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An Analysis of the Evolution of the World's Toilet Habits

An Analysis of the Evolution of the World's Toilet Habits

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Othman, Zulkeplee (2017) An analysis of the evolution of the world’s habits. [Working Paper] (Unpublished)

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Zulkeplee Othman, PhD AFHEA School of Design, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, [email protected] Abstract The use of water and handheld or shattaf for perianal cleansing is considered a common practice in many households across the globe, predominantly within Muslim homes. While shattafs are considered the easiest and cheapest solution that meets the Islamic hygienical jurisprudence, toilet users often face issues on maintaining the of their domestic . Water is considered as the preferred option for self- cleaning after using toilets () in many parts of the world especially in , , some parts of as well as in by the locals such as in and (). On the other hand, the use of toilet papers is known as the common method used for perianal cleansing in most Western countries. This paper investigates the historical evolution of human toilet habits as an impetus to further understand its implications for culturally inclusive toilet designs in the near future.

Keywords: Toilets, , human waste, toilet design, defecation

1. Introduction: History of toilet designs and methods for perianal cleansing The timeline of toilet habits consist of an interesting evolution of the design of latrines and the ways humankind performs perianal cleansing, as presented in Table 1. Despite being commonly regarded as an unpleasant topic for discussion, anal is the key to the maintenance of health. Toilets or latrines have existed for millennia. Archaeologists first uncovered a well preserved ancient Neolithic village of Skara Brae in Ornkey Islands, Scotland in 1850 (Cromwell, 2015, Gibson et al., 2015). Drainage systems were found in small chambers (cells) in dwelling units of The Grooved Ware People (see Figure 1), suggesting early existence of primitive domestic toilets (Cromwell, 2015). This Venus worshipping group is believed to have been a dominant and elite society during the late Neolithic period (3100 BC to 2500 BC) and is known for their pottery-making skills (Gibson et al., 2015). Researchers and archaeologists suggest that remains of driftwood, whale ribs and mandibles, draped with seaweed were used for cleansing after defecation (Table 1) (Cromwell, 2015).

Table 1: Summary of early evolution of toilets and materials used for perianal cleansing

Society Period Locations of exemplars Method/materials used Types of toilets used

Grooved Ware • possible squat toilets Late Neolithic • seaweed draped over Skara Brae, (Scotland) • inner chamber with People (3100 BC to 2500 BC) driftwood or bone rafters drainage system Indus-Valley Civilisation Mohenjo-Daro • water • squat toilets (Indus- (2500 BC) () Valley & Harappan) • sitting toilets (Dilmun) Harappan Civilisation Lothal () • ancient flush system (Dilmun) (2500 BC) Harappa (Pakistan) • sewage drainage system

Bahrain Island (Bahrain) under grid pattern Dilmun Civilisation streets (Indus-Valley) (707 BC to 681 BC) water borne flushing (Harappan) • sand • sitting toilets • limestone toilet seats New Kingdom Egyptians th Egypt (pharaohs, nobles and (18 Dynasty) priests) (1500 BC to 1200 BC) • wooden toilet seats (peasants)

Aegean Middle Bronze • water (on channel) • sitting toilets Knossos & Akrotiri Age: Minoan Civilisation • public latrines () • ostraka - small pieces (2600 BC to 1400 BC) of broken ceramics • ancient flush toilets • pessoi - small stones • inner room (not Aegean Late Bronze Greeks Tiryns & • water (royal chamber enclosed) - royalty Age: Mycenae pot) Mycenean Civilisation (Greece) (1400 BC to 1200 BC) Early Christianity Ephesus (Asia Minor) (52 AD to 54 AD) Julio-Claudian Dynasty: Oplontis • running water (on • sitting toilets Nero (27 BC to 68 AD) (Italy) channel) • public foricae Greco-Romans • salt water or vinegar in • private latrinae Flavian Dynasty: Pompeii bucket or vessel Pompey (Italy) • tersorium - a stick with (69 AD to 96 AD) mounted sponge • toilet papers • squat toilets Chinese Han Dynasty (206 BC to 220 AD) • pigsty latrines (rural) • chamber pots • water • possible squat toilets Mayans Mayan Classic Era Palenque (Mexico) (250 AD to 900 AD) • ancient flush systems • underground aqueduct • chūgi - wooden stick • squatting toilets Japanese (710 AD to 794 AD) • toilet papers • water () • squatting toilets Late Islamic Golden Middle East Age: Ottoman-Turkish • 3 pieces of stones • (brass vessel) Empire (istijmaar) (1299 to 1923) • corn cobs • sitting toilets Americans Colonization & discarded papers outdoor toilets Settlement Periods North America • • (1585 to 1763) • indoor privy

