JOURNAL of the American Research Center In

VOLUME XXXV 1998

Published by THE AMERICAN RESEARCH CENTER IN EGYPT Digital : An Approach to Streamlining Egyptological Epigraphic Method

PETER DER MANUELIA

Imroduclion results are attainable with most of the major brands of computer platforms currently avail- It is DO secret that the rate of deterioration able. Moreover, due to the daunting pace of of Egyptian monuments has long since reached current technological developments, detailed a crisis phase. Despite tlle best efforts of man descriptions of specific equipment, and indeed the annual loss of Egypt's ancient cultural heri- the state of the an in general, \vill most likely tage proceeds at such an accelerated pace that be out of date by the time these remarks appear many of the monuments taken for granted by the in print. The underlying epigraphic principles current generation will not survive into the new however, will nOL millennium (figs. ]_2).1 The focus of this is not the physical protection and conservation of the monuments, although this is of course of EpigraphY Then and NOw paramount importance, but rather their facsim- A number of documentation procedures have ile "conservation." It is suggested that the time evolved over the decades since the first great has come to take advantage of new technolo- epigraphic campaigns of Lhelast century (Cham- gies in re-evaluating some of Egyptology's tradi- pollion, Rossellini, Lepsius),3 bm each proce- tional documentation methods (see fig. 3). The dure-taken by itseU'-almost always leave remarks below consider the case for streamlining something to be desired in comparison to the the epigraphic process as currently practiced in original monument. Published phOtographs pro- Egyptology, vide the U-uest reprodUCtion of the ancient wall I hope to avoid excess discussion here of com- but are often marred by difficult lighting con- puter terminology, specific hardware and soft- ditions, cracks and other types of damaged ar- 2 ware products, or their prices. This is intended eas; these can be misread as carved or painted to keep the focus on epigraphy and eliminate lines. Facsimile line are an indispens- the clutter of unnecessary technical jargon, or able part of proper documentation, but these of emphasis on a particular brand of hardware can introduce potential bias and/or oversight or sofnvare. Although each user might have his on the part of the modern artist, The best ex- or her own equipment preferences, satisfactory amples of Egyptological epigraphy have always combined the expertise of several specialists- 1 For some sobering of deterioration at Saqqara photographers, epigrapher/anists and Egyptol- see N. KanawaLi and A. Hassa.n, The Teti Cemetery at Saqqara 1I, ogists-in the conviction that the combined The Tomb 0/ A'I1khma!lor, AusLralian Centre for Egyptology Reports 9 (Wiltshire, 1997), pis. 26-28. The situation "ith lhe TIlcba.ll lombs h,LS been recently discussed b)' Arpag },Ickhitarian, fA misirtl d~ tOl1lhestllihaintS, ~1onwnenta Ae- 3 See Champollion, MOlllll1ltntS de l'EgJptll de /(1 Nllhie 1- 4 gypliaca VI (Brussels, 1994). (r-aris, 1835-45); I. Rossellini, I 11I01111lllentidell'Egillo IId~lI(l 2 r\ short summary of Ih~ equipment required for digital Nubia (Pisa, 1832-44); C. R. Lcpsius, Dt'nkmaeler aus Aegypten epigraph}" is provided in the appendix at the end of tllis 1l7ld Aethiopien 1-12 and Ergan:llllgsband (Berlin, 1849-5 article. Leipzig, 1913).

97 9 JARCE XXXV (1998)

Fig. 1. Damage at Gi::.abetween 1938 and /989, CJ A. M. Roth, Gila 1\ofastabas 6, pis. /9(/, 19c.

