that we hear about, namely, Creed of Nicaea did not like calling people to dispel the rumor that the desert monks heretics, even if they disagreed with this were on the Arian side. He denounced basic affirmation of Christ’s deity. They Arianism “as the worst of heresies, and wanted to get rid of Athanasius and his was solemnly escorted out of town by passion for this cause. Athanasius was the bishop [Athanasius] in person.”23 accused of levying illegal taxes. There Orthodoxy, rigorous asceticism for the were accusations that he was too young sake of purity, and compassion for the when ordained, that he used magic, that poor—these were the virtues Athanasius he subsidized treasonable persons, and loved in Antony and the monks. And he more. Constantine did not like Atha- believed their lives were just as strong an nasius’s hard line either and called him argument for orthodox Christology as his to Rome in 331 to face the charges the books were. bishops were bringing. The facts acquit- ted him, but his defense of the Nicene Now these arguments of ours do not amount merely to words, but have in formulation of Christ’s deity was increas- actual experience a witness to their ingly in the minority. truth. For let him that will, go up and behold the proof of virtue in the virgins of Christ and in the young The First Exile of Athanasius men that practice holy chastity, and (336-337) the assurance of immortality in so 24 Finally his enemies resorted to intrigue. great a band of His martyrs. They bribed Arsenius, a bishop in Hypsele Athanasius’s biography of Antony (on the Nile in southern Egypt), to disap- is significant for another reason. It was pear so that the rumor could be started translated from Greek to Latin and found that Athanasius had arranged his murder 22 and cut off one of his hands to use for of Constantine II’s first acts was to magic. Constantine was told and asked restore Athanasius to his office in for a trial to be held in Tyre. Meanwhile Alexandria on November 23, 337. one of Athanasius’s trusted deacons had found Arsenius hiding in a monastery The Second Exile of Athanasius and had taken him captive and brought (339-346) him secretly to Tyre. Two years later Eusebius, the leader of At the trial the accusers produced a the Arians, had persuaded Constantius to human hand to confirm the indictment. get rid of Athanasius. He took the eccle- But Athanasius was ready. “Did you siastical power into his hands, declared know Arsenius personally?” he asked. Gregory the bishop of Alexandria, put “Yes” was the eager reply from many his own secular governor in charge of the sides. So Arsenius was ushered in alive, city, and used force to take the bishop’s wrapped up in a cloak. When he was quarters and the churches. Athanasius revealed to them, they were surprised was forced to leave the city to spare more but demanded an explanation of how he bloodshed. had lost his hand. Athanasius turned up This was the beginning of his second his cloak and showed that one hand at exile—the longest time away from his least was there. There was a moment of flock. He left on April 16, 339, and didn’t suspense, artfully managed by Athana- return until October 21, 346, over seven sius. Then the other hand was exposed, years in exile. Constantine’s other two and the accusers were requested to sons supported Athanasius and called point out whence the third had been the Council of Sardica (now Sophia in Bul- cut off.26 garia), which vindicated him in August As clear as this seemed, Athanasius 343. But it took three years until the politi- was condemned at this Council and fled cal factors fell into place for his return. in a boat with four bishops and came Constans threatened Constantius with to Constantinople. The accusers threw war if he did not reinstate Athanasius. In aside the Arsenius indictment and cre- the meantime the Arians had fallen out of ated another with false witnesses: Atha- favor with Constantius and the substitute nasius had tried to starve Constantine’s bishop Gregory had died. So Athanasius capitol by preventing wheat shipments was restored to his people with rejoicing from Alexandria. That was too much for after seven years away (346). Constantine, and even without condemn- During the following season of peace ing evidence he ordered Athanasius Alexandria and the surrounding districts banished to Treveri (Trier, near today’s seemed to have experienced something Luxembourg). Athanasius left for exile of a revival, with a strong ascetic flavor. on February 8, 336. Athanasius wrote: Constantine died the next year, How many unmarried women, and the empire was divided among who were before ready to enter upon marriage, now remained vir- his three sons, Constantius (taking 27 How many young the East), Constans (taking Italy gins to Christ! men, seeing the examples of oth- and Illyricum), and Constantine II ers, embraced the monastic life! . . . (taking the Gauls and Africa). One How many widows and how many orphans, who were before hungry 23 and naked, now through the great escape of his people before his own. zeal of the people, were no longer . . . From that moment Athanasius hungry, and went forth clothed! In was lost to public view for “six years 29 a word, so great was their emula- and fourteen days.” tion in virtue, that you would have thought every family and every He had spared his people briefly. But in house a Church, by reason of the goodness of its inmates, and the June the hostility against the supporters of prayers which were offered to God. Athanasius were attacked with a vicious- And in the Churches there was a ness unlike anything before. profound and wonderful peace, while the Bishops wrote from all In the early hours of Thursday, June quarters, and received from Atha- 13 [356], after a service (which had nasius the customary letters of 28 begun overnight . . .), just as all the peace. congregation except a few women had left, the church of Theonas was The Third Exile of Athanasius stormed and violences perpetrated (356-362) which left far behind anything that Syrianus had done. Women were On January 18, 350, Constans was mur- murdered, the church wrecked and dered. This freed Constantius to solidify polluted with the very worst orgies his power and to attack Athanasius and of heathenism, houses and even tombs were ransacked throughout the Nicene theology unopposed. The the city and suburbs on pretence of 30 people of Alexandria held off one armed “seeking for Athanasius.” assault on the city by the emperor’s sec- retary Diogenes in 355, but the next year The secular authorities forced a new Constantius sent Syrianus, his military bishop on the people. It proved to be a commander, to exert the emperor’s control disaster. Bishop instigated vio- in Alexandria. lent persecution of any who sided with Athanasius and did not support the On Thursday night, Feb. 8 [356], Arian cause. Many were killed and oth- Athanasius was presiding at a crowded service of preparation for a ers banished. At last, in December 361, Communion on the following morn- the people’s patience was exhausted, and ing . . . in the Church of Theonas . . . George was lynched. the largest in the city. Suddenly the church was surrounded and Such was the mingling of secular and the doors broken in, and just after ecclesiastical forces in those days. But at midnight Syrianus . . . “entered with the darkest hour for Athanasius and for an infinite force of soldiers.” Atha- nasius . . . calmly took his seat upon the cause of orthodoxy, the dawn was the throne (in the recess of the apse), about to break. This third exile proved to and ordered the deacon to begin the be the most fruitful. Protected by an abso- 136th psalm, the people respond- ing at each verse “for His mercy lutely faithful army of desert monks, no endureth for ever.” Meanwhile the one could find him, and he produced his soldiers crowded up to the chancel, and in spite of entreaties the bishop most significant written works:The Arian refused to escape until the congre- History, the four Tracts Against Arians, the gation were in safety. He ordered four dogmatic letters To Serapion, and On the prayers to proceed, and only at the last moment a crowd of monks the Councils of Ariminum and Seleucia. and clergy seized the Archbishop This last work was a response to the two and managed to convey him in the councils called by Constantius in 359 to settle confusion out of the church in a half-fainting state . . . but thankful the conflict between the Arians and the sup- that he had been able to secure the porters of Nicaea. Four hundred bishops 24 assembled in Ariminum in Italy, and 160 wielded by the wandering fugitive assembled in Seleucia in Asian Minor. The was based upon the devoted fidelity of Egypt to its pastor. Towns and aim was a unifying creed for Christianity. The villages, deserts and monasteries, upshot of these councils was a compromise, the very tombs were scoured by the sometimes called semi-Arian, that said the Imperial inquisitors in the search for Athanasius; but all in vain; not Son is “like the Father” but did not say how. once do we hear of any suspicion It basically avoided the issue. For Athanasius of betrayal. The work of the golden decade [the period of revival before this was totally unacceptable. The nature of the third exile] was bearing its 31 Christ was too important to obscure with fruit. vague language. Athanasius returned to Alexandria on The Triumph of God’s Fugitive February 21, 362, by another irony. The It is one of the typical ironies of God’s new and openly pagan emperor, Julian, providence that the triumph over Arian- reversed all the banishments of Constan- ism would happen largely through the tius. The favor lasted only eight months. ministry of a fugitive living and writing But during these months Athanasius within inches of his death. Here is the called a Synod at Alexandria and gave a way Archibald Robertson described the more formal consolidation and reconcili- triumph of the third exile: ation to the gains he had accomplished in the last six years of his writing. It had a The third exile of Athanasius marks tremendous impact on the growing con- the summit of his achievement. Its commencement is the triumph, its sensus of the church in favor of Nicene conclusion the collapse of Arian- orthodoxy. Jerome says that this synod ism. It is true that after the death “snatched the whole world from the jaws of Constantius [November 3, 361] 32 the battle went on with variations of Satan.” And Robertson calls it “the 33 of fortune for twenty years, mostly crown of the career of Athanasius.” The under the reign of an ardently Arian Emperor [Valens] (364-378). But by rallying point that it gave for orthodoxy in 362 the utter lack of inner coherence 362 enabled the reuniting forces of Eastern in the Arian ranks was manifest to Christendom to withstand the political all; the issue of the fight might be postponed by circumstances but Arianism under Emperor Valens, who could not be in doubt. The break- reigned from 364 to 378. up of the Arian power was due to its own lack of reality: as soon as it had a free hand, it began to go The Fourth Exile of Athanasius to pieces. But the watchful eye of (362-364) Athanasius followed each step in But in October 362 Athanasius was the process from his hiding-place, and the event was greatly due to his again driven from his office by Julian’s powerful personality and ready pen, wrath when he realized that Athanasius knowing whom to overwhelm and whom to conciliate, where to strike took his Christianity seriously enough and where to spare. This period then to reject the pagan gods. Again he spent of forced abstention from affairs was the next fifteen months among the desert the most stirring in spiritual and literary activity in the whole life of monks. The story goes that he was freed Athanasius. It produced more than to return by a prophecy by one of the half of . . . his entire extant works. monks that Julian had that very day fallen . . . Let it be noted once for all how completely the amazing power in battle in Persia. It proved true, and 25 Athanasius was restored to his ministry battle for ecclesiastical power, nor for on February 14, 364. theological triumph. It was a religious crisis involving the reality of revelation The Fifth Exile of Athanasius and redemption.”35 He said in essence, (365-366) “We are contending for our all.” A year and a half later Emperor What was at stake was everything. Oh, Valens ordered that all the bishops how thankful we should be that Athana- earlier expelled under Julian should be sius saw things so clearly. The incarnation removed once again by the civil authori- has to do with the gospel. It has to do ties. On October 5, 365, the Roman Prefect with salvation. It has to do with whether broke into the church in Alexandria and there is any hope or eternal life. The creed searched the apartments of the clergy, that Athanasius helped craft, and that he but the sixty-seven-year-old Athanasius embraced and spent his life defending had been warned and escaped one last and explaining, says this plainly: time—his fifth exile. It was short because We believe . . . in one Lord Jesus a dangerous revolt led by Procopius had Christ, the Son of God, begotten of to be put down by Valens; so he judged it the Father . . . very God of very God was not time to allow popular discontent . . . being of one substance with the Father . . . who for us men, and for our to smolder in Athanasius-loving Alexan- salvation, came down and was incarnate dria. Athanasius was brought back on and was made man; he suffered, and the third day he rose again. . . . February 1, 366. He spent the last years of his life fulfill- In other words, the deity of the incarnate ing his calling as a pastor and overseer Son of God is essential for the truth and of pastors. He carried on extensive corre- validity of the gospel of our salvation. spondence and gave great encouragement There is no salvation if Jesus Christ is not and support to the cause of orthodoxy . God. It’s true that Athanasius deals with around the empire. He died on May 2, salvation mainly in terms of restoring the 373. image of God in man by Christ’s taking What then may we learn about the human nature into union with the divine sacred calling of controversy from the life 36 nature. But Athanasius does not empha- of Athanasius? size this to the exclusion of the death of Christ and the atonement. You hear both 1. Defending and explaining doctrine of these in this passage from On the Incar- is for the sake of the gospel and our nation of the Word: everlasting joy. When Athanasius was driven into his For the Word, perceiving that no otherwise could the corruption of third exile, he wrote an open letter, “To men be undone save by death as a the Bishops of Egypt.” In it he referred to necessary condition, while it was the martyrs who had died defending the impossible for the Word to suffer death, being immortal, and Son of deity of Christ. Then he said, “Wherefore . the Father; to this end He takes to . . considering that this struggle is for our all Himself a body capable of death, . . . let us also make it our earnest care and that it, by partaking of the Word Who is above all, might be worthy 34 aim to guard what we have received.” to die in the stead of all, and might, “The Arian controversy was to him no because of the Word which was come to dwell in it, remain incor- 26 ruptible, and that thenceforth cor- Thou shalt do vengeance for me’ (Ps. 38 ruption might be stayed from all cxxxviii. 8, LXX.). by the Grace of the Resurrection. Whence, by offering unto death Beyond merely mentioning the substitu- the body He Himself had taken, as an offering and sacrifice free from tionary sacrifice of Christ, Athanasius, any stain, straightway He put away in at least one place, refers to the wrath- death from all His peers by the bearing substitutionary sacrifice as the offering of an equivalent. For being over all, the Word of God naturally “especial cause” of the incarnation to by offering His own temple and rescue us from sin. corporeal instrument for the life of all satisfied the debt by His death. Since it was necessary also that the And thus He, the incorruptible Son debt owing from all should be paid of God, being conjoined with all by again: for, as I have already said, a like nature, naturally clothed all it was owing that all should die, with incorruption, by the promise 37 for which especial cause, indeed, He of the resurrection. came among us: to this intent, after the proofs of His Godhead from Substitutionary Atonement for His works, He next offered up His sacrifice also on behalf of all, yield- Our Debt ing His Temple to death in the stead Yes, Christ was incarnate that “the of all, in order firstly to make men corruption of men be undone,” and that quit and free of their old trespass, and further to show Himself more the “corruption might be stayed.” But the powerful even than death, display- human condition is not viewed only as a ing His own body incorruptible, as first-fruits of the resurrection of all physical problem of corrupt nature. It is 39 (Italics added). also viewed as a moral shortfall that cre- ates a “debt” before God. Thus a substitu- Athanasius is willing to make the death tionary death is required. No man could of Christ for our debt, owing to our tres- pay this debt. Only a God-man could pay passes, the “special cause” of the incarna- it. This is seen even more clearly when tion. But he returns quickly to his more Athanasius, in commenting on Luke 10:22, common way of seeing things, namely, speaks of Christ’s taking the curse of God restoration of the image of God. in our place: We may admit that Athanasius did not For man, being in Him, was quick- see the fullness of what Christ achieved ened: for this was why the Word was on the cross in terms of law and guilt and united to man, namely, that against justification. But what he saw we may be man the curse might no longer prevail. This is the reason why they blind to. The implications of the incarna- record the request made on behalf of tion are vast, and one reads Athanasius mankind in the seventy-first Psalm with the sense that we are paupers in our [sic]: ‘Give the King Thy judgment, O God’ (Ps. lxxii. I): asking that both perception of what he saw. However lop- the judgment of death which hung sided his view of the cross may have been, over us may be delivered to the Son, he saw clearly that the incarnation of the and that He may then, by dying for us, abolish it for us in Himself. divine Son of God was essential. Without This was what He signified, say- it the gospel is lost. There are doctrines ing Himself, in the eighty-seventh Psalm [sic]: ‘Thine indignation lieth in the Bible that are worth dying for and hard upon me’ (Ps. lxxxviii. 7). For living for. They are the ground of our life. He bore the indignation which lay They are the heart of our worship. The upon us, as also He says in the hun- dred and thirty-seventh [sic]: ‘Lord, divine and human nature of Christ in one 27 person is one of those doctrines. He was So, Athanasius would have us learn contending for our all. from his life and the life of his heroes this lesson: even if at times it may feel as 2. Joyful courage is the calling of a faith- though we are alone contra mundum, let ful shepherd. us stand courageous and out-rejoice our Athanasius stared down murder- adversaries. ous intruders into his church. He stood before emperors who could have killed 3. Loving Christ includes loving true him as easily as exiling him. He risked propositions about Christ. the wrath of parents and other clergy by What was clear to Athanasius was that consciously training young people to give propositions about Christ carried convic- their all for Christ, including martyrdom. tions that could send you to heaven or to He celebrated the fruit of his ministry hell. Propositions like “There was a time with these words: “in youth they are when the Son of God was not,” and “He self-restrained, in temptations endure, was not before he was made,” and “the in labors persevere, when insulted are Son of God is created” were damnable. patient, when robbed make light of it: If they were spread abroad and believed, and, wonderful as it is, they despise even they would damn the who embraced death and become martyrs of Christ”40— them. And therefore Athanasius labored martyrs not who kill as they die, but who with all his might to formulate proposi- love as they die. tions that would conform to reality and Athanasius contra mundum should lead the soul to faith and worship and inspire every pastor to stand his ground heaven. meekly and humbly and courageously I believe Athanasius would have abom- whenever a biblical truth is at stake. But inated, with tears, the contemporary call be sure that you always out-rejoice your for “depropositionalizing” that we hear adversaries. If something is worth fight- among many of the so-called “reformists” ing for, it is worth rejoicing over. And the and “the emerging church,” “younger joy is essential in the battle, for nothing is evangelicals,” “postfundamentalists,” worth fighting for that will not increase “postfoundationalists,” “postproposition- our everlasting joy in God. alists,” and “postevangelicals.”42 I think he Courage in conflict must mingle with would have said, “Our young people in joy in Christ. This is what Athanasius Alexandria die for the truth of proposi- loved about Antony and what he sought tions about Christ. What do your young to be himself. This was part of his battle people die for?” And if the answer came strategy with his adversaries: back, “We die for Christ, not propositions about Christ,” I think he would have said, Let us be courageous and rejoice always. . . . Let us consider and “That’s what the heretic Arius said. So lay to heart that while the Lord which Christ will you die for?” To answer is with us, our foes can do us no that question requires propositions about hurt. . . . But if they see us rejoicing in the Lord, contemplating the bliss him. To refuse to answer implies that it of the future, mindful of the Lord, doesn’t matter what we believe or die for deeming all things in His hand . . . as long as it has the label Christ attached —they are discomfited and turned 41 backwards. to it. 28 Athanasius would have grieved over Scriptural phrases which appeared sentences like “It is Christ who unites us; to leave no doubt as to the eternal Godhead of the Son. But to their it is doctrine that divides.” And sentences surprise they were met with perfect like: “We should ask, Whom do you trust? acquiescence. Only as each test was rather than what do you believe?”43 He propounded, it was observed that the suspected party whispered would have grieved because he knew and gesticulated to one another, this is the very tactic used by the Arian evidently hinting that each could be safely accepted, since it admitted bishops to cover the councils with fog so of evasion. If their assent was asked that the word Christ could mean anything. to the formula “like to the Father Those who talk like this—“Christ unites, in all things,” it was given with the reservation that man as such doctrine divides”—have simply replaced is “the image and glory of God.” propositions about Christ with the word The “power of God” elicited the Christ. It carries no meaning until one says whispered explanation that the host of Israel was spoken of as dunamij something about him. They think they kuriou , and that even the locust and have done something profound and fresh, caterpillar are called the “power of when they call us away from the proposi- God.” The “eternity” of the Son was countered by the text, “We that live tions of doctrine to the word Christ. In fact are always” (2 Corinthians 4:11)! The they have done something very old and fathers were baffled, and the test of omoousion, with which the minority worn and deadly. had been ready from the first, was This leads to a related lesson . . . being forced upon the majority by 44 the evasions of the Arians. 4. The truth of biblical language must be R. P. C. Hanson explained the process vigorously protected with non-biblical like this: “Theologians of the Christian language. Church were slowly driven to a realiza- Bible language can be used to affirm tion that the deepest questions which falsehood. Athanasius’s experience has face Christianity cannot be answered proved to be illuminating and helpful in purely biblical language, because the in dealing with this fact. Over the years questions are about the meaning of biblical I have seen this misuse of the Bible language itself.”45 The Arians railed against especially in liberally minded baptistic the unbiblical language being forced on and pietistic traditions. They use the them. They tried to seize the biblical high slogan, “the Bible is our only creed.” But ground and claim to be the truly biblical in refusing to let explanatory, confes- people—the pietists, the simple Bible- sional language clarify what the Bible believers—because they wanted to stay means, the slogan can be used as a cloak with biblical language only—and by it to conceal the fact that Bible language is smuggle in their non-biblical meanings. being used to affirm what is not biblical. But Athanasius saw through this “post- This is what Athanasius encountered so modern,” “post-conservative,” “post- insidiously at the Council of Nicaea. The propositional” strategy and saved for us Arians affirmed biblical sentences while not just Bible words, but Bible truth. May denying biblical meaning. Listen to this God grant us the discernment of Atha- description of the proceedings: nasius for our day. Very precious things The Alexandrians . . . confronted are at stake.46 the Arians with the traditional 29 5. A widespread and long-held doctrinal today. I don’t mean that all these issues difference among Christians does not are as essential as the deity of Christ, but mean that the difference is insignificant only that a much greater consensus may or that we should not seek to persuade be reached on the true interpretation of toward the truth and seek agreement. Scripture than is often thought. I think What if someone had said to Athana- that would be a good thing for the church sius, “Athanasius, people have disagreed and the world and the glory of Christ. on this issue of Christ’s deity for three hundred years, and there has never been 6. Pastors should not aim to preach only an official position taken in the church in categories of thought that can be to establish one side as orthodox and the readily understood by this generation. other as heresy. So who do you think you Rather we should also aim at creating are? Half the bishops in the world [an biblical categories of thought that are understatement] disagree with you, and not present. they read the same Bible you do. So stop Another way to put it is to use the fighting this battle and let different views terminology of Andrew Walls: Don’t exist side by side.” embrace the indigenous principle of We may thank God that Athanasius Christianity at the expense of the pilgrim did not think that way. He did not regard principle.47 The indigenous principle says, the amount of time that has elapsed or “I have become all things to all people, the number of Christians who disagreed that by all means I might save some” (1 to determine which doctrines are impor- Corinthians 9:22). The pilgrim principle tant and which we should strive to teach says, “Do not be conformed to this world, and spread and make normative in the but be transformed by the renewal of your church. mind” (Romans 12:2). And so today we should not conclude Some of the most crucial and precious that the absence of consensus in the truths of the Scripture are counterintui- church means doctrinal stalemate or doc- tive to the fallen human mind. They don’t trinal insignificance. God may be pleased fit easily into our sin-soaked heads. The to give the blessing of unity on some orthodox understanding of the Trinity is crucial areas of doctrine that are not yet one of those. If the indigenous principle resolved in the Christian church. I think, had triumphed in the fourth century, we for example of the issue of manhood and might all be Arians. It is far easier for the womanhood, the issue of justification human mind to say that the Son of God, by faith, the issue of how the death of like all other sons, once was not, and then Christ saves sinners, and the issue of the came into being, than it is to say that he sovereignty of God’s grace in converting has always been God with the Father, the soul. I don’t think we should assume and