Figure 1: An example of a typical ancient Neolithic Ornkey dwelling unit’s cell (Cromwell, 2015)

The remains of simple structures made and arranged from paver bricks, with a hole that opens to the drainage systems underneath, were discovered by archaeologists in Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal in India, are believed to be examples of ancient flushing systems used by the Indus-Valley Civilisation (see Table 1) (Pathak, 1995). Similar remains of structures showing flushing systems but with sitting toilets were also discovered in Harappa, Pakistan and Bahrain Island (see Table 1).

Archaeologists and palaeontologists believe that ancient latrines used by people living in the New Kingdom in Egypt were also sitting toilets but sands were used instead of water, with filled in containers being used for excreta disposals (Remler, 2010). Two different types of seats were discovered by archaeologists: the limestone toilet seats were most probably used by the pharaohs, nobles and priests, while the peasants use timber seats instead (Remler, 2015; Hardyman, 2014; Klemm & Klemm, 2001).

In Knossos, Crete and Akrotiri (Santorini) (see Table 1), open drainage systems were found, suggesting the possibility of public latrines being used during the Middle Bronze Age, the flourishing period of the Minoan civilisation (Cromwell, 2015). In Tiryns and Mycanae, two ancient archaeological sites in Greece, recent excavations indicate that similar toilet systems were used during the Late Bronze Period, the period of collapse of the Minoan empire (as shown in Figure 2) (Cromwell, 2015). As shown in Figure 2, these open drainage systems with nearby were found along the northwest wall within the lower acropolis area of the Greek citadel that flows out through an underground tunnelling system (Cromwell, 2015). Evidence of a different primitive domestic latrine system was found in Agamemnon’s royal chamber in the Mycenaean citadel. It is thought that King of Mycenae used his royal instead of water, within the inner room used as toilet space, as there were no signs of any water channels or primitive sewerage drainage within this unenclosed (no separating inner wall) royal chamber (Cromwell, 2015).

Figure 2: Possible evidence of public latrines in Tiryns, Greece. Adapted from (Cromwell, 2015)

There were two exclusive types of latrines commonly used by Roman society during the Greco-Roman’s Julio- Claudian’s and Flavian’s Dynasties (see Table 1): a) public foricae (see Figure 3), and b) private latrinae (see Figure 4) (Ramsey, 2009). Public foricae were widely available within Roman cities and the Romans also used these facilities as part of their social spaces (Koloski-Ostrow, 2015; Britten, 2014; Charlier et al., 2012). These multi-seater foricae were normally built to fit between eight to twenty users at one time (Britten, 2014).

Figure 3: Reconstruction of Greco-Roman public foricae at Housesteads, Hadrians Wall (Embleton & Graham, 1984)

Although the ancient Greco-Roman life is often perceived as filthy and unhealthy to our modern world, the ancient Romans were known for their sophistication and expertise in drainage and sewage systems (Britten, 2014; Magness, 2012; Ramsey, 2009; Quitzau, 2004; Horan, 1996). The public foricae were built with deep sewage channels underneath, filled with running water for excreta disposal (Koloski-Ostrow, 2015; Britten, 2014; Charlier et al., 2012). The Cloaca Maxima (The Greatest Sewer), a deep underground sewage canal system that flows out to the Tiber River and was built around 6 BC, is among the famous ancient Roman sewerage systems that still exist today (Hopkins, 2007). The Roman latrine seats were built from different materials depending on the social class of those who used them - marble or stone seats for the Imperials, Senators and Equestrians while the commons’ latrine seats were commonly made of timber (Koloski-Ostrow, 2015; Britten, 2014; Charlier et al., 2012). Figure 3 shows an example of Roman latrines built within the Housesteads of Hadrian’s Wall in Northumberland, United Kingdom during the Greco-Roman period. A recent discovery of a wooden in Vindolanda, Italy in 2014, the only preserved wooden toilet seat from the Greco-Roman period, provides proof of the existence of this latrine seat during this period (Galloway, 2014). Roman private latrinae were small individual closets that were built in homes, taverns and shops (Ramsey, 2009). Unlike public foricae, these latrinae were not provided with running water (Koloski-Ostrow, 2015; Ramsey, 2009, Connolly et al.; 1998). This is because the fresh water supply was generally piped to the central fountain, located at centre of the house (Koloski-Ostrow, 2015; Ramsey, 2009). Thus, excreta was manually flushed using a vessel or bucket filled with water, generally domestic wastewater from kitchen or private bath, and poured into the cesspits as shown in Figure 4 (Koloski-Ostrow, 2015; Ramsey, 2009; Connolly et al., 1998).