Fig. 2. Dama!!f at Giza between 1936 and 1989. Cf A. /vl. Roth. Giza Mastabas 6, pis. 74a-75b. DIGITAL EPIGRAPHY 99 100 JARCE XX (1998) result is far more useful than any of the individ- In preparing future volWlles for the Giza ual elements by themselves. Mastabas Series, much of the work has come to Egyptologists and epigraphers have employed involve the computer as a vital part of the epi- many different methods in the production of graphic process, This machine is far from a re- facsimile line dra"vings of Egyptian tomb and placement for human Egyptological, epigraphic temple walls. Probably the two most common or artistic talen t or creativity, but rather JUSt are direct 1:1 tTacing at the wall, and tracing of another tool for use in the epigraphic process. photographic enlargements. It is far beyond the Moving from ink to the computer screen might cope of Ihcse pages to describe all of the differ- best be understood as analogous to the way the nt practices or provide a history of epigraphic rapidograph technical replaced the crow- methods," Instead, the approach outlined below point as a better dra\v;ng tool. In other grew out of the author's search for an efficient words, none of the intellectual aspects of epi- .istem that would allow the most time- and cost- graphic practice (scene and content analysis, efficient recording possible, yet in a scientifically inscriptional expertise, reconstruction of frag- responsible manner. This epigraphic approach ments and lacunae) is "automated," outmoded therefore attempts to combine the high quality or eliminated by the computer. and accuracy of such methods as are employed As applied to Egrptological , digital by the Epigraphic Survey of the Oriental Insti- epigraphy consists of the following nvo steps, t tute, University of Chicago ("Chicago House")," be briefly discussed in turn below: while accelerating the process to allow for the documentation of more monuments in less time. 1) preparation of digital or digitized (scanned) 'We might call this process "digital epigraphy" photographs of the ancient wall as the base for lack of a better tenn. or template for "on-screen tracing; 2) use of vector-based (rather than pixel- ·1 For JUSt a few references on the subjecl, sec 1ienry C. based; see fig, 4 below) computer software Fi~chcr and Ricardo Caminos, AI/drill Egyptian Epigraph), to u'ace the digital photographic on alld Pnlacograph)" 3rd edition ()Jew York: llll: Metropolitan the computer . .Museum of Art, 1987); and Lann)' "Bell, "The Epigraphic Survey: Philosophy of Egj'ptian Epigraphy after SixLyYear's Practical Experience,- in Jan Assmann, Clinter "Burkard and 1) The photographic base Vivian Davies, cds., Problems and Priorities in F:/P'Pllflll An/we- ololJY (London: Kcgan Paul International, 1987), 43-55; Due to the often fragile condition of ancient Edward BrOl'arski, "Epigraphic and Archaeological DoC\l- monuments, the avoidance of excessive physical melllation of Old Kingdom lombs and Monumellls at Ci~a contact through direct wall tracing (affixing trac- and Saqqara," in r\ancy Thomas, ed" The Americall Discovery of AIldent Egypt. EssoJs (Los Angeles. 1996), 25- 43; and ing directly to the ancient wall surface) Lanny Bell, ":--lewKingdom Epigraphy: ibid., 97-109, ,,'ith is always desirable. Other inconveniences of important bibliogr

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B

Fig. 4. TIle two principle types oJ co'l1/.putelized li7le 07'/: bitmap (AJ versus vee/oJ"(B).