there is only one God. But the Bible that, because much time has gone by and will not let its message be fitted into the many people disagree, it must always be categories we bring with our fallen, finite this way. Who knows but that, by God’s minds. It presses us relentlessly to create amazing grace, wrong views on these new categories of thought to contain the things could become as marginal as the mysteries of the gospel. Arianism of the Jehovah’s Witnesses is 30 The Danger of Adapting to the a few): “Seekers” • God rules the world of bliss and Archibald Robertson points out that suffering and sin, right down to the roll with the conversion of Constantine and of the dice and the fall of a bird and the the Edict of Milan (313), which gave legal driving of the nail into the hand of his status to Christianity, “the inevitable influx Son; yet, though God wills that such sin of heathen into the Church, now that the and suffering exist, he does not sin, but empire had become Christian, brought with is perfectly holy. it multitudes to whom Arianism was a more • God governs all the steps of all intelligible creed than that of Nicaea.”48 And people, both good and bad, at all times if you want to grow a church, the temptation and in all places, yet such that all are is to give the people what they already have accountable before him and will bear the categories to understand and enjoy. But once just consequences of his wrath if they do that church is grown, it thinks so much like not believe in Christ. the world that the difference is not decisive. • All are dead in their trespasses and The radical, biblical gospel is blunted, and sin and are not morally able to come to the glory of Christ is obscured. Christ because of their rebellion, yet they Rather, alongside the indigenous are responsible to come and will be justly principle of accommodation and con- punished if they don’t. textualization, Athanasius would plead • Jesus Christ is one person with two with us to have a deep commitment to natures, divine and human, such that he the pilgrim principle of confrontation upheld the world by the word of his power and transformation—and brain-boggling, while living in his mother’s womb. mind-altering, recategorization of the way • Sin, though committed by a finite people think about reality. person and in the confines of finite time, And we must not treat these two prin- is nevertheless deserving of an infinitely ciples as merely sequential. They start and long punishment because it is a sin against continue together. We must not assume an infinitely worthy God. that the first and basic truths of Christian- • The death of the one God-man, ity fit into the fallen mind of unbelievers, Jesus Christ, so displayed and glorified and that later we transform their minds the righteousness of God that God is not with more advanced truths. That’s not the unrighteous to declare righteous ungodly case. From the very beginning, we are people who simply believe in Christ. speaking to them God-centered, Christ- These kinds of mind-boggling, cate- exalting truths that shatter fallen, human gory-shattering truths demand our best categories of thought. We must not shy thought and our most creative labors. away from this. We must do all we can to We must aim to speak them in a way advance it and to help people, by the grace that, by the power of God’s Word and of God, to see what is happening to them Spirit, a place for them would be created (the shattering of their categories) as the in the minds of those who hear. We must best news in all the world. not preach only in the categories that are From the very beginning, in the most already present in our listeners’ fallen winsome way possible, we must labor to minds, or we will betray the gospel and create categories like these (to mention conceal the glory of God. Athanasius’s 31 lifelong struggle is a sobering witness to What becomes clear when all is taken into this truth. account is that Athanasius is pressing a reality in the Scriptures that we today 7. Finally, we must not assume that old usually call glorification. But he is using books, which say some startling things, the terminology of 2 Peter 1:4 and Romans are necessarily wrong, but that they may 8:29. “He has granted to us his precious in fact have something glorious to teach and very great promises, so that through us that we never dreamed.49 them you may become partakers of the For example, Athanasius says some divine nature.” “Those whom he fore- startling things about human deification knew he also predestined to be conformed that we would probably never say. Is to the image of his Son, in order that he that because one of us is wrong? Or is it might be the firstborn among many broth- because the language and the categories ers.” Athanasius is pressing the destiny of thought that he uses are so different and the glory of being a brother of the from ours that we have to get inside his second person of the Trinity and “sharing 53 head before we make judgments about in his nature.” the truth of what he says? And might we discover something great by this effort to Are We Created Finally to See see what he saw? or to Be? For example, he says, “[The Son] was And thus Athanasius raises for me made man that we might be made God in a fresh way one of the most crucial (qeopoihqwmwn).”50 Or: “He was not man, questions of all: What is the ultimate end and then became God, but He was God, of creation—the ultimate goal of God in and then became man, and that to deify creation and redemption? Is it being or us.”51 The issue here is whether the word seeing? Is it our being like Christ or our “made God” or “deify” (qeopoiew) means seeing the glory of Christ? How does something unbiblical or whether it means Romans 8:29 (“predestined to be con- what 2 Peter 1:4 means when it says, “that formed to the image of his Son”) relate to you may become partakers of the divine John 17:24 (“Father, I desire that they also, nature” (i[na ge,nhsqe qei,aj koinwnoi. whom you have given me, may be with fu ,sew j). Athanasius explains it like this: me where I am, to see my glory”)? Is the beatific vision of the glory of the Son of John then thus writes; Hereby know we that we dwell in Him and He God the aim of human creation? Or is like- in us, because He hath given us of ness to that glory the aim of creation? His Spirit. . . . And the Son is in the Athanasius has helped me go deeper Father, as His own Word and Radi- ance; but we, apart from the Spirit, here by unsettling me. (This is one of the are strange and distant from God, great values of reading the old books.) I and by the participation of the Spirit am inclined to stress seeing as the goal we are knit into the Godhead; so that our being in the Father is not ours, rather than being. The reason is that it but is the Spirit’s which is in us and seems to me that putting the stress on abides in us. . . . What then is our likeness and equality to the Son? . . . seeing the glory of Christ makes him the The Son is in the Father in one way, focus, but putting the stress on being like and we become in Him in another, Christ makes me the focus. But Athana- and that neither we shall ever be as 52 He, nor is the Word as we. sius will not let me run away from the 32 biblical texts. His language of deification An Ever-Growing Wave of forces me to think more deeply and wor- Revelation of God through Man ship more profoundly. In this way a wave of revelation of divine glory in the saints is set in motion Created for Delighting in and that goes on and grows for all eternity. Displaying the Glory of God As each of us sees Christ and delights in My present understanding would go Christ with the delight of the Father, medi- like this: the ultimate end of creation is ated by the Spirit, we will overflow with neither being nor seeing, but delighting visible actions of love and creativity on and displaying. Delighting in and dis- the new earth. In this way we will see the playing “the glory of God in the face of revelation of God’s glory in each other’s Jesus Christ” (2 Corinthians 4:6). And the lives in ever new ways. New dimensions displaying happens both in the delight- of the riches of the glory of God in Christ ing, since we glorify most what we enjoy will shine forth every day from our new most, and in the deeds of the resurrection delights and new deeds. And these in turn body that flow from this enjoyment on the will become new seeings of Christ that new earth in the age to come. The display will elicit new delights and new doings. of God’s glory will be both internal and And so the ever-growing wave of the external. It will be both spiritual and revelation of the riches of the glory of God physical. We will display the glory of God will roll on forever and ever. by the Christ-exalting joy of our heart, And we will discover that this was and by the Christ-exalting deeds of our possible only because the infinite Son of resurrection bodies. God took on himself human nature so that How then should we speak of our we in our human nature might be united future being and seeing if they are not to him and display more and more of his the ultimate end? How shall we speak glory. We will find in our eternal experi- of “sharing God’s nature” and being ence of glorification that God’s infinite “conformed to his Son”? The way I would beauty took on human form so that our speak of our future being and seeing is this: human form might increasingly display by the Spirit of God who dwells in us, our his infinite beauty. final destiny is not self-admiration or self- I am thankful to God that I did not exaltation, but being able to see the glory run away from the ancient and strange of God without disintegrating, and being word “deification” in Athanasius. There able to delight in the glory of Christ with is here “a grace the magnitude of which the very delight of God the Father for his our minds can never fully grasp.”55 Thank own Son (John 17:26),54 and being able to you, Athanasius. Thank you, not only for do visible Christ-exalting deeds that flow pressing the meaning of 2 Peter 1:4 (par- from this delight. So being like God is the takers of the divine nature), but even more ground of seeing God for who he is, and for a lifetime of exile and suffering for the this seeing is the ground of delighting in glory of Christ. Thank you for not backing the glory of God with the very delight of down when you were almost alone. Thank God, which then overflows with visible you for seeing the truth so clearly and for displays of God’s glory. standing firm. You were a gift of God to the church and the world. I join Parker 33 Williamson in one final accolade to the 4Ibid., 272 ¶10. glory of Christ: 5NPNF, 4:lxvii. 6Ibid. Athanasius set his name to the creed 7 which expressed his belief, and for Ibid., lviii. fifty years he stood unswervingly by 8R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for the Chris- that confession. Every argument that tian Doctrine of God: The Arian Contro- ingenuity could invent was used to prove it false. Bishops met together versy (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1988), in great numbers, condemned his xviii-xix. views, and invoked upon him the 9See the chapter on “The Council of curse of God. Emperors took sides against him, banished him time and Constantinople” in Robert Letham, The time again, and chased him from Holy Trinity: In Scripture, History, Theol- place to place, setting a reward on his head. At one time all bishops ogy, and Worship (Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R, of the church were persuaded or 2004), 167-83. coerced into pronouncing sentence 10“The Nicene formula found in Athana- against him, so that the phrase originated, “Athanasius against the sius a mind predisposed to enter into its world.” But with all this pressure spirit, to employ in its defense the rich- bearing on him, he changed his est resources of theological and biblical ground not one inch. His clear eye saw the truth once, and he did not training, of spiritual depth and vigor, permit his conscience to tamper of self-sacrificing but sober and tactful with temptations to deny it. His enthusiasm; its victory in the East is due loyalty to the truth made him a great power for good, and a great blessing under God to him alone.” NPNF, 4:lxix. to the churches of his own, and of 11 56 Letham, The Holy Trinity, 109. all times. 12Archibald Robertson recounts the death Endnotes of Arius like this: “From Jerusalem 1Reprinted from John Piper, Contending Arius had gone to Alexandria, but had for Our All: Defending Truth and Treasuring not succeeded in obtaining admission Christ in the Lives of Athanasius, John Owen, to the Communion of the Church there. and J. Gresham Machen (Wheaton: Cross- Accordingly he repaired to the capital way, 2006), 39-75. Used by permission of about the time of the Council [of Tyre]. Crossway Books, a publishing ministry The Eusebians resolved that here at any of Good News Publishers, Wheaton, rate he should not be repelled. Arius Illinois 60187, www.crossway.org. appeared before the Emperor and 2Timothy D. Barnes, Athanasius and satisfied him by a sworn profession of Constantius: Theology and Politics in the orthodoxy, and a day was fixed for his Constantinian Empire (Cambridge, MA: reception to communion. The story of Harvard University Press, 1993), 19. the distress caused to the aged bishop 3Gregory of Nazianzus, Oration 21: On Alexander [Bishop of Constantinople] Athanasius of Alexandria, in Gregory is well known. He was heard to pray in Nazianzus, Select Orations, Sermons, the church that either Arius or himself Letters; Dogmatic Treatises, in Nicene and might be taken away before such an Post-Nicene Fathers [NPNF], Vol. 7, 2nd outrage to the faith should be permitted. Series, ed. Philip Shaff and Henry Wace As a matter of fact Arius died suddenly (reprint: Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, [a.d. 336] the day before his intended 1955), 277 ¶27. reception. His friends ascribed his death 34 to magic, those of Alexander to the 17Archibald Robertson estimates the good of marriage as an empower- judgment of God, the public gener- bishops at something over 250, ment to abstain from the imperfect ally to the effect of excitement on a and attributes the number 318 to sexual impulses that inevitably diseased heart. Athanasius, while the symbolic significance it had. accompany marriage. “Let him that taking the second view, describes “According to Athanasius, who will, go up and behold the proof the occurrence with becoming again, toward the end of his life of virtue in the virgins of Christ sobriety and reserve (pp. 233, 565).” (ad Afr. 2) acquiesces in the precise and in the young men that practice NPNF 4:xli. figure 318 (Gen xiv. 14; the Greek holy chastity, and the assurance of 13The Bible encourages us to hold numeral tih combines the Cross [t] immortality in so great a band of older people in honor. “You shall with the initial letters of the Sacred His martyrs” (NPNF, 4:62) “Is this, stand up before the gray head and Name [ih]) which a later genera- then, a slight proof of the weakness honor the face of an old man, and tion adopted (it first occurs in the of death? Or is it a slight demonstra- you shall fear your God: I am the alleged Coptic acts of the Council tion of the victory won over him by Lo r d ” (Leviticus 19:32). In general, of Alexandria, 362, then in the the Savior, when the youths and wisdom is found with age and Letter of Liberius to the bishops of young maidens that are in Christ experience (1 Kings 12:8), but not Asia in 365), on grounds perhaps despise this life and practice to die?” always. Timothy is exhorted in 1 symbolical rather than historical. (NPNF, 4:51). The ascetic influence of Timothy 4:12, “Let no one despise NPNF, 4:xvii n. 1. Origen is seen here (NPNF, 4:xv). Thus you for your youth.” There are 18NPNF, 4:xx. Athanasius, with most Christians of situations when he would have to 19Ibid., xx. “In 329 we find Eusebius his day, saw the body not only as a correct the elderly (1 Timothy 5:1). once more in high favor with Con- gift for experiencing God’s creation, And in the book of Job the young stantine, discharging his episcopal but as a fallen hindrance to rising to Elihu proved to be wiser than Job’s functions, persuading Constantine intellectual and spiritual enjoyment of three older friends. “Now Elihu that he and Arius held substantially God. For a different assessment of the had waited to speak to Job because the Creed of Nicaea.” function of creation in the spiritual they were older than he. And when 20F. A. Forbes, Saint Athanasius (1919; life see John Piper, “How to Wield the Elihu saw that there was no answer reprint: Rockford, IL: Tan Books World in the Fight for Joy: Using All in the mouth of these three men, he and Publishers, 1989), 8. Five Senses to See the Glory of God,” burned with anger. And Elihu the 21NPNF, 4:lxvii. in When I Don’t Desire God: How to son of Barachel the Buzite answered 22Forbes, Saint Athanasius, 36. Fight for Joy (Wheaton, IL: Crossway and said: ‘I am young in years, and 23NPNF, 4:xlii. (July 27, 338). Books, 2004), 175-208. you are aged; therefore I was timid 24Ibid., 62. 28Ibid., 4:278. and afraid to declare my opinion 25David Wright, “The Life Changing 29Ibid., l. to you. I said, “Let days speak, and ‘Life of Antony,’” in Christian History 30Ibid., lii. many years teach wisdom.” But it is 28 (1999): 17. 31Ibid., li. the spirit in man, the breath of the 26NPNF, 4:xl. 32Ibid., lviii. Almighty, that makes him under- 27It is partly paradoxical that Athana- 33Ibid. stand. It is not the old who are wise, sius, the great defender of the incar- 34Ibid., 234. nor the aged who understand what nation and of the honor God paid to 35Ibid., lxvii. is right’” (Job 32:4-9). the physical world by taking it on 36I think Robert Letham’s judgment 14Gregory of Nazianzus, Oration 21, himself, would also be such a strong is too sweeping when he says, “For 270-271 ¶6. defender of celibacy as a great vir- Athanasius the decisive fulcrum 15Letham, The Holy Trinity, 145. tue. In fact, he sees the incarnation is the Incarnation. As a result, 16NPNF, 4:xvi. not so much an endorsement of the the Cross has diminished signifi- 35 cance. [R. P. C.] Hanson likens his their case they were called anath- God, in which we are made partak- theory of salvation to a sacred blood emas. The point here is this: When ers of the divine nature (2 Peter 1:3).” transfusion that almost does away mistaken teachers are looking for Letham, The Holy Trinity, 474, 498. with a doctrine of the Atonement. a way to have their views accepted 54John 17:26, “I made known to them Athanasius lacks reasons why in the mainstream, they are often your name, and I will continue to Christ should have died. For him, willing to agree with affirmations make it known, that the love with corruption consists in fallenness, and give them a different meaning. which you have loved me may be in rather than in sin.” Letham, The Or sometimes the affirmations are them, and I in them.” Holy Trinity, 133. More balanced and broad and general and so do not 55John Calvin, quoted in Letham, The fair is the observation of Archibald make clear what is being excluded Holy Trinity, 472. Robertson: “Athanasius felt . . . as false. But if a denial is included, 56Parker T. Williamson, Standing Firm: the supremacy of the Cross as the which explicitly names what is Reclaiming Christian Faith in Times of purpose of the Savior’s coming, but being rejected as false, then the Controversy (Springfield, PA: PLC he does not in fact give to it the cen- mistaken person cannot as eas- Publications, 1996), 38. tral place in his system of thought ily weasel around the denial. For which it occupies in his instincts” example, an open theist may affirm (NPNF, 4:lxix). the statement “We believe in the 37NPNF, 4:40-41. full omniscience of God.” But he 38Ibid., 88. would have a difficult time mak- 39Ibid., 47 ing the denial, “We deny that God 40Ibid., 65. is ignorant of anything that shall 41Ibid., 207. come to pass.” 42See the critical interaction with 47Andrew Walls, Missionary Movement these movements in Millard J. in Christian History (Mary Knoll, NY: Erickson, Paul Kjoss Helseth, Justin Orbis, 2001), 7-9. Taylor, eds., Reclaiming the Center: 48NPNF, 4:xxxv. Confronting Evangelical Accommoda- 49See the quotes from C. S. Lewis in tion in Postmodern Times (Wheaton, the Preface to Piper, Contending for IL: Crossway Books, 2004). Our All, 9-11. 43These sentences are from E. Stan- 50NPNF, 4:65. ley Jones, The Christ of the Indian 51Ibid., 329. Road (New York: Abingdon, 1925), 52Ibid., 406-07. 155-57. I cite this older book because 53“Glorification (in Western terminol- it is being used with enthusiasm ogy), or deification (according to the by some today to buttress a vision East), is brought to fruition at the that beclouds the importance of eschaton and lasts for eternity, and doctrine. so is the final goal of salvation. . . . 44NPNF, 4:xvix. According to the Eastern church, 45Hanson, The Search for the Christian the goal of salvation is to be made Doctrine of God, xxi. like God. This the Holy Spirit effects 46Another way that Athanasius and in us. It involves no blurring of the the orthodox bishops at Nicaea Creator-creature distinction, but protected the truth was to include rather focuses on the union and denials as well as affirmations. In communion that we are given by 36 “A magnifi cent achievement!” —Simon J. Gathercole, University of Cambridge

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Nick Needham is Pastor of the Introduction traces of his existence. Though we Reformed Baptist Church of Inverness, Traditionally, four of the Latin fathers find among them many rich and Scotland. He also serves as Lecturer of powerful minds, yet we find in none of the church have been given the illustri- the forces of personal character, Church History at Highland Theological ous title “Doctor” (teacher)—Ambrose of mind, heart, and will, so largely developed and so harmoniously College in Dingwall, Scotland. Before Milan, Jerome, Augustine of Hippo, and working. No one surpasses him in this, he taught Systematic Theology at Gregory the Great. All four deserve our wealth of perceptions and dialecti- the Scottish Baptist College in Glasgow. affectionate acquaintance; but the great- cal sharpness of thoughts, in depth Dr. Needham wrote his Ph.D. thesis on and fervor of religious sensibility, est of them must surely be Augustine, in greatness of aims and energy of the nineteenth-century Scottish theolo- both for the sheer depth and richness action. He therefore also marks the gian Thomas Erskine of Linlathen. of his thought, and for his unparalleled culmination of the patristic age, and has been elevated by the acknowl- influence on subsequent generations. edgment of succeeding times as the first and the universal church A. N. Whitehead once quipped that the 1 history of Western philosophy was simply father. a series of footnotes to . By a pardon- able exaggeration, one might say that the Huber does not overstate. For we are history of Western theology is simply a dealing in Augustine with one of the series of footnotes to Augustine. The fifth truly seminal minds of human history, century African father towers mightily and it is no self-depreciation on our part over the succeeding centuries like some to entertain a due sense of modesty and spiritual version of Shakespeare’s Julius humility. Few scientists will ever be Caesar: Einstein; few theologians will ever be Augustine. In the post-apostolic church, Why, man, he doth bestride the nar- he has been to Christian piety what David row world Like a Colossus, and we petty men is in the Psalms, and to Christian theology Walk under his huge legs, and peep what Paul is in his letters. The writings about. of Augustine have proved a perpetual stream of outstandingly fruitful influence We are sometimes fond of saying that on Christian spirituality and doctrine we stand on the shoulders of the great down through the ages. Many of the Christians who went before us. In the case noblest movements of church renewal of Augustine, I suspect most of us may have taken their inspiration from the feel less a dwarf on his shoulders than bishop of Hippo, notably the Lollards, an ant on his ankle. In the words of the the Hussites, the Protestant Reformation “Old Catholic” scholar Johann Nepomuk itself, the Puritans, and the Jansenists. Huber, Many of the most brilliant thinkers, Augustine is a unique phenomenon preachers, and saints of Western church in Christian history. No one of the history have been devout disciples of other fathers has left so luminous Augustine; one has but to name the 38 Venerable Bede, Anselm of Canterbury, squeezed into the mold of contemporary Bernard of Clairvaux, Thomas Aquinas, non-Christian culture. John Wyclif, Martin Luther, John Calvin, Third, there is Augustine’s decisive role Blaise Pascal, and B. B. Warfield. It seems, in the historical development of Chris- then, that if Western Christians are to tian doctrine. The church’s theology has understand their own heritage, they always been hammered out on the anvil cannot escape engaging with the titanic of heresy. Where would our understand- figure of Augustine. ing of the Trinity and the incarnation There are other reasons for acquainting be, without the purgative storms of the ourselves with the bishop of Hippo. Let Arian controversy? Men like Athanasius me suggest three. First of all, there is no and the Cappadocian fathers forged a personality of the ancient world, Chris- newly refined, more lucid and articulate tian or Pagan, so intimately known to us conception of the Godhead and of deity as Augustine. His Confessions more or less incarnate, in the context of the convul- invented autobiography, and give us the sive dispute with Arius and his ilk. This most entrancing and self-revealing por- refined theology was summed up in the trait of a soul in all literature. The father great Nicene Creed. Augustine’s friend, of the Renaissance, Francesco Petrarch, the celebrated Jerome, admitted that many after his mid-life conversion to Christ, of the utterances of the orthodox fathers carried with him a copy of Augustine’s prior to Arius did not quite come up to Confessions wherever he went. Countless the standard of this more coherent Nicene hosts have echoed Petrarch’s verdict. Can doctrine, wrought out in the furnace of the we neglect this unique literary monument fourth century debate: “It must be admit- of a soul’s journey, without succumbing to ted that before Arius arose in Alexandria the charge of being spiritual and cultural as a demon of the south, things were said ignoramuses? incautiously which cannot be defended Second, Augustine wrestles endlessly against a malign criticism.”2 with the most fundamental questions Augustine likewise was the principal of existence. What can the human mind theologian who wrought out a more truly know? What is God? What is truth? articulate and coherent doctrine of human What is beauty? What is time? What is his- nature, its fall and restoration, in the fifth tory? What is the soul? What is memory? century setting of the Pelagian contro- What is faith? What is reason? What is the versy. If we owe our developed Trinitarian relationship between faith and reason? theology and Christology to Athanasius What is justice? What is human destiny? and the Cappadocians, we owe our devel- What are the proper limits of political oped anthropology and soteriology, our action? Where does evil come from? How understanding of the Bible’s teaching on can we reconcile evil and suffering with the relations between human sin and a belief in a good and almighty God? divine grace, to Augustine. He carried Augustine sets the example par excel- the Latin West with him on these matters lence of a Christian thinker determined (although not the Greek East), embedding to view the whole of life in the light of in the Western Christian consciousness his faith, rather than give a little private a high, awesome, man-humbling, God- corner of it to Christ, leaving the rest to be exalting vision of original sin, predestina- 39 tion, and efficacious grace in regeneration, pretensions to a perfectly rational world- which has renewed itself in every epoch view seemed hollow when compared and endured to the present. If we would to the higher and deeper philosophy grapple with these tremendous issues, of , father of Neoplatonism—a where better to go than the first and reinvention of Plato that transformed his greatest “doctor of grace,” the bishop of teaching