Figure 4: Reconstruction of typical private latrinae at Herculaneum and Pompeii (Connolly et al., 1998, p. 149)

Perianal cleansing was performed using dampened sponge mounted on a wooden stick called tersorium, dipped into running water that flows along a small channel in front of the feet (see Figures 3 and 4) (Koloski-Ostrow, 2015; Galloway, 2014). Tersoriums were rinsed off using the flowing water or through a bucket of water filled with salt or vinegar, although the latter method was harsher for the perianal regions but more hygienical (Galloway, 2014).

Mesoamerican Mayan society was reported to have used a pressurised water spring conduit built on a steep terrain (approximately six metres drop in 60 metres) to supply the Mayan’s urban space, equipped with water fountains, water features as well as latrines (French & Duffy, 2014, 2010). These deep aqueducts are full with fast running water to assist with the excreta disposal (French & Duffy, 2014, 2010). A clear example of this system can be seen in Piedras Bolas Aqueduct in Palenque, southern Mexico, considered to be the first Mayan pressurised water system (French & Duffy, 2014, 2010). However, anthropological archaeologist Kirk D. French argues that further research needs to be undertaken with respect to the Mayan’s wastewater systems (French & Duffy, 2014).

Various types of toilet systems were used during the Han Dynasty in China (from 206 BC to 220 AD): a) public paid squat latrines, b) royal sitting toilets, c) domestic squat latrines with chamber pots for excreta disposal and, d) pigsty latrines (see Table 1) (Samuels, 2014; Ross et al., 2006). Archaeologists discovered a sophisticated sitting latrine with a toilet seat and armrest made of stone and equipped with running water underneath in 2000, and believed this to be one of the royal latrines of the Han Dynasty (Samuels, 2014; Ross et al., 2006). Squat latrines were considered the common type of ‘pay-as-you-use’ public toilets of this period, although many home dwellers still preferred to build their own domestic latrines (chamber pots for excreta disposal) to avoid paying for using these latrines (Samuels, 2014; Beshore, 1988). The chamber pots were normally cleaned at the nearest water bodies (Samuels, 2014; Beshore, 1988). Pay system public toilets used during the period of the Tang Dynasty were comprised of a series of individual chamber with squat latrines for privacy and these chambers were constructed using mud bricks (Benn, 2002; Beshore, 1988). In rural areas, pigsty latrines were commonly used to feed the pigs or recycle human excreta as biogas (George, 2011). Despite its economical method, the pigsty latrine system is unhealthy as diseases can easily be spread through consumed pork meat products (Samuels, 2014; George, 2011; Ross et al., 2006). Nevertheless, pigsty latrines are still used in rural parts in China as well as in Goa, India today (Samuels, 2014; George, 2011; Ross et al., 2006). In 1979, the Chinese State Council of China established the Biogas Research Institute of Ministry of Agriculture (BIOMA), a research centre that focusses on energy recovery and environmental protection through biogas production from agricultural waste (Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 2013).