option to choose the best state of preservation work than the actual monument as it stands available. Suitably prepared photographs from today (see figs. 1-2). In fact, the older the pho- earlier generations6 often reveal much more wan tograph, the better the preservation is likely to decoration than is preserved now, and thus pro- be. Moreover, the large format cameras of the vide a far better primary source for epigraphic past produced spectacular negatives that con- tain far more information than today's standard 6 Examples include the 60,000 glass plate negatives of the 35mm image.' It is a wasted opportunity to trace ~luseum of fine Ans, Boston-Han-ard Uni\'ersit}"Expedition a damaged wall directly today when a suitable under George A. Reisner; the expedition archives or the :'.krropoliLan :\1uscum of An, I..heUni\'ersity of pClllls}'lvania, the OrienLallnstitul..C, Unh-ersiry of Chicago, the Griffith In· 7 For a description of one approach to large format ex- stitute, Oxford. the various Junker expeditions (partially pre- pedition photography. see -George Andrew Reisner On Ar- sen'ed in Hildesheim, Vienna and Leipzig), and many others. chaeological Photography,-JtlRCE 29 (1992), 1-34. 102 JARGE XXXV (1998) early expedition photograph exists that shows speeds have risen, and digital storage media have t\v;ce as much surface presen·ed. Thus, wherever grown in capacity while shrinking in size, and possible and affordable, early photography and! although soft\\'are programs continue to be re- or large fonnat modem photography provide vised and enhanced at an exhausting pace, the !Treat advantages to Egyptological epigraphy. basic principles underlying the computerized documentation of an ancient Egyptian wall sur- 2) Vector-based line art face ha~le remained remarkably constant. For the project at hand (the documentation of Computer-drawn lines may be broadly di\-ided the Giza mastabas), use is made of photographic inro two types, one of which is unacceptable pdnLS from OIiginal Museum Expedition (Reis- for Egypcological facsimile work, while the other ner) negatives, a professional publisher's Oatbed is very well-suited for it. Fig. 4 shows the two scanner, a computer, and a laserprinter for drafts modes of line art. Above (fig. 4A) is a "bit- and proofs (see appendix below for additional mapped" rendering of a bugler from Luxor notes on equipment). As is oudined in d1e work- Temple. The lines consist of individual, un- ing flowchart in fig. 5, photographs are first connected squares (called pixels), and the scanned at as high a resolution and file size as result has a distracting jagged effect that does possible; the higher the resolution and larger the the ancient an injustice and should not file size (in megabytes), the greater magnifica- be used for serious epigraphic work. The ver- tion of details will be available to the epigrapher sion below (fig. 4B) is a "vector" line drawing, on the computer screen (fig. 6). (Low resolution consisting not of individual squares 01' dots, scans begin to "break up" and become unread- but of vectors, mathematically calculated lines able \'ery quickly on screen as soon as one at- and cm-Yes benveen specific points placed on tempts to zoom in on a particular area, such as the screen by the epigrapher. The result is a the curve of a hieroglyph, or the nose of an moothly rendered line that is infinitely adjust- offering bearer.) Then the scanned (digitized) able, and well-suited to epigraphic reproduction. image9 is imported into a vector drawing pro- Its final quality is dependent only on d1e quality gram.IO Such programs provide the useful ability of the output device upon which it is printed to create multiple drawing "layers" on the screen; (from office laserprinters LO high end imageset- it is at this point that some new thinking must be tel'S used in the publishing ). It is the applied to the process of producing a facsimile technique of producing vector-based line a.rt that line drawing. is discussed below. With the scanned photograph in place on the computer screen on one layer (fig, 6), a second The Digital Epigraph\' Procedure layer is added "on top of" the photograph, and this layer will bear the traced lines. A digitiz- The techniques listed below have evolved con- ing tablet and cordless pen II are the most natu- iderably over the past decade with accumulated ral tools for emulating the traditional tracing experience in traditional epigraphy, changes in process, The term "on-screen tracing" used here technology and simple trial and error.s There is actually slightly inaccurate, since one does are no doubt further developments and advances not touch or trace the computer screen physi- still to come, But although computer processor cally, but rather uses the drawing tablet to deter-

The evoJmioll or the melhod currelluy employed was buillUpOIl the following steps 10 date: 9 The scanncd image may be sa"ed on disk ill a wide 1)1:1 direCt tracing with herculcnc (sheets of plasL.ic "anet)" of compmcr formaLS,depending on which OIlC can drawing film) affixed to wall (1978-1983); be understood and importcd on screen br the dra',;ng pro- 2)n-aditional Chicago House method (1984-1987); gr:uu used. A common current image file formal (used for 3)n-acing of 16 x 20 inch (40.6" 50.8 cm) photographic our purposes) is TIFF. cnlargememswith and ink (1988-1993); 10 Just a few popular vector dIlacromcdia Frcchand, cnlargementS for on-screen tracing (1993-1995); and Corel Draw. 5)profcssional quality scanning of original·sized photo- 11 Less convcnient or namra] input devices include a raphs for "on-screen tracing" (1996-prcsclll). o'ackball, or a regular compuler mouse, DIGITAL EPIGRAPHY 103

1) prtparatlon of photographs

2) scanning of photographs

3) Importation of scanntd (digital) photograph into vector drawing program

4) ·on-screen tracing· of photograph

5) output of proofs on laserprlnter Fig. 6. The basic setliP for digital epigratJh)', consisting of a scanned photograph on the screen, "traced" oil a drawing lablet ami pen that replaces the comj/llter "IIlO'llse.,.