into a mystical religious faith Hippo? in a Supreme Being, “the One.” Plotinus introduced Augustine to a truer con- Biographical Sketch ception of God as the absolute spiritual Let us now offer a sketch of Augus- entity, exalted far above space, time, and tine’s life, and then look in more detail matter, whose image was reflected in the at some of these weighty themes. Briefly, human soul. Aurelius Augustine was born in Tha- Intellectually liberating though this gaste in Roman North Africa in 354, to a was, Neoplatonism did not challenge Pagan father, Patricius, and a Christian Augustine’s moral lifestyle. This came mother, Monnica. His mother, a spiritu- through the preaching of Ambrose, ally minded lady, did her best to instill bishop of Milan, whose pulpit eloquence the Christian faith into her son, but the captivated Augustine. Here was an ortho- growing Augustine met moral shipwreck dox Christian preacher who both made on the shoals of his burgeoning sexuality. the faith of the church seem credible, and Abandoning the Christianity of his youth, lived it out in his own life of steely, shin- he began living with a girl whom he never ing integrity, before which even emperors married, by whom he had an illegitimate trembled (Milan was at that time the son, Adeodatus. Western imperial capital). To add to his mother’s anguish, Augus- Ambrose’s preaching soon induced tine also joined the cult-like Gnostic sect a spiritual crisis in Augustine. Let us of the Manichees. In desperation over hear him tell it in his own words. He is her wayward child, Monnica turned to a in a garden in Milan, overwhelmed by Catholic bishop who was himself a con- a consciousness of his sin, especially his verted Manichee, and pled with him to bondage to sexual desire: reason with Augustine. (By “Catholic” in I flung myself down, I do not know the early church period, we mean simply how, under a fig-tree, giving free the mainstream orthodox church, distin- course to my tears. The streams of guished from dissident groups like Mon- my eyes gushed forth, an acceptable sacrifice to You. And, not in these tanists and Arians.) The bishop refused. very words, yet to this effect, I spoke “Only prayer, not arguments, will bring much to You: “But You, O Lord, how long? How long, Lord? Will You be your son to Christ,” he insisted. When a angry for ever? Oh, do not remem- weeping Monnica persisted in beseeching ber against us our former iniqui- his help, the bishop famously said, “Go. It ties!” For I felt that I was enslaved by them. I sent up these sorrowful cannot be that the son of such tears will cries: “How long, how long? Tomor- perish.” row, tomorrow? Why not now? Why The words were prophetic. Now a is there not this hour an end to my uncleanness?” teacher of rhetoric in Italy, Augustine I was saying these things and began to lose his faith in Manichaeism. Its weeping in the most bitter contri- tion of my heart, when I heard the 40 voice of a boy or girl, I do not know changed the whole course of his life. He which, coming from a neighbouring was worshipping in the Catholic church house, chanting and repeating the words, “Take up and read, take up in Hippo one Sunday, when the elderly and read!” Immediately my attitude preacher, bishop Valerius, recognized changed, and I began most earnestly him. Was this not Augustine, the recent to consider whether it was usual for children in any kind of game convert from Thagaste, whose writings to sing words like this. I could not had already begun to make an impact on remember ever hearing it before. So, the Christians of the day? Valerius was restraining the torrent of my tears, I rose up, interpreting it as a com- a Greek, and could not speak Latin very mand to me from Heaven to open well; he had prayed for a long time that the Scripture, and to read the first chapter my gaze fell on. For I had God would send him an assistant pastor. heard of Antony [the great desert He began preaching on this very topic; father of Egypt], that accidentally the congregation caught his meaning, coming in to church while the gos- pel was being read, he received the surrounded Augustine, and cried out that exhortation as if the reading were here was the very man for the job! addressed to him: “Go and sell Augustine was horrified, but could what you have, and give it to the poor, and you shall have treasure in do nothing against the unanimous and heaven; and come, follow Me.” And enthusiastic acclamations of the people. by this oracle he was immediately Like the child’s voice in Milan, “Take up converted to You. So I quickly returned to the place and read,” it seemed that through the where Alypius [Augustine’s friend voice of the Christian people of Hippo, and companion in the search for truth] was sitting; for that is where God was once again intervening directly I had put down the volume of the in Augustine’s life. He submitted, and apostles, when I had risen from was ordained assistant bishop to Val- that spot. I grasped it, opened it, and in silence read that paragraph erius. When Valerius died five year later, on which my eyes first fell: “Not Augustine became sole bishop of Hippo’s in rioting and drunkenness, not in Catholic church, a position he filled until lust and debauchery, not in strife and envy; but put on the Lord Jesus his own death in 430. Christ, and make no provision for Augustine soon exercised an intel- the flesh, to fulfil its lusts.” I would lectual and spiritual pre-eminence over read no further, nor did I need to. For instantly, as the sentence ended, the whole African Catholic Church, by a light of assurance was infused into virtue of his preaching (he is commonly my heart, and all the gloom of doubt 3 vanished away. regarded as one of the great preachers of the Christian centuries), his endless That was in 386. The following year, stream of superior writings, his role in Augustine was baptised by Ambrose, the key controversies of the day, and his along with his 15 year-old son Adeodatus, personal influence on the other Catholic who had also been converted. (Adeodatus bishops of Africa. By the end of Augus- died young, three years later.) Returning tine’s life, his distinguished French to Thagaste, Augustine founded a pioneer disciple, Prosper of Aquitaine, could say monastic community. In 391, however, he this of his master without any sense of was on a visit to Hippo Regius, the second exaggeration, greatest city of Roman North Africa (after Augustine, at the time the first and Carthage), when providence unexpectedly foremost among the bishops of the 41 Lord…. Among many other divine spirituality by the Orthodox. Archbishop gifts showered on him by the Spirit Philaret of Chernigov, for example, says of Truth, he excelled particularly in the gifts of knowledge and wis- this of Augustine: dom flowing from his love of God, which enabled him to slay with the The highest quality in him is the invincible sword of the Word not profound, sincere piety with which only the Pelagian heresy, but also all his works are filled… [especially many other previous heresies. This the Confessions] which without doctor, resplendent with the glory of doubt can strike anyone to the so many honours and crowns which depths of his soul by the sincerity he gained for the exaltation of the of their contrition, and warm one by the warmth of the piety which is so Church and the glory of Christ…. 5 Augustine, the greatest man in the essential on the path of salvation. 4 Church today. Closer to home, the great nineteenth cen- The Relevance of Augustine for tury evangelical church historian Philip Today Schaff says this: How relevant, then, is Augustine for us The Confessions are the most prof- in the twenty-first century? Let me sug- itable, at least the most edifying, gest three areas in which, though dead, product of his pen; indeed, we may he yet speaks. say, the most edifying book in all the patristic literature. They were accordingly the most read even dur- Spirituality ing his lifetime, and they have been First, the African father ranks as one the most frequently published since. A more sincere and more earnest of the classic spiritual writers of all time. book was never written… Certainly Devotional literature holds few works no autobiography is superior to it in true humility, spiritual depth, comparable to Augustine’s Confessions, and universal interest. Augustine while his Soliloquies have also awakened records his own experience, as a and inspired many. We would have to heathen sensualist, a Manichean heretic, an anxious inquirer, a sin- place these writings in the same select cere penitent, and a grateful con- league as Bernard of Clairvaux’s On Lov- vert. He finds a response in every ing God, Thomas à Kempis’s The Imitation human soul that struggles through the temptations of nature and the of Christ, John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, labyrinth of error to the knowledge and Henry Scougal’s The Life of God in the of truth and the beauty of holiness, Soul of Man. and after many sighs and tears finds rest and peace in the arms of a mer- 6 Testimonies to Augustine’s outstand- ciful Saviour. ing worth in this regard flood in from all quarters, even the unlikeliest. Con- None of the writings of the early sider, for example, the Eastern Ortho- church fathers have so quenched people’s dox Church, which has never given a spiritual thirst down through the centu- commanding place to Augustine as a ries as have the writings of the bishop of theologian, partly because Orthodoxy Hippo. They offer a perennially needful rejects the Augustinian view of human corrective to two equal and opposite bondage to sin and the sovereign effi- errors faced by Christians in every age: cacy of divine grace in salvation. Despite either to gravitate to a cold theological this, Augustine’s Confessions have been orthodoxy devoid of heart, or to a sen- warmly embraced as a classic of Christian timental spirituality that sits light to 42 doctrine. Augustine is the antidote to cerning my God that you are not He. both false tendencies. In him we discover Tell me something positive about Him!” And with a loud voice they 7 heart and mind married in an intimate exclaimed: “He made us.” union where deep, thoughtful theology, rooted in Scripture and never afraid of The Meaning of History condemning error, nonetheless burns and Next, there is the longest and pro- sings with a spiritual vibrancy that makes foundest theological work Augustine most modern piety seem pale and sickly ever wrote, his City of God. Its overarching by contrast. If we do nothing else over this message remains as pertinent today as coming year in our Christian reading, we when Augustine first penned it. Schaff could scarcely do better than read Augus- again says, tine’s Confessions, either for the first time, The City of God is the masterpiece of or to rekindle our acquaintance with this the greatest genius among the Latin universally recognized devotional classic. Fathers, and the best known and most read of his works, except the Here is a taster: Confessions. It embodies the result of thirteen years of intellectual labour What is it that I love in loving You? and study (from AD 413-426). It is a Not physical beauty, nor the splen- vindication of Christianity against dour of time, nor the radiance of the the attacks of the heathen in view light, so pleasant to our eyes, nor the of the sacking of the city of Rome sweet melodies of songs of all kinds, by the barbarians, at a time when nor the flagrant smell of flowers, and the old Greco-Roman civilization ointments, and spices, nor manna was approaching its downfall, and and honey, nor limbs pleasant to the a new Christian civilization was embraces of the flesh. I do not love beginning to rise on its ruins. It is these things when I love my God. the first attempt at a philosophy of And yet I love a certain kind of light, history, under the aspect of two rival sound, fragrance, food, and embrace cities or communities—the eternal in loving my God; for He is the light, city of God and the perishing city sound, fragrance, food, and embrace 8 of the world. of my inner man. There, a light shines upon my soul which no place can contain, and a sound is heard Essentially, the treatise is a meditation which time cannot snatch away. on the meaning of history, which Augus- There breathes a fragrance which no tine interpreted as a conflict between two breeze can disperse, a food which no eating can diminish, and an embrace communities, which he called “the city which no fullness of satisfaction can of God” and “the city of the world.” Ever dissolve. This is what I love, when I love my God. And what is He? I since the fall of Adam, Augustine argued, asked the earth; and it answered, the human race had been divided into “I am not He.” And everything on two spiritual societies: the unregenerate earth made the same confession. I asked the sea and the deeps, and the whose head was Satan, and the regen- creeping things that lived, and they erate whose head was Christ. Human replied, “We are not your God. Seek history was the unfolding of the story higher than we.” I asked the breezy air; and the universal atmosphere of how these two “cities” interacted. The with its inhabitants answered, “I city of God, while not identical with the am not God.” I asked the heavens, visible church (she harbored tares along- the sun, moon, and stars: “Neither,” they said, “are we the God whom side wheat), was nonetheless nurtured in you seek.” And I answered all these her bosom by the Word of God and the things which crowd about the door of my flesh, “You have told me con- sacraments; while the city of the world 43 found its most concrete manifestation in interests of Rome and the interests of God, the state, especially powerful states—the and all but inconceivable to contemplate empires of man. the Empire’s fall (despite the fall of its Arguably, the most important thing ancient capital city of Rome to Alaric the Augustine does for us today in City Visigoth in 410—the Empire‘s functional of God is to offer a piercing Christian capital by then was in fact Constanti- critique of the pretensions of the city nople). of man. The reality of original sin and Augustine dissented from this ideal- human depravity, Augustine insisted, ization of the Roman Empire; no matter are as applicable to human institutions how Christian it might profess itself, it as to human individuals. He had no was just as fallible and mutable, as caught time for Messianic posturings by any up in the flux of history and human sin, state, whether the Christianized Roman as any other kingdom. There was nothing Empire of his own day, or any successor sacrosanct about it. Its fall was perfectly in the future. Whatever their rhetoric, conceivable. And when or if the Empire Augustine had little doubt that earthly crumbled, the Christian would discern kingdoms were ultimately based on the therein the righteous providence of God, realpolitik of power. The only kind of unity which ever humbles the pretentious they understood was the unity of force: and self-exalting cities of men. History join with us in happy brotherhood, or else knew only one enduring city, Augustine we shall kill you! affirmed—the city of God. And she was Indeed, the bishop of Hippo pro- not a political entity, but a spiritual entity, nounced pessimistically as he surveyed dwelling not in the swords of proud history, all the kingdoms of this world armies but in the hearts of lowly believ- were, at the end of the day, little better ers, outlasting the vanity of all earthly than vast, organized conspiracies of kingdoms. robbers. What were the most illustrious As a corollary to this critical level- earthly rulers? What was Alexander the headedness about human states, Augus- Great, that idol of Greek civilization? tine also rebuffed any romantic idea that What Alexander did on a grand scale by Christianity would ever bring about his supposedly glorious wars and con- global peace and prosperity. The gospel quests, Augustine felt, was no different was not the means to a socio-political in principle from what a pirate does in a paradise. This was not because Augus- single ship. When earthly cities and king- tine doubted the relevance of the Bible to doms fell, therefore, as they all eventually secular affairs: the Bible was a fountain did, their punishment was just. For “all of wisdom for the whole of human life. have sinned and fallen short of the glory Unfortunately, original sin meant that the of God”—all men and all kingdoms. human mind, even in Christians, was a This was a radical assertion in Augus- fountain of never-ending folly and sinful tine’s context, because many Christians perversion. Therefore, Augustine advised, regarded the Christianized Roman we must have an ice-cold realism in our Empire of his day as tantamount to God’s expectations of what fallen and foolish kingdom on earth. They found it all but human beings could achieve in the world. impossible to distinguish between the Even the best and wisest Christians were 44 still corrupted by sin, and capable of much relative, absolutely to the absolute.” The that was evil and destructive. The quest soul-destroying error of utopian dreamers for an earthly utopia was, in Augustine’s and imperialists is that they relate them- view, the pursuit of a mirage, doomed to selves absolutely to the relative: they make failure. Heaven was in heaven, and never an ultimate goal out of man’s earthly life on earth. and secular well-being. In so doing, they Yet Augustine did not recommend reveal that they love the creature more political withdrawal and quietism on than the Creator. But true Christians, the part of Christians, as we might pos- Augustine emphasized, would never sibly have anticipated. On the contrary, confuse the relative good of the fading he declared, the values pursued by the and fleeting city of this world, with the city of man—peace and prosperity— absolute good of the eternal city of God. were good in themselves, as far as they Indeed, it was precisely by turning their went. Christians could cooperate in the backs on the city of God that unbelievers endeavor to establish those values, even had made such a bloody and ruinous idol though a faithful follower of Christ would of the earthly city: not be driven by political utopianism in They neglect the higher goods of the venture. Augustine therefore repu- the heavenly city, which are secure diated the notion that Christianity was through eternal victory and never- incompatible with good citizenship. The ending peace, and thus they inordi- nately covet the good things of the citizens of the heavenly city could and present life, believing them to be the should collaborate with the citizens of the only desirable things, or loving them better than those things which faith earthly city in seeking its earthly good. reckons to be better. The inevitable The values of the earthly city became false consequence is fresh misery and an increase of the wretchedness that and evil, however, when made into the 9 was already there. ultimate goal of human life, and pursued at the expense of justice. By striving for a secular heaven on Does human political life not always earth, social engineers and empire- need this Augustinian warning? We builders were more likely to turn earth would surely do well to hear Augus- into hell. For Augustine, Christian faith tine’s insistence that any exaltation of alone enabled people to pursue earthly the earthly city and its values to absolute goals with a humble sense of realism, and status is false and destructive. Man’s without the damning sins of idolatry (our ultimate destiny lies beyond the earthly country or political party is an absolute city, beyond this perishing life, in the value) or injustice (those who oppose us transcendent God who created him; and have no value). If biblically informed, pru- this supernatural destiny will be fulfilled dent, humble Christians of Augustine’s only when the Son of God, Jesus Christ, stamp were to act as a leaven within the returns at the close of history and creates politics of their country and their day, we new heaven, new earth. might hopefully expect—not indeed the Augustine’s position here was well building of Jerusalem in England’s (or summed up by the nineteenth century America’s) green and pleasant land, but Danish Lutheran thinker, Søren Kierkeg- at least the sabotaging of the building of aard: “Relate yourself relatively to the Babylon. Such Christians are the state’s 45 unsung heroes, putting crucial checks on to sinners, and the perseverance of the its tendencies to idolatry and injustice. elect to the end of their earthly pilgrimage There is much more that could be said and entrance into heaven at last. In many about City of God, but perhaps enough of ways, Augustine’s discourses on grace are an appetizer has been given to stimulate simply an extended meditation, profound readers to drink from the fountainhead. and awe-inspiring, on the “golden chain” In the words of Marcus Dodds, its nine- of Rom 8:29-30: foreknown, predestined, teenth century translator, called, justified, glorified. Prior to Augustine, we are hard pressed [T]he interest attaching to the City of God is not merely historical. It to find this developed theology of human is the earnestness and ability with nature and divine grace in the writings which [Augustine] develops his of the fathers. We discover scattered own philosophical and theological views which gradually fascinate utterances, hints, premonitions, embry- the reader, and make him see why onic ideas: but no sustained or articulate the world has set this among the exposition. There is a good reason for this. few greatest books of all time. The fundamental lines of the Augustin- As Augustine himself pointed out, prior ian theology are here laid down in to Pelagius and his optimistic human- a comprehensive and interesting form. Never was thought so abstract ism masquerading as Christianity, the expressed in language so popular … controversy over sin and grace had never And though there are in the City of before arisen in that precise form, as the God, as in all ancient books, things that seem to us childish and barren, specific, conscious, and systematic focus there are also the most surprising of theological reflection and disputation. anticipations of modern specula- Referring to previous church fathers, tion. There is an earnest grappling with those problems which are Augustine said, continually re-opened because they underline man’s relation to God and What need is there to search into the spiritual world—the problems their works, who before this heresy which are not peculiar to any one arose were under no necessity of 10 century. troubling themselves to solve this difficult question; which without doubt they would have done, had The Doctrine of Grace they been obliged to answer such Finally, Augustine’s ongoing relevance things? Hence it is, that what they to today’s church may be discovered in thought of the grace of God, they have briefly and cursorily touched the fabulous theological wealth of his on in some places of their writings, anti-Pelagian treatises. If we are confes- whereas they dwelt at length on sionally Lutheran or Reformed, we find those things in which they disputed against the enemies of the church, in these writings the first clear, coherent in exhortations to every virtue by articulation of the biblical anthropology which to serve the living and true God for the purpose of attaining and soteriology so dear to our own hearts: 11 eternal life and true happiness. the total spiritual inability of unregener- ate human nature to respond savingly to Augustine showed a critical awareness God, the unconditional divine election of of the development of doctrine. As James those who are to be saved, the manifesta- Orr argues in The Progress of Dogma, tion of this grace in the mission of Christ Every doctrine, I have urged, has its the Savior, the sovereign efficacy of the “hour”—the period when it emerges Holy Spirit in giving faith and repentance into individual prominence, and 46 becomes the subject of exhaustive In particular, we should bear in mind 12 discussion. how the Catholics of North Africa were practically as one man in their “Augustin- The “hour” of the Trinity struck in the ian” theology against Pelagius’s exaltation fourth century; the “hour” of justification of human free will. A very conservative by faith struck in the sixteenth century; body of men, those North Africans; and and, Orr maintains, the “hour” of grace they had no sense of adopting novelties struck in the fifth century, with the Pela- when they took up the sword of God’s gian controversy. It is not surprising, sovereign grace to split the skull of Pela- therefore, that we do not (for example) gian pride. This lends credence to Orr’s observe the same kind of systematic clar- judgment that predestination was “in the ity in the articulation of the doctrine of the air” breathed by Catholic theology, at least Trinity in the ante-Nicene fathers that we in North Africa, and needed only the heat do find in the aftermath of Arianism, with of the Pelagian controversy to condense the linguistic and conceptual precision into a distilled dew of explicit doctrine. forged in the fires of controversy by Atha- In the century after Augustine’s death, nasius and the Cappadocian fathers. a noble company of theologians arose The same reasoning, both Augustine to defend and enlarge his legacy, among and Orr maintain, must be applied to the them Prosper of Aquitaine, Fulgentius of doctrine of grace before and after Pela- Ruspe, Avitus of Vienne, and Caesarius of gianism. To quote Orr again, regarding Arles. Prosper’s treatises were translated the fifth century: into English in the 1950s in the Ancient [T]hat the “hour” had come for them Christian Writers series, and make stirring [the doctrines of sin and grace]— and edifying reading. that they were “in the air”, waiting to be discussed—is seen in the Augustine’s anti-Pelagian writings are simultaneous emergence of two men among the most accessible of his theo- who represent the opposite poles of logical works. They are full of thoughtful doctrine on this subject—Augustine and Pelagius. What Athanasius and exegesis; they burn with spiritual passion; Arius were in the Arian controversy; they touch issues of salvation that reso- what Anselm and Abelard were in the Soteriological controversy; what nate in every Christian heart; and they lay Calvin and Arminius were in the a solid biblical and theological foundation post-Reformation controversy on for “the doctrine of grace” (as Augustine the application of Redemption—that Augustine and Pelagius were in this as his co-workers called it—we today tend 13 Anthropological controversy. to make it plural, “doctrines”), which has been tried and found trustworthy in every Augustine was the foremost figure succeeding age. Next after the apostles of the early fifth century to explore as Paul and John, it is Augustine who has never before the teaching of Scripture, bequeathed to the church a truly God- especially the apostle Paul, on the extent centered vision of grace; and if we who of sin and the sovereignty of grace. But hold this vision are to be named after any Augustine was not alone, and we should post-apostolic man, we are Augustinians not allow his towering stature to obscure rather than Calvinists. (Calvin once said the widespread support he received in the he would be happy to confess his faith Latin West from fellow theologians. purely in the words of Augustine.) C. H. 47 Spurgeon puts it in historical perspective to find a way of accounting for why so like this: many regenerated infants failed to grow up into credibly godly believers. He The man who preaches the doctrines of grace has an apostolic succession found it by postulating that regenerating indeed. Can we not trace our pedi- grace could be lost. In other words, what gree through a whole line of men distinguished God’s elect was not the like Newton, and Whitefield, and Owen and Bunyan, straight away on possession of regenerating grace alone, till we come to Calvin, Luther, and but persevering grace. Zwingli; and then we can go back The African father’s problem here is, from them to Savonarola, to Jerome of Prague, to Huss, and then back to however, rendered all but immaterial if Augustine, the mighty preacher of we discard his belief in infant baptism, Christianity; and from St. Augustine to Paul is but one step. We need and affirm that the spiritual blessings of not be ashamed of our pedigree; the sacraments (baptism and the Lord’s although Calvinists are now con- supper) always flow through the channel sidered to be heterodox, we are and ever must be orthodox. It is the old of saving faith. Consequently, rather than 14 doctrine. regenerate a person, whose regeneration must then be reckoned lost if he finally Perhaps the only real difference apostatizes, baptism instead imparts between Augustine’s exposition and that strengthening grace to those who are favored by mainstream Reformed theol- already regenerate believers. An unre- ogy today lies in his understanding of generate unbeliever who receives bap- perseverance. Both Augustine and mod- tism merely gets wet (not to put too fine ern Reformed theology have a doctrine a point on it!). Arguably, then, the most of “temporary faith”—those who profess robust and consistent faith for a time, perhaps very credibly, is found among “Augustinian Baptists,” but then fall away and are lost. Reformed whose understanding of perseverance theology has tended to emphasize the is no longer burdened by Augustine’s discernible difference between temporary moot conviction about infant baptismal and saving faith; Augustine, by contrast, regeneration. emphasized how similar they were. As a But let us not paint too critical a portrait result, Augustine was notably less con- of Augustine’s doctrine of perseverance. fident than Reformed theologians have When addressing himself in a pastoral generally been in offering assurance of context to believers troubled by lack of final salvation to the professing believer. assurance, he could sound very much like Most of the time, the bishop of Hippo a Reformed pastor of today: preferred warning people against pre- sumption: you may profess faith today, You, therefore, ought to hope that perseverance in obedience should but the heart is deceitful, and rather than be given you by the Father of Lights, presume on your final salvation, you from whom come down every should continually cry to God for the excellent gift and every perfect gift (James 1:17), and you should ask salvation that endures. for it in your daily prayers. And in Augustine’s position here was com- doing this, you ought to trust that plicated (needlessly, in the view of main- you are not strangers to the predes- tination of His people, because it is stream Reformed thinking) by his belief He Himself who bestows even the in infant baptismal regeneration. He had power of so praying. Far be it from 48 you to despair of yourselves! For “Without me ye can do nothing,” is you are bidden to put your hope the inscription on one side of it; on in Him, not in yourselves. Indeed, the other stands written, “All things cursed is every one who has hope in are yours.” Augustine held that he man (Jeremiah 17:5); and it is good who builds on a human foundation rather to trust in the Lord than to builds on sand, and founded all his trust in man, because blessed are hope on the Rock itself. And there all they that put their trust in Him also he founded his teaching; as he (Psalm 2:12). Holding this hope, distrusted man in the matter of sal- serve the Lord in fear, and rejoice vation, so he distrusted him in the before Him with trembling (Psalm form of theology. No other of the 2:11). No one can be certain of the fathers so conscientiously wrought life eternal which God who does not out his theology form the revealed lie has promised to the children of Word; no other of them so sternly promise before the times of eternity excluded human additions. The (Titus 1:2) — no one, unless that life subjects of which theology treats, of his, which is a state of trial upon he declares, are such as “we could the earth, is completed. But God by no means find out unless we will make us to persevere in Him- believed them on the testimony of self to the end of that life, since we Holy Scripture.” “Where Scripture daily say to Him, ‘Lead us not into gives no certain testimony,” he says, temptation.’ “human presumption must beware When these and similar things are how it decides in favor of either said, whether to few Christians or to side.” “We must first bend our necks the multitude of the church, why do to the authority of Scripture,” he we fear to preach the predestination insists, “in order that we may arrive of the saints and the true grace of at knowledge and understanding God — that is, the grace which is through faith.” And this was not not given according to our merits merely his theory, but his practice. — as the Holy Scripture declares No theology was ever, it may be it? Or must it be feared that a per- more broadly asserted, more con- son should despair of his salvation, scientiously wrought out from the when his hope is shown to be placed Scriptures. Is it without error? No; in God? Should he not rather despair but its errors are on the surface, not of his salvation, if in his excess of of the essence. It leads to God, and pride and unhappiness, he should it came from God; and in the midst 15 place his hope in himself? of the controversies of so many ages it has shown itself an edifice whose solid core is built out of material The Christian, then, will find rich food 16 “which cannot be shaken.” for his soul in Augustine’s treatises on grace. These are found gathered together Concluding Reflections in volume 5 of Schaff’s Nicene and Post- Here, then, is Augustine, most eminent Nicene Fathers, Series One, with a valuable of the Latin fathers of the church. Like all introduction by B. B. Warfield. Augustine theologians and saints, he had his defects, deals with these matters in other places and an essay on the defects of Augustine too, e.g., in City of God and the Enchiridion would doubtless paint a somewhat differ- (a sort of mini-handbook of doctrine). ent picture than this essay. Most of those Warfield passes the following noble ver- who take the time to get acquainted with dict on Augustine’s theology of grace: the bishop of Hippo, however, come to feel Its central thought was the absolute that his faults were spots in a blazing and dependence of the individual on beautiful sun. A trophy of grace both in the grace of God in Jesus Christ. It his life and writings, may God then con- made everything that concerned salvation to be of God, and traced tinue to bless the example and the labors the source of all good to Him. of his servant to us today, as we learn 49 through Augustine to know Augustine’s in NPNF1, 5:lxxi. God and to rejoice in the same mystery of saving grace.

Endnote 1From Johann Nepomuk Huber, Die Phi- losophie der Kirchenväter (Munich, 1859), 312. Cited in Philip Schaff, “Prolegom- ena” in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series 1 (hereafter NPNF1) (ed. Philip Schaff; 14 vols.; Grand Rapids: Eerd- mans, 1956), 1:9-10. 2Jerome, Apology against Rufinus 2.17. 3Augustine, Confessions 8.28-9 in vol. 1 of NPNF1 (trans. J. G. Pilkington) 4Prosper, Letter to Rufinus 3 and 18. 5Quoted in Seraphim Rose, The Place of Blessed Augustine in the Orthodox Church (rev. ed.; Wildwood, CA: St. Xenia Skete, 1997), 80. 6Schaff, “Prolegomena,” 11-12. 7Augustine, Confessions 10.8-9. 8Philip Schaff, “Editor’s Preface” in NPNF1, 2:5. 9Augustine, City of God 15.4 in vol. 2 of NPNF1 (trans. Marcus Dods) 10Marcus Dods, “Translator’s Preface” in NPNF1, 2:xiii-xiv. 11Augustine, On the Predestination of the Saints 27 in vol. 5 of NPNF1 (trans. Peter Holmes and Robert Ernest Wallis). 12James Orr, The Progress of Dogma: Being the Elliot Lectures, Delivered at the Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Penna., U.S.A., 1897 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1952), 243. 13Ibid., 136. 14C. H. Surgeon, from the sermon “Sover- eign Grace and Man’s Responsibility,” 1 August 1858. 15Augustine, On the Gift of Perseverance 62 in vol. 5 of NPNF1. 16B. B. Warfield, “Introductory Essay on Augustin and the Pelagian Controversy” 50 NEW for the Missions Classroom

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Available at your local bookstore, www.bakeracademic.com, or by calling 1-800-877-2665 u Subscribe to Baker Academic’s electronic newsletter (E-Notes) at www.bakeracademic.com 51 Patristics And Reformed Orthodoxy: Some Brief Notes and Proposals Carl Trueman

Carl Trueman is Academic Dean The renaissance of studies in Reformation John Owen and the Patristics and Professor of Historical Theology and Post-Reformation Protestant theology At the outset, we should note that the and Church History at Westminster over the last three decades has helped standard category of patristics was not Theological Seminary in Philadelphia, to put to death a number of caricatures, one that the Reformed Orthodox would Pennsylvania. Previously, he served as dogmatic and methodological, which had have recognized. The standard histori- Lecturer in Theology at the University of been perpetuated by the older traditions cal division with which we now operate Nottingham and as Editor of Themelios. of scholarship. Foremost among these (patristic, medieval, Reformation, and He has written numerous articles and was the idea that Reformed Orthodoxy post-Reformation/modern) are of later is the author or editor of a number of was increasingly driven by a speculative vintage. A writer such as Owen thought books, including The Wages of Spin: metaphysical principle, specifically that rather in terms of earlier and later writers, Critical Writings on Historical and of predestination, and that the older dog- and of earlier and later schoolmen. Nev- Contemporary Evangelicalism (Mentor, matics had no interest in biblical exegesis, ertheless, when we examine Reformed 2005) and John Owen: Reformed preferring instead to do theology via Orthodoxy in the light of our later tax- 1 Catholic Renaissance Man (Ashgate, proof-texting and crude dogmatism. onomy, it is very clear that what we refer 2007). While the overturning of these old mis- to as patristic authors played a significant conceptions is important, it should also be role in the theological construction of Ref- noted that a further aspect of the reassess- ormation and post-Reformation writers. ment of Protestant Orthodoxy has been an The empirical evidence for this is easy emphasis upon its essential catholicity: to find. The posthumous auction catalog Reformed Orthodoxy did not represent a of Owen’s library is replete with patristic break with the past, either in terms of con- texts, indicating the importance that these tent or even its own self-understanding; foundational theological writers had for rather, its exponents operated within him.3 Clearly his library contained all the a framework where the significance of standard patristic authors on key topics the theological, exegetical, and polemi- such as Christology, Trinitarianism, grace cal labors of previous generations were (Augustine, Athanasius, Cyril, Basil, etc.), assumed as dialogue partners in the as well as numerous other, perhaps more contemporary exposition of the Chris- obscure writers: Johannes Climacus, tian faith. Indeed, Reformed Orthodoxy Gregory Thaumaturgus, etc. The hold- was, in a very important sense, catholic ings are not resticted to Latin or Greek in terms of both sources and intention, fathers, either, with Syriac authors also as will be clear from this discussion of being represented. Of course, the mere John Owen, an outstanding, yet in many possession of a book does not indicate respects entirely typical, theologian of that Owen read it, but the constant refer- the Reformed Orthodox tradition.2 ences throughout his works to patristic authors, and his ease with classical and Ancient Near Eastern languages, would 52 suggest that we can take the library cata- further research. For example, when we log as representative of his reading and come to examine the actual substantive his scholarly interests. impact of patristic writing on Owen’s Indeed, that this is the case, and is theology, perhaps the most obvious area is indeed typical of Reformed Orthodoxy, that of the language of polemic. No matter is evidenced by the recommended read- what the theological controversy, Owen ing list for theological students that was is able to relate the battles of Reformed written by Thomas Barlow, Reformed Christianity in the seventeenth century theologian, conformist Bishop of Lincoln to parallel struggles in the early church. under the Restoration, and Owen’s Oxford Thus, while Roman Catholicism is typi- tutor and lifelong friend. Published post- cally characterized as Judaism (with its humously, Autoschediasmata, De Studio legalistic connotations), other errors are Theologiae:, or, Directions for the Choice of ascribed a more distinctively Christian Books in the Study of Theology (Oxford, 1699) heretical pedigree: Arminianism is (of was found among Barlow’s papers at his course) Pelagianism;4 while Socinianism, death, and clearly represents the kind of often a catch-all term for numerous radical basic reading with which he thought a groups, is a heady mix of Photinianism, student moving on to a Bachelor of Divin- Macedonianism, and Pelagianism.5 ity should be acquainted. In this work, Indeed, in Owen’s earliest published patristic writers feature both in the first work, A Display of Arminianism (1642), he section, dealing with the biblical text and sets the scene in the Epistle Dedicatory, canon, where they are seen as significant with a quotation from Augustine, a ref- for discussions of the extent of the canon; erence to holy war taken from Gregory but Barlow also lists contemporary works Nazianzus, and a clear rhetorical connec- on patristic history, as well as other manu- tion between the fifth century Pelagian als on how to read the Fathers. He does controversy and the differences between not bother so much with the listing of Calvin and Arminius (“One church primary texts—after all, this is simply an cannot wrap in her communion Austin introductory bibliography—but the skill [Augustine] and Pelagius, Calvin and of reading and using the Fathers is clearly Arminius”).6 Then, throughout the work considered by him to be a basic element there are constant reminders that what is of the theologian’s task. Owen would being witnessed is simply a recapitula- have been impacted by precisely the kind tion of the age-old Pelagian fascination of curricular emphases outlined by his with the idea of human free will and the tutor, Barlow, and thus patristic authors repudiation of divine sovereignty. would have formed a staple of his basic This approach is interesting and is theological diet. no doubt the result of various factors This had a wide impact on Reformed that underlie the self-understanding of Orthodoxy in general and Owen in par- Reformed Orthodox theologians. First, ticular. Indeed, his writings are full of we can see it as evidence of the desire of references to ancient Christian authors, so premodern theologians to avoid novelty. much so that little more can be offered in Orthodoxy is the norm; heresy is the inno- a short paper than some suggestive notes vation. Thus, by setting up contemporary which might prove fruitful as pointers to debates using the categories of archetypal 53 heresy, a twofold polemical point is being tion to the wider original context, but it made about both the opponents’ theology was inevitable that the taxonomy of the and the time-honored orthodoxy of the past could be transposed to the present Reformed. The Reformed Orthodox, as with little or no difficulty. This was not did the Reformers themselves, conducted a cyclical view of history because it was their polemics in significant measure heading towards eschatological consum- over the reception and interpretation of mation; but it was a view of history which historic Christian texts, particularly those minimized the contextual differences patristic authors of universal significance. between eras. That this is the case is demonstrated by Having said this, there is some evi- Owen’s concern even to establish quint- dence that the Reformed Orthodox had essentially Protestant doctrines on the developed a somewhat more nuanced basis of patristic precedent. For example, sense of the significance of their polemics when it comes to the scripture principle, than had been the case, say with Luther. Owen will cite extensively from Clement Luther saw the struggle over justifica- of Alexandria to establish his point.7 He tion as the equivalent of the Augustine- does much the same with justification by Pelagius controversy; but it is clear that faith, where he particularly uses patris- the issue at stake in the fifth century was tic citations to support his argument for the framework of salvation (the nature of mystical union as the basis for justification grace) more than the content of that sal- and imputation.8 vation (imputation of Christ’s righteous- Second, it indicates the limited sense ness). In Luther’s thinking the two seem of historical development with which to be different sides of the same coin; but the Reformed Orthodox operated. To say in actual fact they are conceptually sepa- that they had no conception of histori- rable. For Owen and his contemporaries, cal development would be incorrect, but however, it was clear that within Catholi- that development was generally seen as cism itself there was a struggle which theological, more specifically covenantal. paralleled that between Calvinists and Thus, in his discussion of the role and Arminians: that between Jansenists and place of liturgy in the church, Owen sees Jesuits; and Owen saw this, again, as the church history as a continual ebbing and result of residual Augustian influence in flowing of idolatry; and, under the impact the Roman Church: of the work of Cocceius, Reformed Ortho- The system of Doctrines concern- doxy developed an understanding of the ing the Grace of God, and the wills flow of history, from creation to consum- of men, which now goes under the Jansenisme mation, which was aware of the differ- name of , as it is in general agreeable unto the Scripture; so it ent epochs of covenantal history as they has firmed itself in the common unfolded. Nevertheless, the kind of his- profession of Christians, by the Writings of some excellent persons, torical consciousness that is prevalent in especially Augustin, and those who today’s post-Hegelian world where there followed him, unto such a general is a distinct sensitivity to development acceptation, as that the belief and profession of it could never be and change over time, was really alien to utterly rooted out from the minds of men like Owen. Thus, not only could past men in the Roman Church itself…. texts be plundered with minimal atten- Moreover, one whole Order of their Fryers, out of zeal for the Doctrine 54 of Thomas, (who was less averse the archetypal use of patristic sources as from the sentiments of the Antients keys to understanding the present, if not in this matter, than the most of that 10 litigious crew of Disputers, whom perennial truths of Christian experience. they call Schoolmen;) did retain Thus, Owen uses Augustine’s narrative as some of the most material Principles proof that human beings are born sinful, of this Doctrine, however not a little vitiated with various intermixtures and that courses in specific sins leads to a of their own. Not a full Age since…. significant changes in moral psychology after the lesser attempts of some which increasingly harden the individual more private persons, Jansenius, a Bishop in Flanders, undertakes the and lead to alterations in behavior as we explication and the vindication of grow and mature, both physically and the whole doctrine of the Effectual Grace of God, with the annexed mentally. Further, general moral dysfunc- Articles principally out of the works tion manifests itself in specific sins which 9 of Austin [Augustine]. manifest the basically divided nature of each individual as one who knows, by the It is clear from this kind of statement light of nature, the difference between that Owen sees both his own movement good and evil, and yet cannot help sin- within and the attempts at ning. Most significant perhaps is the theological reform within Catholicism as way in which Owen sees Augustine as essentially recovery of Augustine’s think- paradigmatic for the immediate pre-con- ing on grace. version struggles, where the two sides of The archetypal nature of the early the individual—the one driving towards church for contemporary church life was sin, the other wanting to follow the way not restricted merely to polemics or the of God—are effectively engaged in mortal citation of authorities for establishing combat, powered by the Spirit working the antiquity of Protestant distinctives. through the word. The psychological Augustine is particularly significant urgency and conflict which pervades here. Of course, the role of Augustine in Augustine’s work clearly had a significant later anti-Pelagian thought, both Catholic impact upon Owen’s understanding of and Protestant is basic. Indeed, we have Christian experience. For example, see already noted how Owen understood the how he moves here from the specific case Reformed-Arminian struggle as a recapit- of Augustine to a general observation on ulation of the Augustine-Pelagius battle the pre-conversion state of an individual of the early church. Yet the influence of under conviction of sin: Augustine in this matter is not restricted simply to issues of more or less abstract And he confesseth that although, doctrinal significance. In his major work through the urgency of his convic- tions, he could not but pray that he on the Holy Spirit, Owen uses Augus- might be freed from the power of tine’s Confessions, the classic statement of sin, yet through the prevalency of Christian psychology, as the paradigm that power in him, he had a secret reserve and desire not to part with for understanding the nature of conver- that sin which he prayed against…. sion and the Spirit’s role in the same. These endeavours do arise unto great perplexities and distresses; Whether Augustine means the same by for after a while, the soul of a sin- conversion in the fourth century as Owen ner is torn and divided between the power of corruption and the terror does in the seventeenth might be a moot 11 of conviction. point; what is significant is, once again, 55 While Owen is nonetheless careful to cal discussion of subsistence/natures a qualify what he says by indicating that renewed urgency. God is sovereign and is not required to In this context, the patristic distinctions work conversion through a pre-conversion between Logos asarkos and Logos ensarkos, struggle of this kind, the overall thrust of and, crucially, between anhypostatic and the chapter is that Augustine’s experience enhypostatic human nature in the incarna- perhaps represents more of the norm than tion proved extremely fruitful. The latter 12 the exception. was developed by the sixth century theo- Nevertheless, it is true to say that logian, Leontius of Byzantium, as a way Owen’s use of Augustine represents a of explaining why the union of divinity reception of his Confessions rather than a and humanity in Christ did not lead to simple restatement of, or running com- the positing of two persons, or better, two mentary on, what the book actually says. subsistences, in Christ: Christ’s human There is little to nothing about the intel- nature was like ours in every way except lectual aspects of Augustine’s pilgrim- that, in itself, it had no subsistence outside age or the impact of crowd psychology of its union with the divine nature.14 In on the individual, both themes that are other words, its hypostatic status was the significant for Augustine. Rather, it is the result of the union with the second person individual experience, and then what one of the Trinity, and totally dependent upon might call the peculiar providences—so the divine. precious to the Puritan mind—which are Given the Reformed acceptance that so attractive and useful to Owen in his Chalcedon reflected sound biblical teach- seventeenth century context.13 ing, it was inevitable that the conceptual problems which the language of Chal- Post-Chalcedonian Christology and cedon created, even as it solved others, John Owen would also be of interest. Indeed, the One example of where the more rarified distinctions introduced by Leontius actu- climes of patristic theology provided the ally allowed the Reformed to provide Reformed such as Owen with extremely terminological clarification for their belief important paradigms and insights is that that Christ’s mediation was an act of the of Christology. Of course, the Reformed one person and not of either nature in par- did not question the basic formulation of ticular. A good example of the use of the the Chalcedonian Creed, but they were anhypostatic distinction is provided by aware both of the questions it generated Thysius’s disputation on the incarnation and left unanswered, and of the need to in the Synopsis Purioris Theologiae. While connect it to the specific requirements of the human nature never has any anhypo- the kinds of debate with the Lutherans static existence outside of the union with that marked the era of orthodoxy for both the Logos, nevertheless, its personhood traditions. Furthermore, the Protestant or subsistence is that of the Logos. This emphasis on Christ as mediator accord- avoids while yet maintain- ing to his person (and thus both natures) ing the integrity of the human nature.15 and not simply according to his human Owen uses this patristic insight, as nature, as was the normative position in adopted by the Reformed, to address the medieval Catholicism, gave Christologi- issue of the communication of attributes 56 within a Trinitarian context. This is in gave it personhood. The anhypostatic somewhat polemical contrast with both human nature of Christ had personhood the Lutherans and the Socinians. While enhypostatically. The argument has a Lutherans too held to the idea of the strange feel to it, given what one might call anhypostatic nature of Christ’s human- the “common sense” notion that human ity, they believed that communication of nature and personhood are inseparable; divine attributes to the human nature of but in fact that refinement makes perfect Christ took place directly between the sense given the new problems that the natures, and this was regarded as the Chalcedonian formula generates even as necessary result of the .16 it solves others. This was the christological underpin- Owen’s conceptual presuppositions ning of Luther’s insistence that God was here are impeccably patristic: the idea of manifest as gracious only in and through the anhypostatic nature of Christ, which the flesh of Jesus Christ, and that Christ Owen articulates very clearly in his chris- was present according to both natures in tological discussions elsewhere;19 and the the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper. The desire to give an appropriate Trinitarian Socinians—for Owen the more immedi- account of all God’s external actions.20 ate threat—denied any consubstantial What we see, therefore, is the deployment divinity between God the Father and of patristic creedal theology and concepts Jesus Christ.17 Thus, what Owen has to do in the service of contemporary Protestant is tread a line between a Lutheran posi- debates. Faced with the challenges posed tion which faces potential difficulties in by Lutheranism and then by Socinian- accounting for the limitations of Christ, ism, Owen is able to offer an orthodox and that of the Socinians, which suffers Christology which answers both sets of from the opposite: accounting for Christ’s contemporary concerns while yet draw- uniqueness and apparent access to super- ing on, and remaining consistent with, natural knowledge and power. In contrast trajectories of Chalcedonian thought. to both of these positions, Owen describes Indeed, we might go further and the hypostatic union as follows: point beyond the polemical exigencies of Owen’s time to the constructive use The only singular immediate act of the person of the Son on the human of this distinction in emphasizing the nature was the assumption of it into historical movement within the life of subsistence with himself…. That the Christ himself as Owen conceives of it. only necessary consequent of this assumption of the human nature, Protestant, especially Reformed, Christol- or the incarnation of the Son of God, ogy, placed such dynamic development is the personal union of Christ, or and movement at the heart of its project, the inseparable subsistence of the assumed nature in the person of the moving away from the more abstract Son…. That all other actings of God and metaphysical concerns of the Middle in the person of the Son towards