Similar squat latrines were used during the Japanese Nara era, but wooden skewer sticks called chūgi were used during the earlier period for perianal cleaning after defecation(see Table 1) (Matsui et al., 2003). Archaeologists found evidence of ancient toilets built over running streams, suggesting a primitive flushing toilet system was used for excreta disposal (Matsui et al., 2003). Squat toilets were widely used in Islamic countries during the Islamic Golden Age, such as the marble squat latrine that was discovered in the private harem of the Topkapi Palace in during the time of the Ottoman-Turkish Empire (see Table 1) (Cromwell, 2015). A sink with no drainage opening was also found adjacent to the latrine, indicating that water was used to fill the sink for cleaning and washing after toilet use but manually emptied and refilled again by the Sultan’s staff (Cromwell, 2015). Toilets used in the of America (USA) during the time of the ancient Indian and Mesoamerican civilizations were vastly different and much simpler than those that are available today. Small pits were dug out near shrubs or in the jungles for the purpose of defecation and then covered (Daughtry, 2015). Ancient Native American Indian hunter-gatherers and proto-farmers used various available materials for perianal cleansing such as corn cobs, leaves, shells or other available soft natural materials (see Table 1) (Cromwell, 2015; Daughtry, 2015). It was not until after 1800 that in-house toilets or privies were introduced into American homes by Thomas Jefferson, who invented the indoor privy with a pulley-system water closet for his Monticello residence; he also made design contributions of The White House (Jeffersonian’s Enhancements) during the periods of 1801 to 1809 (The White House Museum, 2015).

Different cultural approaches to toilet designs and etiquettes Cultural traditions and religious teachings play important influences on the design and use of toilets. The Indian traditional approach to toilet designs, Vaastu Shastra, for example, involves careful site planning and orientation of rooms prior to designing a home (see Figure 5) (Patra, 2009, 2006). Vaastu Shastra or Maharishi Vastu architecture is an ancient Indian architectural knowledge which originated during the Vedic period (1500 BC to 1000 BC) (Patra, 2009, 2006). Vaastu Shastra is “based on mathematics, geomagnetic, philosophical and metaphysical concepts giving various considerations and calculations for planning and designing of houses, temples, industries, commercial places and town planning” (Patra, 2006, p. 202). It is an ancient approach to building design based on five fundamental guidelines: a) the correct orientation of buildings in relation to micro- climate and weather; b) careful site planning and the site contouring levels; c) the correct proportions and dimensions of buildings; d) careful arrangements and placements of rooms and building components such as columns, roofs and entablatures in relation to activities within the buildings, and; e) the aesthetics or the characters of the buildings, in order to achieve a more habitable and comfortable built environment (Patra, 2014, 2009, 2006). In Vaastu Shastra, toilets are recommended to be built along the Northern and Southern axes and located towards the Western sides; avoiding constructing any toilets, septic tanks or kitchen towards the North East side (see Figure 5) (Patra, 2014, 2009, 2006).

Figure 5: Vaastu Purusha Mandala: The mathematical and diagrammatic design in Vaastu Shastra (Dwivedi, 2015)

Similar to Vaastu Shastra, the Buddhist teaching of Feng Shui also uses similar ancient cosmological influences in building and toilet design guidelines (Patra, 2009, 2006). In fact, researchers and historians suggest that Feng Shui is based from Vaastu Shastra (Patra, 2009, 2006). Feng Shui was developed by Master Yang Yun Sang during Tang Dynasty (618 AD to 906 AD) in China (Too, 1999). Both Vaastu Shastra and Feng Shui use similar conceptual of compass points and based on the universal flow of energy (chi for Feng Shui or Chinese culture and prana in Vaastu Shastra or Hindu culture), focusing on the well-being of a person and his/her connections to his/her home (Too, 1999; Pathak, 1995). However, Feng Shui design recommendations focus on the ways to improve any existing settings or spaces within a home (Figure 6) (e.g. toilets as focus in this research) while Vaastu Shastra highlights design recommendations to locate and build a home from an early conceptual stage (Figure 3) (Too, 1999; Pathak, 1995). Figure 6 demonstrates Feng Shui’s design recommendations to improve home dwellers’ ‘luck’ regarding the various existing locations of the toilets within a home (Too, 1999). It is recommended that toilets are not located at the centre of the house as this location is considered as the central focus or heart of chi that provides balance and vitality of a family (Figure 6) (Too, 1999). The use of metal wind chime is recommended to improve or control the bad earth energy in south-east, east and west facing toilets (see Figure 6) (Too, 1999).