6) collation of digital proofs at the wall ing out proofs of selected areas to check the epigrapher's progress. Anyone who has Strug- gled to peer tllrough partially opaque plastic film tracing papers to see the carved wall sur- 7) conectlons transfeneO to the drawing on screen face underneath will appreciate these features immensely. In drawing lines with the computer, the most important point to grasp here is that the epigra-

8) repetition of steps 5-7 as often as nttded pher/artist is not trac.ing in the traditional sense, that is dragging the pen over the entire length of an ancient can'ed line-this would be an awkward process to simulate on either the digi- 9) Iinal oulput of digital drawing tizing tablet or the computer screen, The drawn (either as separate file, or placed directly on final page in page layout program) lines that appear on the screen are not indi- vidual squares (bitmapped "pixels," see fig, 4 Fig. 5. Workflow of the epigraphic processfor creating a dig- above), but are vector lines-lines connected b ital facsimile Nne drawing. the computer-benveen two anchor points that are set down by the artist (see fig. 7). Each an- chor point displays non- direction lines mine the position of the cursor on the screen. handles that are used to adjust the paths of Since black dra\\;ng lines are often difficult to drawn lines, The slope of the direction lines de- see against the underlying black and white (or termines the slope of the actual drawn curve color) image, all lines on the drawing layer ma" and the length of each direction line determines be temporarily colored red, yellow, or other the height, or depth, of the curve. The resulting bright for maximum conuo.st. Similady, any lines and Clll"ves are thus infinitely adjustable; layer may be "turned off" or "on," that is, made the non-printing anchor points and direction invisible or visible, at any time for purposes of lines are available for every curve and line, edit- comparison or clarity or collation, and for print- able at any time during the course of drawing. 104 JARCE XXXV (1998)

setting a first point setting a second examples of direction lines and the types adjusting a curve by on the screen point with resulting of curves they produce altering the non- curve in between printing direction line

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drawing the t sign curving up and right continuing the slope closing the sign the printed result downward

\..J printAble line • non.printlng non·prlnting direction point )Jrr... cursor position ~ dIrection of dragging anchor point and direction line r thecursof

Fig. 7. The !Jrocessof creating lines and cu.rves lIsing a vedor drawing software program.