the human nature were voluntary, and Ages. This is reflected in the standard did not necessarily ensue on the categories of humiliation and exaltation 18 union mentioned. which both Luther and Reformed used to characterize the earthly ministry of In other words, the only direct act of Christ.21 That the attributes of deity are the Logos on the human nature was the communicated to the incarnate person via assumption of the latter into a union that 57 the work of the Spirit, and not by virtue creedal Protestantism. of the union in and of itself, allows Owen I would suggest that sound orthodox to give an account of Christ’s growth in theology of today, however, can find a knowledge which grounds the historical third way to do theology which both growth of Jesus in knowledge once again respects the insights of patristic theology in solid Christology which draws on while yet avoiding both the tendency to patristic formulations and trajectories. downplay later confessional develop- Thus, the historical insights of Reforma- ments and the desire to set the ancient tion Protestantism build directly upon, church against the modern. It is that and mesh seamlessly with, established represented by the approach of such as catholic theology.22 Owen in the seventeenth century. Owen had an acute sense of the fact that there Some Concluding Proposals are a limitations to patristic theology, yet Recent years have seen a resurgence of his Protestantism, far from making him interest in evangelical quarters regarding dismissive of patristic theology, requires patristic theology. In the hands of Thomas that he take patristic writers seriously. C. Oden, this has led to a resurgence of A commitment to scriptural perspicuity interest both in patristic biblical commen- means that he examines in detail the his- tary and devotion, placed, one might add, tory of exegesis relative to any passage of in the service of an evangelicalism with a scripture he addresses. A commitment to simple, ecumenical aesthetic which bears the church as God’s means of transmitting comparison, say, with the mere Christian- the gospel from age to age means that ity that has been such a part of the evan- he takes very seriously what the church gelical heritage.23 Oden’s work is a treasure has said about scripture and about God trove of theology; but the tendency of the throughout the ages. A realization that project overall to relativize that which there are a set of archetypal heresies, comes later, not least the great Protestant particularly focused on God, Christology, truths of justification by grace through and grace, means that the early church faith, and personal assurance of God’s provides him with much fuel for contem- favor, render the overall project, in my porary debate. A commitment to the fact opinion, less than Protestant. In the hands that the church’s theological traditions, of others—most notably the recent work of especially as expressed in her creeds, Craig Allert—the patristic testimony has provides both resources, parameters been placed in the service of contempo- and, at times, unavoidable conceptual rary critiques of established evangelical problems for doctrinal formulations in positions, such (in the case of Allert) as the present drives him again and again to that on the inspiration and authority of look at traditions of theological discussion scripture.24 Of the two movements, that from the early church onwards. Further, symbolized by the life and work of Oden a belief that theology is talk about God, is arguably constructive and helpful even and not just communal reflection upon to those, like myself, who wish to maintain the psychology of the church in particular a more elaborate doctrinal confession; the context, means that Owen regards it as latter is rather an iconoclastic phenom- having universal, referential significance; enon, less easy to assimilate to orthodox, and thus he sees those who have worked 58 in formulating doctrine over the years as naïvely inviting back into the camp those having a significance which transcends our ancestors threw out, at great cost to their own time and geographical locale. themselves, so many centuries ago. In this context, he also understands that Patristic theology is indeed the inheri- each solution to a doctrinal problem gen- tance that orthodox evangelicals have all erates new problems of its own, and thus but forgotten; thus we should be striving to understand why the church thinks as even now to recover its historic useful- she does, one needs to understand how ness, refusing to cede the ground either the church has come to think as she does to those friends who see patristics as a (e.g., the anhypostatic nature of Christ’s way of returning to a simpler Christian- humanity, a point likely to be incompre- ity or as a means of undermining central hensible to biblical theologians and/or truths of Protestantism. Our Protestant no-creed-but-the-Bible types, but surely forefathers built their theology upon the central to a sound understanding of incar- basis of careful patristic study; and indeed nation in the post-Chalcedonian era). Each our Protestantism demands that we con- of these makes interaction with patristic tinue to do so if we are not to squander authors necessary as Owen and others in our inheritance. his tradition work to ensure that the gos- pel is not reinvented anew every Sunday Endnotes but, rather, is faithfully communicated 1See Richard A. Muller, Post Reformation from generation to generation. Reformed Dogmatics (4 vols; Grand Rap- In short, biblical orthodoxy is, and ids: Baker, 2003); and Carl R. Trueman always has been, catholic in its ambitions and R. Scott Clark, Protestant Scholasti- and its sources. The sorry state of contem- cism: Essays in Reassessment (Carlisle: porary theological thinking, cut off from Paternoster, 1998). its roots by ideological commitments to 2See, for example, Carl R. Trueman, John radically imperialistic, monopolistic, Owen: Reformed Catholic, Renaissance Man anti-historical, anti-systematic, anti- (London: Ashgate, 2007). metaphysical, anti-ecclesiastical forms 3Bibliotheca Oweniana (London, 1684). of biblical theology or no-creed-but-the- 4John Owen, Works (24 vols; London: Bible evangelicalism, has de-catholicized Johnstone and Hunter, 1850-55), 10:11. Protestantism, particularly conservative 5Ibid., 3:8. Cf. William Perkins, The Arte of Protestantism, in a way that would have Prophecying (London, 1607), 27-28, where been unthinkable in the seventeenth-cen- he advises the preacher to study ancient tury. For example, negatively, Arianism writers because “the Antitrinitaries have now is as deadly as it was in the fourth newly varnished that opinion of Arius century; we should learn the lessons from and Sabellius. The Anabaptists renew that time and apply them today, for time the doctrines or sects of the Essees, does not improve the value of heresy. Posi- Catharists, Enthusiasts, and Donatists. tively, the Trinity is as life-giving now as The Swenkfeldians revive the opinions it was in the fourth century, for time has of the Eutychians, Enthusiasts, etc. not diminished the being or the power of Menon followeth Ebion, and the Papists God. Let us learn from the past, not waste resemble the Pharisies, Encratites, time reinventing the wheel or, worse still, Tatians, Pelagians. The Libertines renew 59 the opinions of the Gnosticks ad (word, sacraments) but providences, which has done brilliant work in the Carpocratians. Servetus hath afflictions, miraculous deliverances, making ancient exegesis available revived the heresies of Samosate- etc. to the general Christian public; also, nus, Arrius, Eutyches, Marcion 14See Aloys Grillmeier, Jesus der his three volume Systematic Theol- and Apollinaris. Lastly the Schis- Christus im Glauben der Kirche 2.1 ogy (New York: HarperOne, 1992) matiques, that separate themselves (Freiburg: Hereder, 1989), 210. This draws deeply on patristic writings. from evangelical Churches, receive became a standard distinction in Most recently, his Ancient Christian the opinions, facts, and fashions of Lutheran Orthodoxy as well: see Devotional (Carol Stream: InterVar- Pupianus in Cyprian, of the Audi- the quotations from Hollazius, sity, 2007) is a superb introduction ans, and Donatists. Therefore in like Quenstedt, and Gerhard in Hein- to patristic Christian devotion, manner, wee must not so seeke for rich Schmid, The Doctrinal Theology practically applied to the Christian new repealings and confutations of the Evangelical Lutheran Church today. of these heresies as wee are for (trans. Charles A. Hay and Henry 24Craig Allert, A High View of Scrip- our use to fetch those ancient ones E. Jacobs; Minneapolis: Augsburg, ture? The Authority of the Bible and out of Councils and Fathers, and 1961), 300-01. the Formation of the New Testament to accompt them as approved and 15Synopsis Purioris Theologiae (ed. H. Canon (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2007). firme.” Bavinck; Leiden, 1881), Disp. XXV. This is part of a series, Evangelical 6Owen, Works, 10:7. Interestingly xxiv. Ressourcement: Ancient Sources for the enough, on this same page, Owen 16See J. T. Mueller, Christian Dogmat- Church’s Future, designed to bring also speculates that the introduc- ics (St. Louis: Concordia, 1934), 272; patristic study to bear on contem- tion of Arminianism into England H. Schmid, Doctrinal Theology of the porary evangelical theology. was the result of a Spanish conspir- Evangelical Lutheran Church (Augs- acy between the Cardinal of Lor- burg: Minneapolis, 1961), 322. On raine and the German Lutherans, the anhypostasis, see Schmid, Doc- a story he apparently originating trinal Theology, 295-96, 300-01. with posthumous papers of Jerome 17On Socinianism, see H. J. McLachlan, Zanchy, and communicated at some Socinianism in Seventeenth-Century point to the English parliament. England (Oxford: OUP, 1951); Carl R. 7Ibid., 4:111-12. Trueman, The Claims of Truth: John 8Ibid., 5:176-77, citing Leo, Augustine, Owen’s Trinitarian Theology (Carlisle: Irenaeus, Origen, Cyprian, Athana- Paternoster, 1998). sius, and Eusebius. 18Owen, Works, 3:160-61. 9From Owen’s preface to Theophilus 19E.g., ibid., 1:225-26, 233; 12:210. Gale, The True Idea of Jansenisme 20Ibid., 3:162. (London, 1669), 18-20. 21On Lutheran notions of humiliation, 10Book 3, chapter 6, “The Manner see Mueller, Christian Dogmatics, 290 of Conversion Explained in the ff.; Schmid, Doctrinal Theology, 381 Instance of Augustine”: Owen, ff; for the Reformed, see Louis Berk- Works, 3:337-66. hof, Systematic Theology (Edinburgh: 11Ibid., 3:355. Banner of Truth, 1958), 331-32. 12Ibid., 3:360-61. 22Owen, Works, 3:169-71. 13See, for example, Ibid., 3:346-48, 23Oden is the General Editor of the where “outward means” are not series for InterVarsity Press, Ancient what one might usually expect Christian Commentary on Scripture, 60 ** Southern Baptist Journal of Theology - June 30, 2008 - KF - Disk: June 12

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61 Recovering Ancient Church Practices: A Review of Brian McLaren, Finding Our Way Again: The Return of the Ancient Practices Michael A. G. Haykin

Michael A. G. Haykin is Professor of In this introductory volume for a new living in our culture, the book has to be Church History at The Southern Baptist series being published by Thomas Nelson judged a failure. Theological Seminary. He is also Adjunct entitled “The Ancient Practices Series” First, it needs to be noted that stylisti- Professor of Church History at Toronto (that will include volumes on prayer, the cally the book reads well and McLaren Baptist Seminary in Ontario, Canada. Dr. Sabbath, and tithing), well-known author is alert to the latest modes of expression, Haykin is the author of One Heart and and speaker Brian McLaren sounds a call though I must admit some of them grated One Soul (Evangelical Press, 1994), for the recovery of some of the spiritual on this reader. His use of the word “sexy,” Spirit of God: The Exegesis of 1 and riches of our Christian past, in particular for example—“the sexy young word 2 Corinthians in the Pneumatomachian those associated with what are called the spiritual” (19)—is very much in tune with Controversy of the Fourth Century spiritual disciplines. In this regard, his the ways in which that word has come (Brill, 1994), and Jonathan Edwards: book, Finding Our Way Again: The Return of to be used, though I for one have trouble 1 The Holy Spirit and Revival (Evangelical the Ancient Practices, is part of an interest dissociating it from meaning actual sex- Press, 2005). in and fascination with spirituality that appeal. McLaren is also attuned to the is now central to both evangelicalism contemporary interest in discovering how and the cultural ambience of our time. the church functioned in relation to vari- McLaren rightly wants to move beyond ous secular empires that claimed—and the fairly limited range of spiritual expres- do claim—the complete subservience of sion associated with mid-twentieth- their subjects (23). Even the subtitle of century Fundamentalism (his own roots the book is culturally hip, recalling the are described as “mildly fundamentalist,” title of Episode VI of the Star Wars movie 54-55) and evangelicalism. Our riches as series—Return of the Jedi. evangelicals—in the Puritans, Reformers, and the Fathers—are vaster than the clas- Affirming the Spirituality of Islam sical Fundamentalists of the early twen- McLaren first outlines why spiritual tieth century ever imagined. McLaren is practices matter (1-10) and how they are confident that the time is right for “a fresh, vital to “becoming awake and staying creative alternative—a fourth alternative, awake to God” (18). But problems soon something beyond militarist scientific emerge in the heart of the narrative secularism, pushy religious fundamental- about the various practices of piety that ism, and mushy amorphous spirituality” McLaren wishes to recapture. McLaren (5). Does this book deliver that alternative? affirms that Muhammad had a “genuine No. As a spiritually reliable and helpful encounter with God” that led to the move- alternative to the regnant patterns of ment of Islam (22). Even though McLaren 62 affirms his commitment to Jesus—he is, 725 in order to embrace a monastic life- in his words, “at heart a Jesus-y person” style. (31)—his warm embrace of Islam, one of John studied the Qur’ān in the original the “three Abrahamic faiths” (6) along- Arabic, and having known something of side Judaism and Christianity, continues the domination of Islam at first-hand, he throughout the book. Thus he mentions proved to be a deft respondent to Islam, Eid ul-Adha and Eid ul-Fitr, Muslim holy or “the heresy of the Ishmaelites,” as he meals, in the same breath as the Passover called it.3 He isolated two issues central and the Eucharist (26), following Muham- to the self-identity of Islam: its rejection mad is parallel to following Jesus (37), of the Trinity and its denial of the death the way in Islam—deen—leads to peace, of Christ. For Islam, Allah has no son, wisdom, and joy like the gospel (51), and no co-equal associates, and rules in utter the Christian contemplative tradition has solitude. Moreover, it affirms that Christ a counterpart in the Muslim Sufi tradition was not crucified, but was snatched away (92). Given that McLaren wishes to draw before the cross—“God raised him up to heavily on the wisdom of the Patristic himself”—and thus Christ did not see era—the source of the Ancient Practices— death.4 For John, however, if Christ did this completely positive view of Islam not die for sinners and if he is not God, would have been quite disturbing to the then there is no salvation and we have a Fathers. religion that offers no hope of redemption. Take, for example, the man who can For John, the devotee of God the Holy Trin- be called the last of the ancient church ity, Islam can thus only be regarded as a fathers, (c. 655-749), heresy. He would be utterly surprised that whose The Fount of Knowledge is one of the a self-professed believer in “the mystery great systematic theologies in the history of the Trinity and the incarnation” and of the church. John appears to have been “the affirmations of the ancient creeds” an Arab by ethnicity, his family name (33)—like the Niceno-Constantinopolitan being Mansur, a name common among creed that John of Damascus honored as Syriac Christians of Arab descent.2 His an accurate summary of biblical doctrine grandfather, Mansūr b. Sargūn, played a about God—could speak so positively of key role in the surrender of Damascus to Islam without any hint of real critique. the Muslim army of Khalid ibn al-Walid (died c. 641). Early rulers of Syria were Where Is the Cross? tolerant of the presence of Christians, and In an insightful study of McLaren’s John’s grandfather became a key admin- theology, Greg Gilbert has noted that istrator in the Muslim government of the McLaren … seems blind to, or at region. John’s father, Ibn Mansūr, was least relatively uninterested in, the known as an extremely devout Christian most central moment of the entire but also one of the most trusted officials Christian faith—the cross. One of the most consistently puzzling of the Muslim regime. John succeeded things about McLaren’s books is how little space or time he has for his father as a key advisor to the Muslim 5 Christ’s work of atonement. ruler, Caliph Abd al-Malik (r. 685-705). After a long life of service in the public Finding Our Way Again is no exception realm, John left his public position around to this pattern. In the whole of the book 63 there appears to be only one explicit refer- will. Rather, he was long-suffering, ence to the cross. This occurs in the con- bore with us, and in mercy he took our sins upon himself. He himself text of the trendy declaration that “Jesus gave his own Son as a ransom for didn’t come to start a new religion,” for us—the Holy One for the godless, he “wouldn’t have been killed simply for the Innocent One for the wicked, the Righteous One for the unrighteous, starting a new religion,” since the Roman the Incorruptible for the corrupt- Imperium was religiously tolerant (34).6 ible, the Immortal for the mortal. For what else was able to cover our Yet, throughout its history, healthy Chris- sins except his righteousness? In tian piety has directed people desirous whom could we, who were lawless of knowing how to draw near to God to and godless, have been justified, but in the Son of God alone? O the the cross. sweet exchange! O the inscrutable For instance, in the New Testament work of God! O blessings beyond all sermon that we call Hebrews, the author expectation!—that the wickedness of many should be hidden in the one emphasizes a number of times that Righteous Man, and the righteous- ness of the One should justify the inner purity—discussed by McLaren in 8 a chapter on the so-called via purgativa many wicked! (151-158)—is found ultimately through Here, as so often happens in Scripture, the blood sacrifice of Christ to his Father theology leads to doxology. In a marvel- (Hebrews 9:14, 26; 10:10, 12, 14; 7:25). And ous, Pauline-like mini-meditation on the it is solely on the basis of this sacrifice salvific work of God for sinful humanity, that human beings can boldly draw near the author has lays out the heart of the to God, confident that the crucified Christ Christian faith. Only then does he tackle has dealt once and for all with their guilt the question as to why Christians are a and shame (Hebrews 10:19-22; cp. 10:1). people of love: All of the spiritual disciplines draw their efficacy from this sacrificial death of God loved humanity, for whose sake that he made the world, and to Christ. Without rootedness in that death, whom he subjected everything in the decisive event in the history of piety, the earth. He gave them reason and they are merely human ritual. intelligence, and they alone have been allowed to look up to him. He Or consider the answer that the late formed them according to his own second-century text The Letter to Diogne- image. He sent his only-begotten tus—anonymous like Hebrews—gives to Son to them and promised them the kingdom of heaven, and he will give the question raised by Diognetus, a pagan it to those who have loved him. Once deeply interested in Christianity, as to you have acquired this knowledge, why Christians are a people marked by with what joy do you suppose you will be filled? Or how will you love 7 love. The author has been arguing that him who first loved you in such a way? Loving him you will imitate God revealed his plan of salvation to none 9 his goodness. but his “beloved Son” until human beings came to the point of realizing their utter At the heart of God’s love for humanity and complete inability to gain heaven by is the cross—and it is because God has their own strength. Then, when men and so loved human beings to the point of women were conscious of their sin and delivering up his own Son for their sins impending judgment, God, and in their stead, that they now can love did not hate or reject us or bear us ill- him and be imitators of God. 64 Numerous other examples about the Christocentricity. They speak and act as if vital importance of the cross for piety they were already in union with God and and life could be given from the experi- Christ, not laboring for it, which McLaren ence and thought of the ancient church, is claiming was a hallmark of ancient but these two are sufficient to state that it Christian piety. And, of course, the New is simply amazing that a cross-centered. Testament assumes that union with Christ focus is absent from a book seeking to be is a given for any form of genuine Chris- a guidebook to the spiritual life. tian spirituality. The indwelling of the Spirit, the bedrock of spirituality, entails Via Unitiva nothing less than union with Christ.14 Three of the final chapters—entitled In this connection, it is noteworthy that “Katharsis (Via Purgativa)” (151-58), Christ is not mentioned at all in these “Fotosis (Via Illuminativa)” (159-68), “The- three chapters except in a quotation from osis (Via Unitiva)” (169-79)—are deeply the seventeenth-century French theolo- indebted to the systematization found in gian Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) (172). medieval Roman Catholic and Orthodox piety,10 and are problematic from both the The Importance of vantage-point of the New Testament and Studying History the thought of much of the ancient church. Along with these problems with While McLaren believes that this three- McLaren’s argument is a shoddy use of fold path, which he argues leads to union historical data. He argues at one point with God, originates in figures from the that what he longs to see are churches ancient church (146), he does not give any becoming “schools of practice that make sources for his assertion. history”—“breathless, history-changing A casual reading of some of the fourth- learning” communities—rather than century authors, like the Cappadocian simply writing history and arguing about Fathers, could leave a reader with the it (145). Although he is quick to add that impression that they adhere to some of the he is not denigrating “the importance of elements of the schema McLaren lays out. studying history” (146), that concern was (c. 329-379), for instance, often contradicted by the way history was can talk of the Spirit coming to believers used in the book. when they “withdraw themselves from There is some confusion regarding evil passions” that alienate them “from dates and events.15 McLaren appears a close relationship with God.”11 But in to adopt a liberal reading of the dating other Basilian texts, the bishop of Cae- of the Gospels (145). His reading of the sarea emphasizes that it is the Spirit who battle to abolish the slave trade highlights makes any movement towards God pos- Margaret Middleton (d. 1792), the wife of sible in the first place: “it is impossible for an important British admiral, Sir Charles you to recognize Christ, the Image of the Middleton (1726-1813), as the centerpiece invisible God, unless the Spirit enlightens of the abolitionist movement (134). No you.”12 For Basil, salvation ultimately rests doubt Margaret is “an undervalued hero,” on a foundation of grace.13 but there is also little doubt that William What is also noteworthy about patris- Wilberforce (1759-1833) is the key figure.16 tic authors is their theocentricity and He asserts that was expelled 65 from the Church of England, when, in prehensive recent study of the life and fact, the key impetus for schism came theology of John, see Andrew Louth, St from the side of the Methodists (129). John Damascene: Tradition and Originality Most importantly, McLaren keeps in Byzantine Theology (Oxford: University referring to “the ancient practices” in his Press, 2002). book, but, at the end of it, I was no wiser 3John of Damascus, Concerning Heresy 101 as to what exact period he is thinking of. (PG 94:763-773). For an online version of I suspect that he would like the reader this paragraph, see “St. John of Damas- to think of the ancient church, which is cus’ Critique of Islam,” n.p. [cited 2 May usually dated from around 100 a.d. to 500 2008]. Online: http://www.orthodoxinfo. a.d., although some would like to extend com/general/stjohn_islam.aspx. that period to include John of Damascus, 4Qur’ān 4.157-158. Yet, there are two other mentioned above, and the Venerable Bede texts, Qur’ān 3.54-55 and 19.29-34, which (c. 673-735). The truth of the matter is that imply that Christ died. much of what he said regarding these 5Greg Gilbert, “Brian McLaren and the ancient practices is no older than the late Gospel of Here & Now,” n.p. [cited 11 Middle Ages. May 2008]. Online: http://sites.silaspart- Lest one think that this reader found ners.com/partner/Article_Display_Page nothing of value in the book, I must hasten /0,,PTID314526%7CCHID598014%7CCII to note that in a number of places I found D2340066,00.html. McLaren’s argument very illuminating. 6This statement ignores the early Chris- For example, his discussion of hospitality tian insistence that their faith was a reli- is both helpful in understanding certain gion—the true one—see, for example, New Testament passages and their larger James 1:27 and The Letter to Diognetus social and cultural background (103). His 1. At a later point in his book, McLaren emphasis on the importance of humility asserts that the goal of the spiritual and of being teachable is also commend- disciplines is not “to make us more able (137). Yet, overall, I cannot recom- religious.” Rather, they are designed to mend this book as a helpful guide to either make us “more alive” to God and other the spirituality of the ancient church or human beings (182). that of the Scriptures. McLaren empha- 7This question is raised in The Letter to sizes that he wished to provide his read- Diognetus 1. ers with something more than a “mushy, 8The Letter to Diognetus 9.2-5. Translation amorphous spirituality” (5). But that, in mine. the opinion of this reader, is exactly what 9The Letter to Diognetus 10.2-3 in Early he has served up for his readers. Christian Writings (trans. Maxwell Staniforth; Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Endnotes Penguin, 1968), 142, altered. 1Brian McLaren, Finding Our Way Again: 10It is noteworthy that, in the final chapter, The Return of the Ancient Practices (Nash- McLaren admits that the Christian hero ville: Thomas Nelson, 2008). of the past he would most like to meet is 2Daniel J. Sahas, John of Damascus on Islam: Saint Francis (191). The “Heresy of the Ishmaelites” (Leiden: 11Basil of Caesarea, On the Holy Spirit 9.23 E. J. Brill, 1972), 7. For the most com- (trans. David Anderson; Crestwood, 66 New York: St Vladimir’s Seminary, 1980), 44. 12On the Holy Spirit 26.64, ibid., 97. 13For a similar emphasis in another great spiritual master of the fourth century, Macarius-Symeon, see David Roach, “Macarius the Augus- tinian: Grace and Salvation in the Spiritual Homilies of Macarius- Symeon,” , 8 (Fall 2007): 75-96. 14See, for example, the Pauline use of the phrase “in Christ”; John 14:17-18, 23; Romans 8:9, 11; Galatians 2:20; 2 Peter 1:3-4; 1 John 1:3. 15For example: Michael Polanyi was born in 1891, not 1871 (124); the splits within the American Baptist community and American Presby- terianism did not take place after the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, but in 1845 and 1857 respec- tively (135). 16See, for example, William Hague, William Wilberforce: The Life of the Great Anti-Slave Trade Campaigner (Orlando: Harcourt, 2008).