Figure 6: Feng Shui compass method on location of water closets. Adapted from (Too, 1999, p. 187) On the contrary to Vaastu Shastra and Feng Shui, Islamic teachings are based from Al-Quran, hadiths and sunnas (utterances and actions of Prophet Muhammad) and do not provide any specific or mandatory guidelines regarding toilet designs. However, some Islamic scholars recommended that toilets should not face Mecca or qiblah despite recommending that houses are constructed to face qiblah (Omer, 2010). This is based on the interpretation of Prophet Muhammad’s utterances (hadiths) regarding etiquettes during defecation:

When you go to defecate, do not face towards the qiblah or turn your back towards it, rather face towards the east or the west (Narrated by Al-Bukhary & Muslim)

This guideline was implemented in the recent design and construction of public toilets in London's Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympic Games (Peterkin, 2008). These toilets were built not facing qiblah as a strategy to make the venue more welcoming and sympathetic to their Muslim athletes’ and users’ faiths from across the globe (Peterkin, 2008). Other Islamic teachings on toilet habits focus on good etiquettes and behaviours upon entering and leaving the lavatories (Omer, 2010). For example, it is recommended that Muslims to enter the toilet using the left foot while leaving using the right foot, based from the narratives from Islamic scholars Al-Bukhary and Muslim. Other teachings include ensuring the perianal regions are cleaned thoroughly with water, which will be discussed in Item 1.4.

Sitting vs squatting: Comparison between the two positions for defecation The use of flush lavatories marks the modernisation of excreta disposal’s technology (George, 2011). Sir John Harrington first invented two in-house flushing sitting lavatories with a in 1596 for himself and his God- mother Queen Elizabeth (George, 2011). The indoor toilets were constructed to provide convenience for The Queen rather than using an royal latrine (George, 2011). However, his invention was not well-received by British society and his design never proceeded afterwards (George, 2011). Alexander Cumming later patented his flushing toilet invention in 1775 and the design was further improved by Joseph Brahmah a year later (George, 2011). This flushing lavatory system was further improved and in 1861, Thomas Crapper founded his own patentee and manufacturing company and contributed to nine significant design patents such as siphon mechanisms, floating and the use of elastic valve closet for better mass-productions, easier maintenance and general repairs (Thomas Crapper & Co. Ltd., 2015). These patents were further refined by other local manufacturers such as Thomas Twyford, Henry Doulton, Edward Johns, George Jennings, in which some are still available in the market today (Thomas Crapper & Co. Ltd., 2015).

Medical practitioners and researchers state that the design of sitting toilets does not offer proper posture to complete defecation (with the average angle at only at 92°) because puborectalis relaxation becomes incomplete and an obvious folding is created in the terminal rectum, which predisposes to rectocele formation (Ling, 2015a; Sikirov, 2003; Rad, 2002, p. 116) (Figure 7). This tightening of puborectalis muscle results in the build-up of toxic waste because of the production of the back-ups, resulting in constipation (Ling, 2015a; Rad, 2002, p. 116). On the other hand, the use of squat latrines offer better and complete defecation, resulting in easier puborectalis relaxation occurrence which facilitates a complete evacuation (Rad, 2002, p. 116). The straightening of the rectum produces an average angle at 132° which offers a wider anal canal opening (Rad, 2002, p. 116) (see Figure 7). No folding is created within the terminal rectum and resulting in no toxic waste build-ups and constipation (Rad, 2002, p. 116) (see Figure 7).

Figure 7: Anorectal angle differences between sitting and squatting (Masilamani, 2013)

Today, various versions of sitting and squat toilet designs are developed and manufactured by plumbing companies to meet with different needs from toilet users from diverse cultures and backgrounds (Gregory & James, 2006). Squat latrines are still widely used, mainly in Asian countries such as in India, (dual ‘sit or squat’ elevated latrine), , Japan and China because of their long cultural traditions of using this toilet system (Ling, 2015b). Despite an estimation of 4 billion people (two-third of world population) who still use squat latrines, this toilet system is still relatively unknown to Westerners from countries like North America, Europe and Australia (Ling, 2015b). However, preferences to either using squat or sitting toilets in Asian countries in these days are mainly due to a matter of personal choice. Many Asian countries such as Malaysia and Japan still provide both toilet systems for the convenience of all users, including the choice of cleaning using both water and toilet papers (Cromwell, 2015). In recent years too, simple stools such as Squatty Potty and Sandun-Evaco Toilet Converter are available in the market aiming to provide the ‘squatting experience’ for those who are concerned with bowel health while using the Western sitting toilets (Squatty Potty, 2015; Ling, 2015c).