In other words, rather than "trace," the epigra- collation is of COUl"sethe ideal, it is not alwa pher/artist actually manipulates the curve be- possible, and peering thl"Ough a lupe at tiny tween twO anchor pointS until it "matches" the details on a photograph can be a frustrating sub- contour of the ancient cal'''ved line. The more stitute. By contrast, a magnifiable digital photo- detail and flexibility one needs for a line, the graph allows for virtuaJly unlimited attention to more anchor points one uses. Thus the swoop the subtlest of details, of an eyebrow, shape of a wing, Or curve of a \NheD all the lines have been drawn, proofs cartouche can be meticulously controlled and are printed on a standard laserprinter,J 2 and endlessly improved. Fig. 7 shows how curves are are then collated and annotated at the origi- dravm and adjusted, and demonstrates the steps nal monument just as with traditional epigra- involved in creating a hieroglyphic Isign, phy. Corrections are made subsequently to the During the course of the drawing process, drawing on the computer, and the collation pro- one immediate advantage that the computer cess is then repeated as many times as neces- offers over all other epigraphic methods is the sarv (see fig. :5 above). Upon completion of the ability to magnify the image on the screen for analysis of minute details. Depending only on the 12 Laserprimers able to print at 600 dOIS per inch (dpi) quality of the original photographic scan (resolu- ,,;11 produce proofs that are U"\IC to lhc qualit), of the final tion, file size), the tiniest details may be mag- output of the dra\\;ng-on professional imagescllers lhat normally operate at 1200 or 2400 dpi. Simpler laserprilllers nified hundreds 01' even thousands of times the using 300 dpi ,,;11 lend to melt together tightl}' spaced lines original size of the elemen t in the image. While in detailed areas, but can still be used for basic collation constant access to the original wall surface for purposes. DIGITAL EPIGRAPHY 105 drawing, the final output is produced on a high- of a perfectly clear, uncomplicated hieroglyph; quality image setting device.I3 The actual final such clearly visible areas may be drawn ahead of output product can be a positive (black lines on time, allowing for better use of critical collation a white, -coated photographic paper, identi- time later at the actual monument. cal to reprographic camera-ready arnvork, called in some countries bromide), or negative film, Sun aDd Shadow Lines saving the step of additional camera-ready pho- tographic fees for publication. The drawing file Egyptological epigraphy is produced in some can also be imported directly into a page layout cases using a single line weight for all carved or design program and placed on-screen lines, and in others using varying line weights to on the final page mockup of the publication, sur- indicate the nature of the relief carving. Single rounded by text or other elements. An entirely line weights represent the easier, more abbrevi- digitally produced publication, avoiding costly ated approach; the digita.l procedure outlined snipping and manual paste-up fees, thus be- above is complete as described thus far for pro- comes a very practical and cost-effective reality, ducing this type of line art (see fig. 8A.). By con- This process of digital epigraphy streamlines trast, drawing with varying line weights, often some of the cumbersome aspects of traditional called sun and shadow lines, indicates immedi- pen and ink epigraphy. For example, any num- ately to the reader the presence of raised versus ber of collation proof sheets may be printed sunk relief, and forces a more thorough analy- out, thus eliminating the n-aditional expense of sis and understanding of the scene at hand (see photographic reductions from large-scale 1: 1 fig, 8B),15 For example, for a single line weight drawings, or of producing "blueprint proofs" (or drawing, a group of overlapping offering bear- sn'1.lggling with low-quality photocopies) made ers' or animals' legs need Dot be epigraphically from preliminary drafts of Lnked drav.rings. Un- "disentangled" by the epigrapher since all lines clear or problem areas of the drawing may be are of equal thickness (fig. 9A). With sun and isolated and printed at an enlarged scale for shadow line drawing, all lines must be under- separate collation. In addition, off-site epigl-a- stood by the epigrapher, for the fronts and back phy becomes much more time-efficient. As was of legs will receive different line thicknesses ac- already mentioned above, when the ideal epi- cording to the nature of the relief (fig. 9B). graphic scenario of 100% proximjty to the orig- Producing epigraphic drawings digitally elimi- inal monument (either in Egypt or a foreign nates the traditional pen-and-ink complications collection) proves impossible, a premium is of switching between rapidograph sizes, and cop- placed on the often limited time at the original. ing with changes regarding line thicknesses t11at With digital epigraphy, a first draft of the ma- forces either the scraping away or the addition jority of the drawing may be prepared off-site of ink across an entire drawing. To produce sun while problem a.reas are flagged for particularly and shadow lines with tlle digital procedure, one intensive collation on-site at a later time.14 In need only expand upon the same layering prin- other words, one need not waste valuable on-site ciple described above whereby the photograph expedition time drawing the preliminary outline on the screen is on an underlying layer, separate from the epigrapher's drawn lines on the "over- 13 Such devices are usuaUy too expensive for individual lying" layer. One simply stacks additional copy or institutional purchase; print houses and service bW'eaus layers of signs and figural representations, which offer printing services for nominal per-page fees. This pro- are then offset slightly from the originals to cess is similar to sending a large, 1:1 pen-and-ink drawing create "sun" and "shadow" lines. The process of off to a reprographic house for reduction photography and final print that is then submitted for publication. creating sun and shadow lines (in which Egypto- 14 AltJlough this fact is also true of tracing photographs logical convention assumes the light originates by rradjtional methods, the correction of drawn lines after on-site collation is much easier with the "virtual ink" on the tS For an example of ancient raised and sunk relief on rhe compmer than with paper and actual ink. The only solurion same monumenr which is not reproduced in the single line using o·aditional methods requires preparing preliminary weight epigraphic drawings, see W. K. Simpson, Mastabas of drawings in pencil only. bm this leaves the bulk of the final the Western Ctrm.etel)lPart 1, Giza Mastabas 4 (Boston, 1980), pI. work to post-collation, a more time-consuming procedure. 61a and fig. 47 (stela of Setju). 106 JARGE XXXV (1998)

Fig. 8. Single line weight drawing (A) litmUS (! drawing with sun and shadow lines (8).

in the upper left of the image, shining down at "painted" on-screen with a white fiU, that is, a 45° angle) thus essentially duplicates all the made opaque. Then it is copied, "painted" with carved elements of the drawing, offsetting one a black fill, and placed "underneath" the white- copy slightly to provide a smooth drop shadow. filled original sign. One can offset (at a 45° For example, in fig. 10 a raised relief scribal angle) the underlying black sign slightly, either sign (Sign List 1'3) has been u'aced and the un- down and to the right to indicate raised relief derlying photograph made invisible. The sign is (as in fig. 10), or up and to the left to indicate DIGITAL EPIGRAPHY 107

Fig. 9. Detail of grouped individua.ls, represented in single line weights (A) and with sun and shadow lims (B).