67 The SBJT Forum

Editor’s Note: Readers should be aware of the forum’s format. Chad Brand, Gregg Allison, Stephen Nichols, and Everett Berry have been asked specific questions to which they have provided written responses. These writers are not responding to one another. The journal’s goal for the Forum is to provide significant thinkers’ views on topics of interest without requiring lengthy articles from these heavily-committed individuals. Their answers are presented in an order that hopefully makes the forum read as much like a unified presentation as possible.

SBJT: Why should Baptists be interested close). The post-NT period was marked by in the life and thought of Augustine? writers whose primary focus was moral- Chad Brand: Anyone who knows much ism, largely due to defections from the about Augustine (A.D. 354-430) might church caused by persecution. Though wonder what indeed he has to do with they may have experienced grace, these Baptists at all. And we would certainly thinkers tended not to say much about want to emphasize the contrasts as well it. Athanasius addressed this problem to as the similarities. The African Father a degree in his Trinitarian treatment of inherited a tradition of ecclesiology from salvation by noting that God must be law- people such as Cyprian upon which he giver, law-keeper, and law-enabler. But he based his work, even further develop- still fell short of explicating the genuine ing that approach, an approach we now evangel. But by 396 in his work addressed associate with Roman Catholicism and its to Simplicianus, Augustine is noting close relatives such as Orthodoxy, and to that the problem is sin and the solution a lesser extent Anglicanism. He made a is God’s grace extended freely through case for such practices as universal infant the cross. That notion was expanded in baptism and even a prototypical form of his Confessions (ca. 400), and developed inquisition, both of which are abhorrent fully in his anti-Pelagian works (ca. 412- Chad Brand is Professor of Christian to Baptists. Interestingly, though, his final 421). Though he never fully rejected the Theology at The Southern Baptist views on baptism stemmed from his evan- tradition that grace comes through the Theological Seminary and is Associate gelicalism, and not merely from liturgical church, in these writings he explicates Dean of Biblical and Theological Studies or moralistic notions. And his desire to see the notion, seemingly to us to contradict at Boyce College. He also serves as imperial forces aid in ending the Donatist the Cyprianic understanding, that grace Pastor of Northside Baptist Church in system grew from his genuine conviction comes immediately to the soul through Elizabethtown, Kentucky. Dr. Brand is that the schismatics were damning the Christ by faith. In later years Augustine the author of numerous articles and souls of their communicants. (By the way, wrote his Retractations, a volume in which reviews and has served as an editor for we still reject both practices.) Yet, Augus- he specified all the ways he had changed the Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary tine has much to contribute to Baptists his mind on various issues. One wonders (Broadman and Holman, 2003), Per- today. I will note briefly three items for whether, had he lived longer, he might spectives on Spirit Baptism: Five Views consideration. have eventually rejected the Cyprianic (Broadman and Holman, 2004), and First, Augustine may have been the understanding of grace extended through The Apologetics Study Bible (Broadman first consistently evangelical theologian the church and adopted a more Lutheran and Holman, 2007). since Paul (though Athanasius came or Calvinian way of articulating the con- 68 nection between soteriology and ecclesi- of self and contempt for God, and the ology. I guess we will never know. As it heavenly city is marked by love for God stands, Augustine is the truly Catholic/ even to the point of contempt for self. On Protestant church father of the patristic the one hand we have Babylon and Rome, period. while on the other hand stands Jerusalem. Second, Augustine developed a phi- And one day the city of God will overtake losophy of history that included a seri- the city of man once and for all. ous attempt to analyze the role of the The devil, they say, is in the details church within the polis (society). This was (or the decals). This model eventually spelled out especially in his magisterial became the architectural design for the work, City of God (ca. 413-426). The book Holy Roman Empire. Charlemagne loved is divided into two parts. The first part is to have this book read to him in the eve- an attempt to show how and why Rome nings by the fireside as he plotted his next had fallen into decay and weakness. He campaign against Swedish barbarians or demonstrates that at one time men of Iberian bandits, thus extending the “city stoic character and high-mindedness led of God” further over the godless in his Rome. Families were large and strong, day. This intersection of church and state and Rome’s governors were, generally, is antithetical to our Baptist convictions men of noble character. The Empire’s about voluntaryism and soul account- founders had virtually created civil law ability, but that ought not to turn us away and encouraged justice and equity. Yet, from Augustine’s main thrust. In our day at its heart there lay the seeds of its own it is clear that he was right in his basic destruction, seeds in the form of the thesis. A new barbarism has emerged ancient Roman religion. That religion was right under our noses in the forms of replete with encouragements to immo- the new sexuality, violent terrorism, and rality and decadence. Eventually, many resurgent atheism, making it clear that Romans rejected the facticity of their the city of God has not yet overcome the mythology, but were still moved by, and city of man. eventually dominated by, its moral deca- Finally, there is much that we can learn dence, a decadence which came to charac- from Augustine’s best-known work, Con- terize the lives of many of its key leaders. fessions. We Baptists are big on testimonies Anticipating many of Edward Gibbon’s of salvation, and this is one of the first later observations, Augustine blamed the great testimony stories in the history of impending fall of the Empire to the Ger- the church. In fact, one recent translation man hordes on its ethical debasement, and titles the book, Testimonies. The first auto- not, as many Romans were doing, on the biography handed down to us, the first flourishing Christian church. work of religious psychology, the first In the second part of the volume, the novel (though a true one, contrary to some African Father explained that history was critics), this volume is a real must-read for the working out of two rival societies or every pastor, indeed every serious Chris- cities. Since the rebellion of Satan and his tian, and especially Baptists, who love a minions, there had been two kingdoms in good story of lost sinners who have come the world—the city of God and the city of to the end of their rope and have been man. The earthly city is marked by love seized by grace. This little volume stands 69 beside John Bunyan’s Grace Abounding, Philippians: “I have no doubt that you next to C. S. Lewis’s Surprised by Joy, along are well versed in sacred Scripture and side Nicky Cruz’s Run Baby Run (and this that it holds no secrets for you.” He then is probably the first time Augustine and proceeded to quote Eph 4:26, encouraging Nicky Cruz have appeared in print in his readers to follow this clear instruction the same sentence) as powerful stories of (Letter to the Philippians, 12). salvation for desperate sinners. Some of the early church fathers Augustine. Not exactly from Gulf addressed this issue directly. Irenaeus, Shores or Valley Forge. But still an impor- for example, encouraged believers to tant read for Baptists in our day. meditate upon the truths that God has revealed to humanity: “These things fall SBJT: Today, in light of some of the under our observation and are clearly hermeneutical trends within postmod- and unambiguously in plain terms set ernism, there has been a sustained forth in the Sacred Scriptures…. The attack upon the clarity of Scripture. entire Scriptures—the prophets and the What did the early church teach, and Gospels—can be clearly, unambiguously, what can we learn from them in regard and harmoniously understood by all, to this important issue? although all do not believe them” (Against Gregg Allison: The doctrine of Scripture Heresies, 2.27.1-2). In accordance with 2 Pet is one area about which we can learn from 3:15-16, Tertullian acknowledged that cer- the early church. In particular, the church tain parts of Scripture are hard to under- fathers articulated and defended the clar- stand and so formulated this principle: ity of Scripture while also taking note of “Because some passages are more obscure its obscurity in parts. This was in keeping than others, it is right that uncertain state- Gregg Allison is Professor of Chris- with the Old and New Testaments them- ments should be determined by certain tian Theology at The Southern Baptist selves, which are characterized by the ones, and obscure ones by statements that Theological Seminary. Dr. Allison has presumption of continued intelligibility. are clear and plain.” (On the Resurrection of contributed articles to the Evangelical The patristic writings are full of quota- the Flesh, 21). By this method the meaning Dictionary of World Missions (Baker, tions and allusions to both the Old and of even the difficult portions of Scripture 2000) and serves as the book review New Testaments, appeals based on the could be brought forth. editor for theological, historical, and conviction that the Bible is understand- With Clement of Alexandria (A.D. philosophical studies for the Journal able. For example, Clement of Rome called 150-215) came an emphasis on the mys- of the Evangelical Theological Society. his readers’ attention to Moses’ interces- teries and enigmatic nature of all of He is the author of two books for sion on behalf of the Israelites (Exodus Scripture, probably due to the influence high school students, Getting Deep: 32). Clement introduced his discussion of some aspects of Gnosticism on his Understand What You Believe About simply: “You know the sacred Scriptures, thinking. For him, any and all truth about God and Why (Broadman & Holman, my friends. You know them well, and you God is inexpressible; thus, he wrote of 2002) and Jesusology: Understand have studied the divine words. Therefore “the impossibility of expressing God: What You ­Believe About Jesus and Why I write to remind you” (First Letter to the What is divine is unspeakable by human (Broadman & Holman, 2005), and he Corinthians, 53). Clement assumed that power” (Stromata, 5.12). God alone can is a co-author (with Michael J. Anthony his readers would understand the biblical communicate truth about himself, and and James R. Estep) of A Theology for narrative because it was clear. Clarity of this can only be conveyed “in enigmas Christian Education (Broadman & Hol- the New Testament was assumed as well, and symbols, in allegories and metaphors, man, 2008). as Polycarp indicated in an address to the and in similar figures” Stromata( , 5.21.4). 70 Thus, Scripture is thoroughly like a par- and the spirit of Scripture—are under- able (see for e.g. Stromata 6.15). Because stood by Christians according to their the divine mysteries are expressed in progress in the faith. As a result, every- parables, they cannot be understood by one receives benefit from Scripture, but everyone. Indeed, for Clement, spiritual only mature believers can understand believers can grasp biblical mysteries, its deeper, divine sense. Thus, the multi- but not common Christians (see Stromata tiered system of Christians and their 6.15). Thus, a two-tiered system of Chris- understanding of Scripture, begun by tians was erected, with spiritual believers Clement, was reinforced by Origen. He being able to understand the mysteries of also stressed the inexhaustible depths of Scripture that simple believers could not the divine mysteries hidden in Scripture appreciate. and the consequent inability of Christians Clement’s emphasis on a mysterious to understand them. meaning of Scripture was developed by Augustine affirmed that God had Origen (A.D. 185-254). On the one hand, clearly revealed in his Word whatever Origen held that the Bible is clear for all was necessary for Christians to know believers whenever it addresses crucial (On Christian Doctrine, 2:9). He posed this truths. These he listed as God, Christ, series of rhetorical questions: “Why were the Holy Spirit, the eternal destiny of the words of God spoken unless that people, angels, the creation of the world, they could be known? Why have they and Scripture. In regard to these, Ori- been made known, except that they may gen believed “that the holy apostles, in be heard? Why have they been heard, preaching the Christian faith, expressed except that they may be understood?” themselves with the utmost clearness (Tractate on the Gospel of John, 21.12). But on certain points that they believed to Augustine also acknowledged the pres- be necessary for everyone, even to those ence of “many and varied obscurities who seem somewhat dull in the study and ambiguities” in Scripture. Indeed, of divine knowledge” (First Principles, he admitted “some of the expressions preface 3). He also emphasized the plain are so obscure as to shroud the meaning language of Scripture that anyone could in the thickest darkness” (On Christian understand (see for e.g. Commentary on Doctrine, 2.6). Augustine detected a divine John 1.6; Against Celsus 3.20; 6.5). On the design for this clarity-obscurity mixture: other hand, he believed that Scripture “With admirable wisdom and care for our contains much mystery—spiritual truth welfare, the Holy Spirit has arranged the hidden under its words—that can only Holy Scriptures so to satisfy our hunger be understood by those “who, by means by the plainer passages and to stimulate of the Holy Spirit himself, should obtain our appetite by the more obscure.” (On the word of wisdom and knowledge” Christian Doctrine, 2:8; cf. On Christian (First Principles, preface 3). Specifically, Doctrine, 2.6). But how are believers to Origen found three levels of meaning grasp the obscure portions of Scripture? in Scripture, corresponding to what he In a way reminiscent of Irenaeus and believed were the three parts of human Tertullian, Augustine articulated this beings, namely body, soul, and spirit. principle: “we draw examples from the These three senses—the body, the soul, plainer expressions to throw light upon 71 the more obscure, and use the evidence at a nuanced approach—affirming that of passages about which there is no doubt Scripture is both clear in its necessary to remove all hesitation in regard to the parts while affirming that some Scripture doubtful passages” (On Christian Doctrine, is obscure—seem to capture the herme- 2.9; cf. 2.12). neutical tensions with which the church Similarly, offered of the twenty-first century still grapples. that “the Scriptures are so balanced that We should, then, look to the early church’s even the most ignorant can understand lead of how to make progress in the midst them if they only read them studiously” of this tension. Its calls to follow sound (Concionis VII de Lazaro 3,). This is espe- interpretive principles, including the cially true of any and all Scripture that principle of the analogy of Scripture (that is necessary. In defense of Scripture’s the more obscure portions of Scripture clarity, Cyril of Alexandria responded should be interpreted and understood by to a heretic who criticized Scripture for shining the light of the clearer portions its common language by explaining the of Scripture), should be heeded. May we, reason for its simplicity: “That it might like those before us in the early church, be understandable to everyone, small and approach Scripture with a conviction of great, Scripture has for practical purposes its clarity and anticipate that our reading been written in familiar language. Thus, and study will result in fruitful under- it is not beyond anyone’s comprehension” standing. (Against Julian the Apostate, book 7). Fur- thermore, Gregory the Great noted, “In SBJT: Many voices in our day seriously public use, Scripture provides nourish- question the value of traditional creedal ment for children, just as in private use statements that Christians historically it strikes the loftiest minds with wonder. have confessed as orthodoxy. Why Indeed, Scripture is like a broad and deep should contemporary Christians honor river in which the lamb may wade and the an ancient creed such as the Creed of elephant swim” (“Introduction,” 4, Mora- Chalcedon? lia [a commentary on the Book of Job]). Stephen J. Nichols: The new media ecol- In conclusion, the early church affirmed ogy of the blogosphere has fanned the both the clarity and obscurity of Scripture. flames of many a theological controversy. Its affirmation of biblical clarity resonates One recent controversy played out over a with Scripture’s own presumption of paper delivered by Tony Jones, National continued intelligibility. Its affirmation Coordinator of Emergent Village, at the of scriptural obscurity, when limited to 2007 Wheaton Theology Conference. The the relative obscurity of certain portions paper was axed from a place in the table of the Bible, also accords well with Scrip- of contents of the conference essay book, Stephen J. Nichols is Research ture (e.g., 2 Pet 3:15-16). But early church published by InterVarsity Press. Tony Jones Professor of Christianity and Culture, affirmations of a general obscurity of took to his blog, and from there the whole Lancaster Bible College and Graduate all of Scripture, like those of Clement of matter spun out like a web. The paper, School. He is the author of several books, Alexandria and Origen, besides being according to Tony Jones, was deemed too including For Us and For Our Salvation: supported by unbiblical arguments, evis- far “off message” to be included. Others The Doctrine of Christ in the Early Church cerate affirmations of scriptural clarity proffered that it just wasn’t that good of (Crossway, 2007). of all sense and power. Patristic attempts a paper. Regardless, in the abstract to the 72 paper he asks, “Does Chalcedon Trump a power play, he oversaw this council that Minneapolis?” Here’s how he answers sought to creedalize the views of Euty- his own question in the paper, “Whence ches, who held that the union of the two Hermeneutical Authority?” natures in Christ resulted in a new being altogether: Christ was neither human nor [The Council of Chalcedon] was a messy, messy meeting. That’s divine, but a third thing (tertium quid). Fla- another way to say that is was a vian, Bishop of Constantinople, refused human meeting. That’s why I can to sign this synod’s statement. Dioscorus, only imagine what Michel Foucault would have said, had he been in having the blessing of the emperor, Theo- attendance in 451. It’s not too hard dosius II, dispatched an armed guard to imagine: he would have found an event laced with the politics of to pressure Flavian, Bishop of Constan- power. That’s what Foucault opened tinople, to sign this errant statement of our eyes to, that power is endemic the synod. Flavian refused. He was then to the human situation: “Wherever two or three of you gather, power beaten so badly he died a few days later. dynamics will be among you.” And that is why Leo sought to excommu- And what came out of this messy nicate him. Only after Theodosius II died meeting? Oh, only the standard, orthodox articulation of Christology. in 450 could another council be convened, The Chalcedonian creed of the two the Council of Chalcedon in 451, the coun- natures—one person of Jesus Christ, cil which produced its eponymous creed. as well as every other theological construction from every other coun- Indeed, power politics were present at cil, has human fingerprints all over Chalcedon. Fortunately for the church, it. These were messy meetings, rife they were situated in the lobby. with power and politics. The crucial issue here is not so much This leads Jones to advance his thesis: that Tony Jones didn’t quite relay the “[O]rthodoxy happens. (And here, I could whole story. The issue is the “therefore” just as easily say, ‘Truth Happens,’ ‘Gospel part of his thesis. Since Chalcedon was Happens,’ or ‘Christianity Happens.’) rife with power politics, he argues, it has Orthodoxy is a happening, an occurrence, nothing more to say to the church than not a state of being or a state of mind any other similarly contextual or situated or a state-ment” (Tony Jones, “Whence group or even individual at any moment Hermeneutical Authority?” Paper deliv- in the church. Again, Jones declares, “For ered at the 2007 Wheaton Theology Con- there is no orthodoxy out there somewhere, ference). only here, in me and in you and in us Jones understands Chalcedon to be when we gather in Christ’s name.” In his messy because of the controversy over view Chalcedon does not trump Minne- Dioscorus, claiming it centered around apolis and his church, Solomon’s Porch. Leo’s attempt to excommunicate Dios- Chalcedon warrants more credence, how- . Consequently, the council forced ever, than Minneapolis or even Louisville Dioscorus to sit in the lobby. Jones, how- or Lancaster. ever, fails to tell the whole story. Leo’s Before the argument is made in favor attempt to excommunicate Dioscorus did of Chalcedon, a caveat is in order. The not spring from an ambitious power play. Chalcedonian Creed is not Scripture, not In 449 Dioscuros convened a synod at inerrant and not authoritative. For that Ephesus, dubbed the “Robber Council.” In matter, the Chalcedeonian Council was 73 an historically situated event, with flawed occurred in the life of the church, at places human participants, not biblically and like Wittenberg and Geneva, and even at theologically and epistemologically per- American cities, like Chicago, host to the fect, neutral, objective automatons. Nev- three hundred signatories of the “Chicago ertheless, Chalcedon trumps us. First, the Statement” of the International Council creed is a faithful retelling of Scripture, on Biblical Inerrancy. Given current always the criterion for orthodox theol- trends, the next generations will likely ogy. To be sure it employs extra-biblical be adding the names of cities in African language, but by the time of Chalcedon or Asian or South American countries. the heresies had grown rather compli- When it comes to Christology, however, cated. Complex heresies require a com- the church in any city would do well to be plex response. In that complex response, trumped by Chalecedon, as well as Nicea, however, the Chalcedonian Creed echoes and these orthodox statements. Of course, Scripture. Secondly, can the church of Jerusalem trumps them all. today, in any city, improve on declaring, as Chalcedon does, that Christ is fully SBJT: Are there are any apologetic God and fully human, with two natures lessons that can be gleaned from the united perfectly in one person? Church Fathers for us today? Finally, and this is the often overlooked Everett Berry: Today because the intel- beauty of Chalcedon, this creed is not only lectual landscape of western culture is immeasurably helpful because of what openly hostile toward Christianity, evan- it says, it is also immeasurably helpful gelicals are experiencing somewhat of a because of what it does not say. Heretical similar plight that late first- and early sec- formulations boldly go where Scripture ond-century Christian apologists faced. does not. Heretical formulations refuse During that time, confessional allegiance to leave a particular doctrine in mystery. to Christ went against the religious grain Instead, they prefer to “help” it, which of of both Jewish and Roman worldviews to course causes far more harm than benefit. the extent that many eagerly slandered In light of this dynamic, the restraint of believers by circulating unsubstantiated Chalcedon is remarkable. The 520 bishops accusations of dubious behavior hoping it at the council could have followed suit would denounce them to civil authorities. with the heretics, to somehow explain the Likewise, as more sophisticated intellec- mystery of the incarnation, of the God- tual arguments began to challenge the Man, but they did not. How do these two rationality of Christian belief, the church natures, which are in our sense of things gradually came under the onslaught of absolutely diametrically opposed, come local persecutions beginning with the together in one person? Chalcedon simply reign of Emperor Domitian. Eventually and artfully and wisely declares that they these scenarios compelled numerous do, without attempting to explain how Christian thinkers to express their con- Everett Berry is Associate Profes- they do. Such restraint can be a theological victions so they could hopefully achieve sor of Theology at Criswell College in virtue, an often times lost virtue in our some level of civil tolerance as well as pos- Dallas, Texas. He received his Ph.D. present contexts. sibly persuade their opponents to embrace from The Southern Baptist Theological As the pages of church history Christianity. And it is here where they Seminary. unfolded, more moments like Chalcedon proved to be involved in an activity with 74 which we as evangelicals are concerned— Ephesus between Justin and an inquiring namely, dialoguing with antagonists in Jew named Trypho. Herein, he establishes the public square regarding our faith so as hermeneutical techniques for a Christian to delineate its impact on the issues which reading of the Old Testament by creating we all face as law-abiding citizens. a kind of Messianic neo-midrash so he One of the more accessible thinkers can illustrate the continuity as well as the from the patristic era who highlights superiority of Christianity to Judaism. this commonality is Justin Martyr (100- Now in retrospect as we examine Jus- 165 A.D.), because he remains as one tin’s work, it cannot be said that contem- of the most prolific writers of his time. porary evangelicals are in the exact same Currently we have three works that are cultural predicaments as those of the considered to be authentic: two Apolo- second century. Yet there are some unde- gies and a treatise entitled Dialogue with niable points of commonality, because, Trypho. Justin was a native Samaritan just as there were unwarranted accusa- who initially followed a complex jour- tions against the life styles of the early ney through Stoicism and several other Christians, hostile attacks on their central philosophical systems that ultimately led beliefs, and violent attempts to suppress him to Platonism. He finally converted to their growth, so there are today around Christianity after an apparent encounter the world. The only difference is that the with a wise sage who conversed with him church’s enemies wear different meth- about the theological significance of the odological masks as history progresses. Old Testament prophets. Afterwards, he Initially the first century accusation was oversaw a catechetical school in Rome a Roman-Hellenistic caricature, claim- where he invested his time in exposing ing that Christ followers were merely a the inconsistencies of pagan worldviews quasi-Jewish anomaly. Then, centuries and emphasizing the continuity between later, the Enlightenment critique was that Christianity and the Messianic hopes of Christianity was a cultural absurdity that Judaism. We see these endeavors being was scientifically and rationally unten- fulfilled in all of his works. For instance, able. Now the current postmodern herald Justin writes First Apology (155-177 A.D.) is that it is culturally scandalous because as a polemic rebuking Roman authori- of metaphysical delusions of epistemic ties for their unwarranted treatment of authority. No matter what its expression Christians because their charges had not though, the same basic ethos exists within been sufficiently investigated. Addition- all of them, that is, to prevent the witness ally Second Apology (140-160 A.D.) acts as a of Christ from influencing the issues per- supplemental treatise addressing both an tinent to any given culture. assortment of local scenarios where vari- The question, then, that remains for us ous believers had been misrepresented is whether early Christian apologists like and likewise clarifying misconstrued Justin left any strategies which can still be notions of what believers affirm about utilized to preserve the faith now, and the numerous theological topics. Finally, answer is yes—two in particular. One is Dialogue with Trypho (150-155 A.D.) is a to recognize along with Justin that part of more theologically complex summary of defending Christianity necessarily entails an apparent two-day conversation held in the exposing of the “unjustness” of other 75 religions. This element is critical today because, while evangelicals must be sensi- tive to people’s backgrounds and thereby meet audiences in their religious contexts in hopes of explicating the Christian faith coherently, we must not be hesitant to repudiate other worldviews because of the delusion that the only way to maintain a voice at the public table of discourse is to concede a kind of pluralistic equality among religions. For believers like Justin, this capitulation fosters an atmosphere of injustice toward Christianity because part of its epistemic justification is the fact that other religions have no epistemic warrant. Joined with this conviction is a second assumption that complimented Justin’s apologetic: the faithful activ- ity of the church itself. Here part of the consistency of Justin’s plea for fair treat- ment was based upon his confidence that believers were living up to the standards he described. In recent decades, this cor- relation between doctrine and behavior normally has been emphasized at levels that are focused upon training new con- verts. Yet for thinkers like Justin, it also was a critical part of his apologetic tone because the reality of faith being lived out by believers was one of the very reasons why injustice toward them was opposed. Today this kind of setting is woefully vacant because the lifestyles of average evangelical church members are virtually identical to nonbelievers, if not observably worse. But be that as it may, somewhere in our search for a more robust apologetic, we must re-establish a kind of orthopraxic verificationism. We must find ways to make doctrines observable so that they can be seen and not just heard. Perhaps, then, there is a kind of Christian empiricism— and it’s called discipleship.