Wash vs wipe: Towards culturally inclusive toilet design in the future Various types of materials were previously used by humankind for perianal cleansing, as demonstrated in Table 1. Physical hygiene and cleanliness are also part of instructions and doctrines in many cultural traditions and religious faiths that embody one’s morality and spiritual purity (Preston & Ritter, 2012; Zhong et al., 2010; Zhong & Liljenquist, 2006; Looy, 2004). Water has been widely used for bodily cleansing as part of religious ritual washing and symbolises one’s purification (e.g. Islam, Judaism and Zoroastrianism), sacredness (e.g. Hinduism and Shinto), wealth (e.g. ) and cleansing of one’s sin (or seeking spiritual refreshment and blessing) (e.g. Chrstianity) (Ahmad, 2015; Abrams, 2003; Too, 1999).

The Egyptians were first to discover the use of papyrus plant for the production of paper in 2500 BC (Remler, 2010). The Chinese then realized the use of trees through wood pulps to produce papers Needham, 1985). Paper was initially used as wrapping or padding materials in 2 BC while toilet papers were initially used by the Chinese around 589 AD, as mentioned by Yan Zhitui, a Chinese scholar, painter and calligrapher (Needham, 1985). Toilet papers were only introduced to the Western countries in late 1800s (Cromwell, 2015; Ament, 2007). Joseph Gayetty first commercialised toilet papers in the United States in 1857, which was then followed by Zeth Wheeler who produced perforated toilet papers in 1871 and further by John Kimberly who established Kimberly-Clark Corporation in 1872 (Ament, 2007).

The author hypothesises that using water is recommended in Islam because a) was only a in the Middle East after Makkan period (era of Prophet Muhammad); b) paper from papyrus was rare and only used for the writing of Quran and calligraphy, and c) water is more effective and hygienic than paper for perianal cleansing in temperate Middle Eastern climate (Cromwell, 2015; Abdul Rahim, 2005). In 1995, Turkey’s Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) released a decree (fatwa) that the use of toilet paper is permissible (halal) to Muslims in replacement to water, when the latter is not available (Othman & Buys, 2016; Özgenç, 2015). Today, various modifications and designs are developed to provide users with effective and more hygienical ways to clean themselves after defecation. The current high-end and high-technology ‘wash and dry’ toilets or in Japan, for example, are equipped with electrically powered toilet seats with advanced features such Otohime or "Sound Princess” (Cromwell, 2015). Otohime acts as a sound blocker designed to mask any toilet noises that may cause embarrassment to toilet users (Cromwell, 2015). Handheld bidet or shattaf is an economical option for home dwellers to use, which can be easily installed to any existing sitting Western toilets (Bidets, 2014; Handspray, 2012). Shattaf is currently widely used in many Islamic countries and in South because of its low price and easily purchased in most hardware stores.

Conclusion This review of the body of literature pertaining to the development of toilets over time highlights the importance of culture, geographical location and availability of materials that influence the designs and construction of the latrines as well as materials used for perianal cleansing. Some cultures have strict guidelines regarding the proper location and design of toilets according to cultural and religious tradition. The following section outlines some of these traditional design guidelines, which reflect best toilet design practice for a home for these cultures and religions. Residential designs have transformed considerably over the centuries, from typical traditional vernacular styles to contemporary housing schemes. Latrine designs and home dwellers’ toilet habits have also experienced various changes from basic latrines using basic flush system in ancient periods to sophisticated sitting bidets with advanced electronically powered systems in the current world. These products are now available for architects, builders, designers and home renovators to use to meet with the clients’ specific needs. In multicultural countries such as Australia, there is an opportunity for future provision of innovative culturally inclusive toilet designs (both in domestic and public toilets) based from the different toilet habits of its multifaceted society. However, no research has yet been conducted in Australia in relating to these diverse requirements and preferences that are important to its rapidly changing population. Future research and design explorations by researchers, architects and designers are essential in order to offer universal design solutions for culturally adaptable and inclusive toilet systems that can accommodate the needs of the users from diverse backgrounds and traditions.

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