Step 1: tracing of carved lines shapes filled with white (opaque) I

Step 2: duplication of sign j~! shapes filled with black

Step 3: black-filled sign underneath the white-filled sign is offset for drop-shadow, to indicate raised or sunk relief

Fig. 10. The la.ye71ngof "white-filled" and "black-filled" copies of a hierog{~lpht~ simulate the appea,I'Ollce oj raised J'elief

sunk relief. The drop shadow process creates view of all the layered elemen ts contained in a the sun and shadow lines as needed with a seam- digital facsimile line drawing: original computer less blend of line weights.16 This principle is ap- t.racing of the photograph, drop-shadow black- plied to the entire drawing to produce consistent filled signs, outlines of preserved surface area, sun and shadow liDes. Fig. 11 shows an exploded and architectural block lines. While making copies and playing with layers 16 For areas such as Lhe lower left corner of rectangular and offsets may seem in verbal description like raised relief signs and shapes. the sharp corner of the white- a t.edious and unnatural way to draw, most soft- filled sign might on occasion appear tOOdistinctl)' separate ware program's commands help streamline th from the sharp comer of the underl)'ing black-filled sign. process immensely. All the elements of a draw- Depending on the scale of the final product, this discrep- ancy is often in\'isible to Lhenaked e)'e, thus an)' acljustments ing (hieroglyphs, figures, objects) may be treated represent unnecessary overkill. But additional filler lines Or together as a group, copied, and offset simul- shapes are easiJ)'added to hide the distinction. laneously to predetermined specifications 'vith 108 JARCE XXXV (1998) just a few keystrokes or clicks of a mouse.17 The readers. In all cases, shading and other conven- one prerequisite of this procedure that is for- tions can be lightened as much as desired so as eign to the artist trained with pen and ink i not to distract the eye from the rest of the carved conceiving of the drawing in terms of its layers. or painted decoration,18 Fig, ]3 shows some of In order to fill signs and figures with white and the options for indicating modeled areas (such as black, they should in most cases be closed path~- leg musculature), including stippling, gray fills lines that are left open and unconnected at the blends and light outlines. ends can produce unexpected results when filled with white or black. The phenomenon is espe- Advantages of Computerized Epigraph cially important where figures are broken acros multiple blocks of relief, or when signs contain Some might question why we should bother intertwining lines Of overlapping detail. In most with the expense of computerizing what, at face cases, following the exterior outlines first, and value, appears infinitely easier to do with sim- then adding interior detail solves the problem ple pen and ink? To consider an analogy for a (see fig. 12). moment, most of the advantages of using a Digital epigraphy may also be applied to wall word processor versus a simple can surfaces that contain only, such as are be applied to using digital epigraphy instead of commonly found in the Theban necropolis. One traditional ink-based epigraphy. For example, has the option here of producing uniform line correcting errors and making fine-tuned ad- weights or effectively simulating the painted sur- jusm1ents is simplified. Gone are the worries of face by outlining the contours of uneven brush scratching away ink with a scalpel blade, and u·okes. Fig. 13 shows such a painted figure, with wondering if the scraped fibers of the paper will just a few options for indicating elements painted cause newly applied ink to bleed all over the in different colors and damaged areas. There is drawing. Unexpected changes of approach mid- virtually no limit to the gradations or colors way through a project, such as scale alterations, available for indicating polychromy. global changes to all line widths and revisions The addition of various shading convention of final publication formats, no longer pose in- to simulate damage, recarving, ancient plaster surmountable challenges, And the alteration and repairs, block edge erosion, tJ-aces of or reuse of previously completed work is also made modeling, is a critical carrier of information in easier; individual drawings that form parr of an interpreting an epigraphic drawing, and should entire wall can be combined, separated, rotated, always be included in some form. Such con- resized for different publications etc., all with- ventions are available in a wide variet)' with the out incurring the additional photographic and computer, There are a number of preformed reproduction costs that accompany such repur- hatching, stippling and shading patterns in- posing of traditionally inked artwork, The same cluded with most drawing software program~, drawing can be used as a miniature "key plan" as well as the possibility of creating one's own for overview purposes, or as an enlarged view custom patterns. These can be applied to the of the minutest carving details. Because the various layers of the drawing as desil-ed (fig. 14). lines are vector-based, rather than biunap (pixel- Alternatively, one could even allow the original based; see fig. 4),19 line quality and integIit), canned photograph to "show through" the draw- ing in damaged areas, although the combination I~ It is important to remember that the gray fills resulting from a laserprinter proof arc all"ars darker and coarser t.han of black-and-white line art and gray-scale photO- those produced by high quality professional imagesetting graphic images might prove too jarring to some de,ices. Thus, a damaged area lhat might appear too dark and distracting in lhe proof s[l\ge might be perreclly light in t.he final output. 17"Grouping" objects is a com-enielll computer feature 19 Unlike artwork based on individual bitmaps, \"eCLOr- thai applies the same changes made to an)' single member based artwork utili~es the computer language called ·post- of lhe group lOall the resl of the members. Hierogl}'phs, hu- script" to retain and communicate lhe quaJit}'of the Jincwork man and animal figures, block lines, etc. may be "grouped" or to an)' OlllPUIde\"ice lhat understands this page description ·uJlgrouped" as often as is necessary for con\"enient edilillg. langmll!e. DIGITAL EPIGRAPHY 109