76 77 Book Reviews

Pistis and the Righteous One: A Study “christological reading” of Rom one who hears it (LXX Hab 2:4b), as of Romans 1:17 against the Background 1:17, particularly in respect to Paul’s (for example) the Qumran pesher rec- of Scripture and Second Temple Jewish citation of Hab 2:4, namely, that the ognizes in its distinction between the Literature. By Desta Heliso. Wissen- Righteous One who lives by faith is Teacher of Righteousness and his fol- schaftliche Untersuchungen zum none other than Christ. Yet even in lowers. If anything, LXX Hab 2:2-4a Neuen Testament, 2nd Series 235. the conclusion of his work, Heliso intimates the role of the apostle, not Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007, 292 hesitates, arguing merely that “the that of the Messiah. Heliso likewise pp., $110.00 paper. christological reading should be fails to consider the context of Habak- afforded more weight . . . than has kuk, which is characterized by the This recent dissertation was com- been the case thus far” (254). Perhaps conflict between the righteous and pleted at the London School of The- he is reluctant to let go of his favored the wicked (Hab 1:4, 13). The lan- ology under the direction of Max reading, but recognizes that the evi- guage recollects the contentions of Turner, with significant input from dence in favor of it is lacking. Perhaps the psalms in new form. There it is faculty at King’s College London, he wants to find avia media (as he says the “godly”—often appealing to their especially Douglas Campbell. The in another context, 252), but cannot “righteousness”—who are attacked author now serves as dean of the quite articulate it. Perhaps he cannot and oppressed by the “wicked.” Ethiopian Graduate School of Theol- make up his mind. Whatever the case Habakkuk speaks instead of the ogy in Addis Ababa. may be, such reserve is not warranted “righteous one” who is called to wait The appearance of this study here. Exegesis entails being led by for the divine promise of salvation. marks the continuing development of the text to judgments about the text, The new language may well recall the African theological scholarship and judgments that will be controversial figure of Abraham (Gen 15:6; cf. Isa the encouraging progress that is tak- so long as the Word causes offense. 51:1-8). Quite understandably, Heliso ing place in theological education in Heliso develops his case (such as wants to retain some validity for the the developing world. It is therefore it is) for the “christological reading” variant reading “my righteousness one to be applauded. Moreover, despite in a series of exegetical decisions, (shall live by faith)” in LXX Hab 2:4. his focus on current discussion, it in which he demonstrates a good But this transposition most likely is is no small topic which the author understanding of recent debate. We due to the influence of Heb 10:38 on engages here, but one which goes may briefly follow his chain of argu- the transmission of the text, just as to the center of the Christian faith ment. The actual citation of LXX Hab the reading in which the first-person and upon which rest centuries of 2:4b comes first in line. Does it refer pronoun is omitted is due to the influ- theological tradition and debate. For to a messianic figure? It may well be ence of Rom 1:17. this reason too, the author is to be that LXX Hab 2:3-4a (the preceding Does Paul cite it in reference to commended. The study itself, it must context) reflects an anticipation of a Christ? Heliso points to Paul’s refer- be said, leaves much to be desired. Its messianic or eschatological figure. ence to “God’s power” and “God’s weaknesses to a large extent reflect But Heliso overlooks the shift in righteousness” in Rom 1:16-17 as myopic tendencies of recent scholar- topic marked by the particle de and potential references to Christ. No ship. Perhaps the author will yet find the fresh introduction of the named one would deny that Christ’s person his way past these problems. At least subject in LXX Hab 2:4b. There are and work are theologically implicit one may hope so. two figures in the text, the one who to Paul’s understanding of these As the title suggests, Heliso announces the divine word and expressions. The question remains, attempts to establish a so-called promise (LXX Hab 2:2-4a) and the however, whether Paul refers directly 78 to Christ in this context, and more What if Paul has apostolic preaching obedience. Jesus in the end threatens particularly, if he refers to Christ in in view in his reference to “faith” to become dispensable. Once I pos- his obedience and faithfulness to in Rom 1:17 (see Rom 1:11-12)? The sess and act in his faithfulness, I no God. As with much of current discus- proclamation of the gospel, after all, longer need him. One might wish for sion, Heliso’s attention is focussed is Paul’s topic (Rom 1:15)! more careful theological reflection on narrowly on words and phrases. He This reading of Rom 1:17 as the implications of this new reading, thus overlooks that aside from the a reference to the faithful Christ not only from Heliso, but from all theologically significant exception of obviously is bound up with the representatives of this approach. Rom 5:15-19, it is consistently God, not interpretation of the expression As Heliso realizes, the traditional Christ, who is the actor in Romans. “faith of Christ.” While we cannot (or “anthropological”) reading of That is also the case in Rom 3:21-26, here pursue Heliso’s discussion of the text is not limited to Luther and where Paul unpacks Rom 1:16-17. the relevant texts and arguments, Protestant theology. The understand- Why not simply listen to the immedi- his concluding statement deserves ing that Rom 1:17 speaks of the jus- ate context of Rom 1:16 which speaks comment. He opines that Rom 1:17 tification of the fallen human being of the gospel as God’s power because could provide the framework for “the by faith in Christ has deep and wide God’s righteousness is revealed in it? idea of God’s act of salvation through roots in Christian interpretation, The text is about Christ, yet not as the Christ’s faithfulness-to-death” (254). even if nature and place of “faith” faithful human being, but as the One His formulation, typical of those who has been debated since the Reforma- crucified, risen and now proclaimed. want to read “faith of Christ” as a tion. To read the verse otherwise as As Heliso notes, Paul does not refer subjective genitive, conceals a signifi- Heliso and others would like to do to Christ as “the righteous one,” cant problem. To speak of “Christ’s is to read it differently from most of not even in Rom 5:19. References to faithfulness” is to speak of Christ as the Christian tradition. With refer- “the righteous one” in the Parables a human being who offers representa- ence to Luther himself it should be of Enoch and elsewhere in the NT tive obedience to God. But how could said that the common view (which do not help Heliso’s cause. Hebrews it be that the saving work of God Heliso repeats) that Luther’s reforma- 10:38 may seem more promising, takes place through the faithfulness tional discovery rested simply in his but it can hardly be the case that the of a human being? The view comes fresh reading of the “righteousness One who comes (Heb 10:37) and the precipitously close to Nestorianism. of God” as that righteousness which righteous one who waits (Heb 10:38) Nor does it correspond to the letter makes us righteous is misleading. are one and the same Messiah—as to the Hebrews, where Christ is not This understanding of justification Heliso seems to wish to say (see 153, merely a faithful high , but also was still alive within the Augustin- cf. 246). the Son who is God: were he merely a ian tradition—and appears within Nor do other elements of Rom 1:17 human high priest, he would offer no the Tridentine decrees. Here we may come to the aid of the “christologi- benefit. Even when representatives of follow Oswald Bayer, who has shown cal” reading. Is it really the case, as the “subjectivist” reading take care the fundamental breakthrough lies Heliso argues, that God’s righteous- to speak of salvation in terms of our in Luther’s new understanding of ness (understood as saving power) participation in Christ’s faithfulness “promise,” as the word of God that cannot be revealed by means of (thus avoiding the danger of making performs what it says. Only as this faith? Is it really “absurd” to speak of Christ a mere example), the ques- understanding of “promise” deter- “human faith” as the means by which tion remains as to what precisely mines Luther’s understanding of God’s power and righteousness are the object and content of faith then justification does the latter take on revealed? (36). What then of apostolic becomes. As Karl Friedrich Ulrichs reformational form. With respect to preaching? What if “faith” is God’s has observed, the event of the cross Heliso’s thesis, the interpretive ques- work in the human being (Rom 10:17)? here is relativized in favor of Jesus’ tion that Luther’s reading raises is 79 not small. It makes some difference va’s appeal to (Martin Joos’s) principle reflection is premature. The geni- whether one finds in Rom 1:17 the of “maximal redundancy”—allowing tive case has broad valence, which effective word of God or a faithful it perhaps even more strength than includes, of course, the expression human being. it deserves. The introductory chap- of author, source, or quality. Ulrichs ter also includes an exploration of recognizes that these categories (and Mark A. Seifrid the theological dimensions of the perhaps others) must be taken into debate and (finally) provides an all- account in assessing this contested Christusglaube: Studien zum Syntagma too-brief Wirkungsgeschichte of the expression, and rightly appeals for pistis Christou und zum paulinischen expression. their consideration its interpretation Verständnis von Glaube und Rechtfer- Four exegetical chapters follow, (see especially 19-23). One wonders a tigung. By Karl Friedrich Ulrichs. in which Ulrichs treats the passages bit why he did not make this insight Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen of the core Pauline letters in which more fruitful within his own work, zum Neuen Testament, 2nd Series the seven occurrences of the “faith in which he mostly prefers the objec- 227. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007, of Christ/Jesus” appear—that is, tive genitive. 311 pp., $120.00 paper. seven plus one. Ulrichs appeals that Some of Ulrichs finest points the usage appearing in 1 Thess 1:3 appear in his exegetical and theologi- Ulrichs’s dissertation, completed should be included among the other cal summaries. He rightly recognizes under the supervision of Michael instances of the expression. Yet, that both sides of the current debate, Bachmann (Universität Siegen), despite the legitimacy of Ulrichs or at least significant representatives makes a welcome contribution to the appeal that this text should be consid- of both sides, read the text in such seemingly unending debate over the ered, the distance of the noun “faith” a way that salvation remains sola usage and meaning of the Pauline from the genitive “of the Lord,” the gratia—and that despite criticism expression, “faith of Christ.” The orientation of “love” in the letter from the opposing side. Likewise author engages the recent debate— toward others (and not God), and both sides assign fundamental sig- which largely has taken place in the the usual usage of the genitive fol- nificance to christology and faith in theological scene in North America lowing “hope” to express its content their construals of Pauline christol- and the UK—thoroughly, carefully (or object) make it altogether likely ogy. The true question in the debate and competently. Above all else, the genitive “of the Lord” is related is how “Christ” and “faith” are to be the work displays a considerable only to “hope,” the last member of understood (251-52). The question concentration on lexical and gram- the triad. of the meaning of “faith,” or more matical details and is studded with The work concludes with an properly, the Greek term pistis stands useful and significant exegetical and exceedingly brief theological assess- clearly in the center of the storm. theological judgments. Even if many ment of the debate. Ulrichs then Does Paul in the critical passages of these insights are not entirely provides a summary in English of the speak of “faith” or “faithfulness,” new, they deserve to be restated and essential points of his work. or perhaps, as is now often argued, underscored in the debate. One of the most significant of “faithful faith,” so that he has in view Ulrichs begins with a lengthy these points is the observation that Jesus’ faith(fulness) toward God? introduction in which he discusses recent discussion in large measure Ulrichs rightly picks up on and calls the significance of the genitive, the suffers from a form which is “a bit into question Richard Hays’s attempt noun pistis, and the christological naïve philologically” (10, 21, 253). To to thereby link faith with ethics (252). “titles” that are then attributed to it set the reading of pistis Christou in He likewise rejects the attempt to as nomina recta. He likewise addresses terms of an objective genitive over link Paul’s reference to the obedi- the relation of the noun (pistis) and the against the reading of it in terms of ence of Jesus Christ (Rom 5:19) to his verb (pisteuō), and favors Moisès Sil- a subjective genitive without further faith (210-18). Even when it insists 80 that Jesus is not a mere example, but death, not his faith(fulness) per se, ies from which he does not develop that believers somehow participate not even when it extends to a willing- a synthesis, or at least, not one that in his faith(fulness), the scheme suf- ness to die. In a similar way, Ulrichs corresponds to the depth and scope fers from the danger of a “christo- rightly takes up the important criti- of his work. One might have wished logical deficit.” Once we possess this cism that the “subjectivist” focus on for more. A fuller history-of-research, faith(fulness), mediated and given to Jesus’ faithfulness leaves no room for taking into account earlier debates in us by Jesus, he becomes dispensable the saving significance of his resur- the wake of Haußleiter’s work might (250). To put the matter differently: rection (250-51)—a rather embarrass- have proven fruitful. for Paul faith is always related to ing gap! Underlying these problems Materially, Ulrichs might have God’s word of promise and to the is a nearly Nestorian christological considered more fully the signifi- gospel. Within this theological frame- deficit: the solus Christus becomes a cance of the massive shift in usage work (Hebrews is another question), solus Jesus. Ulrichs raises this issue in of the term pistis from “faithfulness” Jesus does not (and indeed, cannot) his own way in relation to Rom 3:22. in contemporary literature to “faith” appear as a generic representative How is it possible to understand “the (as both act and content) in the New of human believing or faithfulness. faith of Jesus Christ” as a manifesta- Testament. As Ulrichs notes, “faith” The same applies to the obedience tion of God’s righteousness when for Paul is not an appellative: there of which Paul speaks in Rom 5:19. Jesus otherwise (in the “subjectivist” is only one right and true faith with Jesus does not simply do what all reading) is regarded as purus homo specific content, the gospel of Christ human beings should have done. (168-69)? One might add: Does Paul incarnate, crucified and risen, in He acts as the one, new Adam—and conceive of Jesus—to whom he gives whom we meet God savingly. The in identification with God himself the title kyrios in the face of the usage apostle generally presupposes that (Rom 5:15)— for the justification of of the LXX—acting simply as a human his addressees share that under- all humanity (56). being? How can it be that the grace standing, even when it is contested. Here we arrive at questions con- of God is nothing other than the gift If it is so that the object and content cerning Paul’s christology, as Ulrichs and grace of the human Christ (Rom of “faith” is already implicit in the recognizes and nicely brings out at 5:15)? The christological deficit bears term itself, then, perhaps, the genitive various points. Is it the cross itself soteriological implications, as Ulrichs modifier “of Christ” signals some- (that is to say, God’s work), which is recognizes. How is it that Jesus’ faith thing more than the mere object of of significance for Paul, or only the is the basis of our emancipation from faith. “Maximal redundancy” has (human) relationship to God which sin? Is “sin” here understood with its limits, else we would say noth- is manifest in it (6)? In reference to Paul as a death-dealing power, or ing new. Given the title of his work, Rom 3:21-26, Ulrichs rightly asks, simply as a moral weakness? (64). Christusglaube, Ulrichs might well “Is Jesus’ cross here an example for Ulrichs by no means paints all have taken further than he did his “faith” or is it the atoning event? . . . those who adopt a subjective geni- own recognition that the genitive Is it Jesus’ motivation to suffer death tive reading in one context or another may signify author, source, quality, on the cross that is the salvifically with one black brush. His comments or content. Nevertheless, he is to be relevant event, or is it the death of are consistently nuanced and care- thanked for a useful and at many Jesus Christ hyper hēmōn?” (193). Even ful. The stronger remarks that I have points thoughtful work. though one must protest that Jesus’ taken up generally take the form of purpose is in fact highly relevant to questions directed to programmatic Mark A. Seifrid Paul—particularly as an act of love representatives of the subjective- and grace (Rom 5:15)—in a certain genitive reading. William Carey: Missionary and Bap- sense Ulrichs’s point stands. Paul As the title indicates, Ulrichs’s dis- tist. By Keith Farrer. Kew, Victoria, clearly has in view Jesus’ saving sertation is essentially a series of stud- Australia: Carey Baptist Grammar 81 School, 2005, viii + 156 pp. nothing of Carey’s significant arts. Ten thousand dollars had been contributions to botany and the raised. Ward had left the money in expansion of the missionary Books on William Carey (1761-1834) enterprise (61). the hands of American trustees, with are legion and rarely does one dis- the interest to be sent regularly to play a significant amount of new Essentially, the second half of the Serampore. But Staughton, who had ground. This does not mean that book (67-125) deals with this work of been involved in the founding of the new material is not there for the dis- Carey as a gardener, then botanist, Baptist Missionary Society that had covery. Rather, most biographers are and finally, as one who wisely used sent Carey to India, informed Carey quite content to traverse the same old the technology of his day to alleviate that none of the interest would be ground, with maybe a short venture the condition of many of the Indian forthcoming until Carey gave assur- from the pathway of the traditional people in Bengal, where he was ance that the money would be used story. For instance, apart from Timo- laboring for the gospel. Chapters 6 only for theological training, and not thy George’s biography of Carey, no and 7, which deal with the transition for the teaching of science. Carey’s one as of yet has really dealt with of Carey from gardener to botanist, reply was blunt and forthright: “I the theological footing and ground helpfully clear up many myths about must confess,” he wrote, “I have upon which Carey stood for his Carey as a gardener and reveal the never heard of anything more illib- entire ministry, namely Edwardsean depth of his work in botany. The eral. Pray can youth be trained up Calvinism. importance of Carey’s gardens and for the Christian ministry without But this new biography of Carey botanical work to the missionary’s science? Do you in America train by Keith Farrer, an Australian scien- life can be seen when it is recognized youth for it without any knowledge tist with an M.A. in history as well, that the gardens which Carey cre- of science?” Farrer rightly comments, does traverse new ground, although ated at Serampore were so extensive “The question is still relevant.” (110; in this case it is Carey’s work as a bot- it took fifty gardeners to look after also see 45). anist and scientist. Failure to know them (83). But while botany and In the first half of the book (7-65), anything about this side of Carey more generally the biological sciences Farrer traverses familiar ground or to appreciate it has been common were Carey’s first love when it came as he tells Carey’s story, from his from the very moment Carey died. to things scientific, Farrer also notes birth in Paulerspury to his death in John Dyer, who was the first full-time that he had an interest in other areas Serampore. It is a great story, though secretary of the Baptist Missionary of science and technology, especially there are some mistakes in Farrer’s Society (BMS) and who wrote a small geology (107). telling of it. It simply is not true to memoir of Carey shortly after his The importance that Carey placed say that although “Carey was a Par- death, could declare that from 1815 in knowing science can be discerned ticular, i.e. Calvinist, Baptist, and till his death in 1834, ”few incidents from some remarks he made to maintained some Calvinist views occurred in the life of Dr. Carey of his one-time acquaintance Wil- into later life, his whole approach to a nature requiring notice in a brief liam Staughton (1770-1829), the first mission was Arminian” (18). Here is memoir” (61)! Farrer easily shows president of Columbian College, where we need that theological study how short-sighted is this comment: later known as George Washing- of Carey! Then, the founding of the ton University. Carey’s trusted co- Baptist Missionary Society was a Serampore College was built and the steam engine and worker William Ward (1769-1823) logical outflow of Carey’s evangelical the continuous papermaking had spent three months in America Calvinism, not something at odds machine bought and installed raising funds for Serampore College, with it as Ferrar maintains (21). In (both at the personal expense of the missionaries), the Agricul- which Carey and his colleagues had fact, it was Carey’s Calvinism—the tural Society was founded, new established as a place of theological solid conviction that the entirety of periodicals were introduced education and training in the liberal the world is the Lord’s—that sup- and books published to say 82 plied the underpinning of Carey’s ican ordained by a religious body in error. Payne’s The Christian Ministry: commitment to botany and science, the United States. Deeply influenced Its Moral and Intellectual Character as well as his zeal in mission. While by Edwardsean Calvinism, his min- (1859) is an excellent overview of the these mistakes are not negligible, istry involved not only pastoral care moral and intellectual armament they should not deter a wide read- but also a defense of Calvinistic truth. with which every pastor needs to be ing of this new study of Carey that His longest pastorate was located in equipped. A couple of pieces from is beautifully produced and reveals Rutland, Vermont, where he labored the pen of Grimké grapple with the Carey as something of a nineteenth- from 1788 till 1818, when he was issue of racism, still very germane century Renaissance man who rev- dismissed from his charge, probably to our day. eled in the revelation of God both in because of racial prejudice. This work is ideal as a source-book his Holy Word and in every nook and Daniel Payne labored in the Afri- to be included in any study of Ameri- cranny of creation. can Methodist Episcopal Church can Christianity. But it is also good (AME) for most of his life, becom- for the souls of those called to be Michael A. G. Haykin ing a bishop in this denomination pastors and leaders in the church of in 1852. In detailing Payne’s career, the living God. Here, for instance, is The Faithful Preacher: Recapturing the Anyabwile focuses on his vision of a a deeply challenging statement from Vision of Three Pioneering African- learned ministry. Grimké was the son the Methodist Bishop Payne: American Pastors. By Thabiti M. Any- of a slave-owner, Henry Grimké, and [I]t is not the omnipotence abwile. Wheaton: Crossway, 2007, 191 of one of his slaves, Nancy Weston. of God that constitutes His pp., $15.99. After Henry Grimké’s death, and in glory—it is His immaculate an attempt to avoid further enslave- holiness. And such must be the fact in the moral character This book made me realize that, ment to Grimké’s eldest son, who of the Christian minister—not like far too many church historians was a half-brother of Francis, Francis his talents … not his learning … but his holiness (95). trained in the West in the past thirty enlisted in the Confederate Army. to forty years, I am woefully ignorant After the Civil War, Francis Grimké Michael A. G. Haykin of the spiritual experience of African- was able to do further study in Mas- American pastors and congregants. sachusetts and eventually get admit- The UBS Greek New Testament: A Rightly does John Piper state in ted to Princeton Seminary, where he Reader’s Edition. Stuttgart: Deutsche his foreword to this volume by the studied under that Calvinistic titan Bibelgesellschaft, 2007, 704 pp., senior pastor of First Baptist Church, of a theologian, Charles Hodge. Most $69.95. Grand Cayman Islands, that it “mines of his ministry after graduating in the unknown riches of the African- 1878 was in a Presbyterian Church No doubt the biggest obstacle to read- American experience” (9). Now, I had in Washington, D.C. ing the Greek NT with proficiency is heard of one of the figures treated in What makes this volume espe- acquiring an adequate vocabulary. this book, the Edwardsean Lemuel cially useful is that Anyabwile com- After taking an elementary-level Haynes (1753-1833), but the other two bines his narrative discussion of the Greek class, most students will have men—Daniel Payne (1811-1893) and lives of these three pastors with three learned the meanings of words that Francis Grimké (1850-1937)—were or four primary sources from each occur fifty times or more in the completely unknown to me. And of their writings. Thus, for example, Greek NT. With the completion of an what I knew about Haynes could there is Haynes’s first published intermediate-level course, many will have been told in less than a min- sermon, The Character and Work of know words that occur in the range ute! a Spiritual Described (1792), where of twenty to thirty times or more. But When he was ordained in 1785, Haynes outlines how the pastor must what then? There are certainly many Haynes was the first African-Amer- guard the flock from theological good tools available for building 83 one’s Greek vocabulary further. Yet mine this by merely combining the definitions in the ZondervanReader’s reading the text cannot await mas- individual meanings of the words. GNT appear in a paragraph and are, tery of all NT vocabulary. At some For example the definition given for in my opinion, more difficult to find. point, a student must simply jump hyperbolē in Rom 7:13 is “outstanding (3) The appendix in the UBS edition in and begin reading. The obvious quality.” However, since it appears in with definitions of words occurring problem, though, is that reading the this verse with the preposition kata, thirty times or more is more exten- text is seriously slowed when one is the idiomatic rendering “beyond sive than the similar glossary found continually looking up unfamiliar measure” for this combination is in the Zondervan edition. (4) The words in a lexicon. also provided. (4) Irregular forms of UBS Reader’s Edition includes pars- This is where The UBS Greek New words are identified and defined. So, ing information for defined verbs, Testament: A Reader’s Edition comes even though the common verb echō participles, and infinitives. in. It employs the text of the UBS4 (“I have”) occurs more than thirty This last point is also a potential GNT, used by most beginning Greek times, its irregular aorist subjunctive weakness. Students who consistently students. As the subtitle indicates, form (schōmen) found in 1 John 2:28 is rely on the running dictionary to do it is A Reader’s Edition. Its goal is to defined. (5) All defined verbs, parti- their parsing for them will weaken enable students to acquire the skill of ciples, and infinitives are parsed. their abilities. Another danger is that reading the Greek text without undue In addition to the running diction- a student may become too depen- dependence on other tools. The stu- ary, the Reader’s Edition contains an dent on the running dictionary and dent who has a first-year level Greek appendix that provides translations spend little time becoming familiar vocabulary is provided, at the bottom of all words occurring more than with and learning from the stan- of each page, with glosses for words thirty times in the Greek NT. The dard Greek-English lexicon, BDAG. that occur thirty times or less. As maps from the UBS GNT are included Neither of these concerns, though, one comes across these words in the as well, and the burgundy hard cover prevents me from commending this text, they are numerically marked to resembles the UBS GNT; although, resource. The Reader’s Edition of the facilitate finding the corresponding the size is larger (approx. 6 x 9). UBS GNT is an extremely useful number and definition at the bottom. Unfortunately, the price is steep tool that will benefit those wanting As a result, students spend less time (list price: $69.95)—especially when to become more proficient readers of searching a lexicon and more time compared to a similar product, A the Greek NT. in the text—and are, thus, enabled to Reader’s Greek New Testament by read larger sections more quickly. Zondervan (2nd ed., 2007), which is Christopher W. Cowan Other features of the running more affordable (list price: $34.99). dictionary at the bottom of each However, I prefer the UBS Reader’s The Apostolic Fathers: Greek Texts and page include the following: (1) The Edition for the following reasons: (1) English Translations. 3rd ed. Edited and definitions for each word are chosen The Zondervan Reader’s GNT (2nd translated by Michael W. Holmes. according to the context. Thus, the ed.) is based on the Greek text that Grand Rapids: Baker, 2007, 832 pp., reader is given a concise meaning underlies the TNIV (Today’s New $42.99. that fits the context, rather than a list International Version), while the UBS of possible meanings from which to Reader’s Edition contains the standard Most students of the Bible have, at choose. (2) If significant differences of critical text of the UBS4 and the NA27, some point in their studies, become opinion exist regarding a given word, used by most students and scholars. familiar with the “Apostolic Fathers,” alternate definitions are provided. (3) (2) The layout of the running dic- a collection of post-apostolic writ- On occasion, one is given the mean- tionary in the UBS Reader’s Edition ings that date from the late first- to ing of an idiomatic phrase or word is much more user-friendly, appear- mid-second century. In New Testa- combination—if it is hard to deter- ing in two numbered columns. The ment surveys, Bible students learn 84 of bishops like Polycarp, a disciple of modifications in format, design, and sented to the Scripture Project at the Apostle John and faithful martyr, typography to enhance presenta- the Center of Theological Inquiry in and Papias, who provides early tes- tion and ease of use. Each writing Princeton, New Jersey. The consulta- timony regarding authorship of the includes an introduction, addressing tion produced a set of affirmations Gospels. They read of Ignatius and issues of authorship, occasion, date, that, after the introduction, open the Clement of Rome and their quota- text, etc., as necessary. Also included volume. These “Nine Theses on the tions from and allusions to the New are bibliographies of classic and Interpretation of Scripture,” unfortu- Testament. They hear of fascinating recent treatments of each document. nately, fail to address the most press- early writings such as The Didache Holmes has expanded the introduc- ing questions of our day. The choice that testifies to early Christian moral- tions with updated information on not to use terms such as infallible, ity and practice. But how many stu- textual witnesses and problems, and inerrant, or totally true and trustworthy dents, ministers, and scholars have he has extended the bibliographies. in any of these nine theses locates the actually read any of these significant The size is compact (5.25 x 7.5), the project on the theological map, and works for themselves? Greek and English fonts are very thus the door is open for the question This critical edition of The Apostolic readable, and the English translations posed after thesis 2, “does God speak Fathers serves not only as a valuable include subheadings indicating sec- through all the texts of Scripture?” (2, and useful primary source tool for tion content. The indices are broken emphasis original). one’s library, but also offers readers down according to subject, modern No decisive conclusion was an opportunity to become famil- authors, and ancient sources (biblical reached by the Scripture project on iar with the earliest post-biblical and non-canonical). Also included the pressing issues of the day. For Christian documents. As indicated with the indices is a “thematic analy- instance, thesis 7 reads, “The saints by the subtitle, both the Greek (or sis” which lists the section headings of the church provide guidance Latin) texts and English translations used within the English translation in how to interpret and perform are included on facing pages. This of each document and their corre- Scripture” (4). Below this statement handsomely bound volume includes sponding page numbers. is a paragraph “For ongoing discus- 1 Clement, 2 Clement, the seven letters This is an excellent resource that sion” that asks, “How much of a of Ignatius, The Letter of Polycarp to the serves as a window into the early gap can be endured between one’s Philippians, The Martyrdom of Polycarp, development of Christianity. It right interpretation of Scripture and The Didache, The Epistle of Barnabas, should appeal to a wide variety of one’s failure in performance (e.g., The Shepherd of Hermas, The Epistle of readers: those doing patristic or New churches that practice racial exclu- Diognetus, the Fragment of Quadra- Testament research, those wanting to sion or unjust divisions between rich tus, and the Fragments of Papias. improve their ability to read Koiné and poor)? How do we understand In this 3rd edition whose roots date Greek, and those who simply desire what goes wrong when the Bible is back to the 1891 work of noted New to read for themselves these impor- used as an instrument of oppression Testament scholar J. B. Lightfoot and tant writings. and division?” These are important his colleague J. R. Harmer, Michael questions, but it seems that they W. Holmes (also responsible for the Christopher W. Cowan could be applied to more relevant cul- 2nd ed.) provides a thoroughly revised tural issues. I know of no Christian English translation (based on the The Art of Reading Scripture. Edited by church that openly advocates racism 3rd edition of Holmes’s The Apostolic Ellen F. Davis and Richard B. Hays. and oppression of the poor. Some Fathers in English [Baker, 2006]), an Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. xx + churches may commit these sins, but expanded and revised critical appara- 334 pp. $32.00 paper. they probably agree that the Bible tus, and a few revisions to the Greek condemns these things and desire to texts. Improvements also include This book consists of essays pre- change. It would seem more pressing 85 to address ecclesiastical advocates of Roman Catholic Church (but none bibliography which points them to positions that are expressly forbidden from the SBC) gathered to address the most recent English scholarly edi- by Scripture. I have in mind such the question, “Is the Bible authorita- tions and secondary literature!). It is topics as same-sex “marriage,” the tive for the faith and practice of the an augmented version of Evans’ ear- church’s relationship to practicing church? If so, in what way?” (xiv). In lier volume Non-Canonical Writings homosexuals (to say nothing of their The Art of Reading Scripture, differ- and New Testament Interpretation. ordination), and the disputed ques- ent answers are given by the vari- Evans notes that “there are many tion of whether women can serve as ous authors. Thankfully, for those teachers of biblical literature who are pastors, elders, or bishops. of us in the SBC, our confessional not sure exactly what makes up this Seemingly in spite of the direction stance settles such questions. This literature, how it is relevant, and how of the project, the book does have its does not mean we do not wrestle it is to be accessed. The purpose of bright spots. The essays by Richard with difficulties, but it does give us this book is to arrange these diverse Bauckham, David C. Steinmetz, healthy starting points. The prob- literatures into a comprehensible R. W. L. Moberly, Gary A. Ander- lem that remains for us in the SBC and manageable format” (xi). After son, and Richard B. Hays are both is that while we confess the Bible’s a detailed table of contents and list stimulating and in step with historic authority, we too often set it aside of abbreviations, Evans writes in the Christianity. Hays’s essay is a bril- when the time comes to do ministry, introduction, liant presentation of how to read the revealing our lack of confidence in [I]f one is to do competent Bible in light of the resurrection of the sufficiency of Scripture. Paul fol- NT exegesis, one must know Jesus, which provides a legitimate lowed the statement, “All Scripture something of these writings method for reading the whole Bible is inspired by God,” with the words, and of their relevance for the NT. Some of these writings are Christologically. Bauckham’s essay “and profitable” (2 Tim 3:16, emphasis vital for understanding the NT, explores the Bible’s “metanarrative,” added). Let us bear witness not only some much less so. But all are referred to by the major schol- the over-arching story that binds to the authority of Scripture but also ars. Thus, intelligent reading up the variety in the Scriptures in to its usefulness—in our pulpits and of the best of NT scholarship beautiful unity. Steinmetz points out in our practices. requires familiarity with these writings … if for no other rea- that once we have “read the end of the son (1). story,” we not only cannot, we should James M. Hamilton Jr. not try to re-read it as though we do Southwestern Baptist He then sets out with a brief not know the end. Moberly’s first Theological Seminary, Houston overview of these writings (1-3) and essay devastates negative interpreta- describes their value for determining tions of Genesis 22, and his second Ancient Texts for New Testament Stud- the meaning of words and syntax, for explores truth and the necessity of ies: A Guide to the Background Lit- the meaning of concepts, for history faith for interpreting the Bible from erature. By Craig A. Evans. Peabody: and historical, social, and religious John 7:14–18. Anderson’s essay shows Hendrickson, 2005. xxxvi + 539 pp., context, exegetical context, herme- the typological relationship between $34.95. neutical context (how Scripture could Joseph and Jesus. There is much to be interpreted, applied, and adapted), ponder in these essays. Craig Evans of the Acadia Divinity and the canonical context (what was Aside from these fine essays, the College in Wolfville, Nova Scotia, regarded as Scripture and why?, 3-6). general tenor of the project provides presents a survey of the ancient texts He further outlines the method to more evidence that the conservative that are relevant for New Testament be used when reference is made to resurgence in the SBC was necessary. study. While he primarily has stu- these texts (6f, general bibliography A wide range of scholars represent- dents in mind, the volume will also on 7f). ing mainline Protestantism and the be of help to scholars (if only for the The following chapters survey 86 the OT Apocrypha, the OT Pseude- Tenants (Mark 12:1-11), “I said ‘You short. Would Greco-Roman authors pigrapha, the Dead Sea Scrolls, ver- are gods’” (John 10:33), “The Word is not have deserved at least a chapter sions of the Old Testament, Philo and near you” (Rom 10:5-10), Ascending of their own, rather than simply Josephus, the Targums, Rabbinic lit- and Descending with a Shout (1Thess being classed as “Other Writings” erature (including summaries of Tal- 4:16), and Paul and the first Adam and be mentioned in the introduc- mudic literature, Tannaic Midrashic (1Cor 15:45-47). tion simply as follows: “A few of the literature, Amoraic Midrashic lit- Several appendices round off the most relevant pagan authors will erature, later midrashim and even volume starting with a chart of the be included” (3)? Evans starts his medieval), and the NT Apocrypha canons of scripture that include the comments on the exegetical value and Pseudepigrapha (a section that Apocrypha; a detailed (“not com- of ancient texts with an immediate is relatively short in view of the prehensive, it is illustrative only,” limitation: “Of major importance is attention that these writings receive 342) list of quotations, allusions, the fact that the noncanonical writ- in recent academic and popular lit- and parallels to the New Testament; ings quite often shed light on the erature for better or worse!). a list of the parallels between NT interpretation of the OT passages Further chapters deal with early gospels and a selected number of quoted or alluded to in the NT” (5). Church Fathers (the Apostolic Fathers pseudepigraphical gospels; as well Is there not also exegetical value in and authors up to the fourth century), as a list of the parables of Jesus and other ancient texts? However, in the Gnostic Writings (Coptic Gnostic those by the rabbis (close parallels list of “Quotations, allusions and par- library and Mandaean materials), and resemblances in theme, style, allels to the New Testament” a good and “Other Texts,” which provides or detail). This is followed by a brief number of non-Jewish sources are a survey of Greco-Roman authors comparison of Jesus and the miracles included (easy to be traced through and of the passages in Greco-Roman of (other) Jewish holy men. A further the index of ancient sources). authors on Jesus and Early Christian- chart lists Messianic claimants of the A mere page on the use of such ity as well as the Corpus Hermeticum first and second centuries covering texts for NT interpretation (5f.) is and various Samaritan writings. biblical and historical precedents, short in a volume of this length. It closes with references to papyri, Messianic kings, , prophets, The preceding pages on the value of inscriptions, coins, and ostraca. and later Messianic claimants. The these texts (3-6) indicate what kind of In each chapter Evans starts with volume closes with detailed indexes insights they might provide (“How a list of the works under discussion, of modern authors, of ancient writ- is NT exegesis facilitated by study- a brief introduction, exact titles, and ings and writers, and of ancient ing these writings?”, 3), yet without summaries of the works in various sources. developing methodological steps. detail. For each work, bibliography Evans has provided an up to What Evans provides directly on including editions of the text and date useful guide to a wealth of their use refers exclusively to the use critical studies is included. The literature and the maze it creates. of the OT in the NT. He writes, chapters close with a survey of the His focus is clearly on Jesus and the In order to understand a given major themes addressed by them and Jewish Ancient Texts for New Testa- passage one must reconstruct general bibliography. ment Studies (cf., e.g., a statement like as much as possible the world of This broad survey is followed by “The literatures surveyed in this thought in which the NT writer lived. Since the NT frequently seven examples of New Testament book help us understand how bibli- quotes the OT (hundreds of exegesis drawing on such texts for cal literature was interpreted and times) or alludes to it (thou- sands of times) and everywhere interpretation, including Jesus’ what role it played in the life of the presupposes its language, con- Nazareth sermon (Luke 4:16-30), the Jewish and Christian communities cepts, and theology, exegesis Parable of the Talents (Matt 25:14-30), of faith,” 5). The section on Greco- should be particularly sensitive to its presence and careful to the Parable of the Wicked Vineyard Roman literature is comparatively reconstruct the exegetical- 87 theological context of which a much welcome. given OT quotation or allusion may have been part (6). Christoph Stenschke This statement is as correct as it Missionshaus Bibelschule is one-sided. What of the histori- Wiedenest and Department of cal, religious, literary, and cultural New Testament developments in the intertestamental University of South Africa period? NT authors also quote and may allude to non-Jewish sources. Not all their readers shared the authors’ world of thought. Evans moves on to provide seven steps for this quest. The concluding sentence is Evans’s only advice for using the texts discussed in this volume for NT exegesis: “Although the above steps have been applied to passages where the OT is present, either explicitly or implicitly, most of these steps are relevant for exegesis of any passage, for it is indeed a rare passage that alludes to or parallels no other” (6). Some guidance on methodology may be gleaned from the examples, though Evans’s aim is “to show how the noncanonical writings at times significantly contribute to the exegetical task” (329), rather than to provide guidelines for students. The developing methodologi- cal debate over intertextuality and its implications for interpreting individual texts is not sufficiently addressed. This is surprising in view of the emphasis Evans puts on the function of the OT in the NT. Despite these criticisms, Evans succeeds in providing “a tool designed to encour- age students to make better use of the various primary literatures that are cognate to the writings of the Bible” (xi). A similar source book for the history of interpretation of the Bible beyond the early church would be 88