lines drawn on screen

automatic drop shadow offset beneath drawn lines (above) to create sun and shadow line differentiation

'- ..., '~--~ , I --, I outline of edges of preserved I I surface (filled with white) I I '- I I I I I

I I I I exterior block line (filled with I any desired shade convention; I here using 10% gray screen) I I I t

final result -----.

Fig. 11. Exploded view oj the valious layers that make up a digital Jacsimile line drawing. 110 JARCE XXXV (1998)

Fig. 12. Some oj the problems that can occur in drawing over· lapping lines filled luitll white or black (A); the solution involves A B drawing the outlines first as 0 closed path, beJorepmceeding to the incorrect correct interior details (B),

Fig. 13. Samples oj digital ef)igraphJ applied to wall painting instead oj l'elieJcarving; compare A. and A. Brack, Das Grab des HauIT/lIab (Maim., 1980), pi, 10.

remain constant despite infinite resizings, either Finally, there is the issue of speed. While it up or down. When a particular scene or in- takes some time at first to master the new tech- scription is under investigation, individual hi- nology and the various approaches to layel;ng eroglyphs or other elements may be copied or the lines of individual signs and figures, there "removed" from the dra' ....ing and placed in com- quickly follows a tangible boost to the speed with parison charts such as palaeographies. Moreover, which one can produce epigraphic drawings. By ome projects can only be completed in a cost- comparison, it might be suggested that even to- effective manner using a digital approach. For day's best traditional epigraphic methods are not Egyptian monuments whose wall reliefs aloeinac- wholly successful if they require decades of work cessible or are spread throughout the world, and on a single monument, while many other monu- whose photographs were taken at a wide variet)1 ments in the vicinity disintegrate for lack of at- of scales, scaleable digital photographic mon- tention. For this and otller reasons touched on tages and on-screen drawing provide the onl). above, it is worth considering digital epigraphy olution short of paying a small fortune in copy over tracing the wall or photograph with pencil, photography and photographic printinl! fees. pen and ink. DIGITAL EPIGRAPHY ]11

I \

\

L--~ .-'"

"., Ii t.' ·'1

Fig. 14. Some oj [he conventions available Jor the r~esentation oj shading. 112 JARCE XXXV (1998)

20% to 0 gradient stippling

40% to 0 gradient light lines

Fig. 15. Some of the conventions available for the 'representation of modeled sU1faces.

New Application Potential for figures, hieroglyphs and objects may be filled with Egyptian Epigraphy white or black to create raised and sunk relief, so too can they be colored with any hue occur- A number of new ways to describe and repre- ring in the ancient Egyptian palette.2o After sent archaeological data become available once computerizing a wall relief, then reconstructing one takes advantage of digital epigraphy. Many its original colors, the next step in this logical of these have yet to find tlleir way into tradi- progression is to reassemble the walls and the tional (paper-based, black-and-white) academic ancient monument i.n three-dimensional space avenues of publication, but technology is chang- using computer-aided design (CAD). From here, ing some of these avenues as well, It is far be- perspective renderings, animated walkthroughs, yond the scope of these pages to elaborate on virtual reality motion and panoramic viewing are the more advanced possibilities for archaeologi- all tools that can help us better simulate and un- cal reconstruction using digital epigraphy and derstand Egyptian environments. Such tools are computer technology, but a few examples might well on their way to evolving beyond the mere briefly be mentioned. Some of the new uses to which digital epigra- 20 For an interesting discussion of ancient Egyptian color, phy may be put include the (re)colorization of an- see Jochen Kahl, "Die Farbgeben in der friihen Hieroglyphen- cient wal1 decoration. Just as individual human schrift; Zi\S 124 (1997),44-56, with additional bibliography. DIGITAL EPIGRAPHY 113

"computer game" level into becoming serious ware and software for opt.imal working condi- scholarly research tools that can to new dis- tions. However, there is nothing customized coveries. The reconstruction of ancient monu- about the procedure; the sofn\'are used is com- men ts thus takes on new dimensions, available in pletely commercially available, and no special- hard copy through t.raditional paper and publica- ized programming skills are required on the tion output, or in on-line form tl1rough various part of the Egyptologist or epigrapher. Some of disk-based media and the internet. the equipment required for digital epigraphy As far as further streamlining the actual digi- includes: tal epigraphy process is concerned, one might consider the day when the paper-based portion • access to a high-resolution flatbed scanner of the photographic process may be avoided • a powerful processor inside the computer altogether through the use of digital cameras, (central processing unit) At this , however, the high-quality digital • as much computer RAM as possible cameras required for epigraphically suitable im- • as large a screen as possible ages are beyond the means of most expeditions, • large amounts of digital storage space for and none has so far come close to matching the large file sizes required by high resolution information quality contained in a 100 year-old images (and sufficient backup capabilities) 8 x 10 inch glass negative. It also remains to be • a comfortable input device, such as a digi- seen whether digital epigraphy will eventually tizing tablet and cordless pen, in place of a be liberated from the drawing or computer stu- regular mouse or trackball dio altogether, and one will be able to practice • photographic image-editing software digital epigraphy in "portable form," If future • vector-based drawing software generations of laptop computers provide suffi- • access to a 600 dots-per-inch or better laser- cient screen quality, appropriate input devices, for proofing purposes and resistance to the elements, epigraphers • access to professional quality imagesetting might eventually be able to draw digitally in the device (2400 dots-per-inch) for final output field, at the tomb or temple wall, bringing almost of digital facsimile line drawings, the entire epigraphic process to the monument. The preceding remarks have demonstrated \'Vhile this financial outlay is certainly not in- that a digital approach to Egyptian epigraphy expensive, many scholars already own or have prmides a number of financial, speed and con- access to parts of the equipment outlined above sistency advantages over traditional direct wall- or within the context of their other academic work. photograph-tracing, and allows for archaeolog- \Nhat is often required, then, is merely the addi- ical data to be interpreted and presented in a tion or upgrade of certain components, rather number of new ways. There will most likely al- than the purchase of entirely new computer sys- ways be a place for traditional tracing methods,21 tems. Some purchases help pay for themselves but scholars must explore any and all respon- in time saved and in traditional epigraphic ma- sible systems that would help the terials that are no longer necessary, such as ancient monuments before tlleir complete dete- photographic supplies, printing and processing, rioration. For purposes of documentation in the tracing/drawing paper, rapidographs and ink. broadest sense of the word, digital epigraphy has Moreover, much of the equipment need not much to offer. be purchased; many services, such as one-time scanning or high-quality printing of final draw- Appendix: Some Logistical Considerations ings, are available from graphics prepress and publishing houses, service bureaus and institu- It is certainly true that the procedure outlined tions that own the high quality equipment. above requires some powerful computer hard- Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

~l Cmving surfaces, such as temple columns, and tiny, cramped decorated chambers, come to mind as examples of difficult challenges fOT phowgraph-based epigraphy.