Advances in Human Vector Control Downloaded by 89.163.35.42 on June 27, 2012 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: December 17, 2009 | doi: 10.1021/bk-2009-1014.fw001 In Advances in Human Vector Control; Clark, J., et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2009. Downloaded by 89.163.35.42 on June 27, 2012 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: December 17, 2009 | doi: 10.1021/bk-2009-1014.fw001 In Advances in Human Vector Control; Clark, J., et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2009. ACS SYMPOSIUM SERIES 1014 Advances in Human Vector Control J. Marshall Clark, Editor University of Massachusetts Jeffrey R. Bloomquist, Editor Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Universtiy Hitoshi Kawada, Editor Nagasaki University Sponsored by the ACS AGRO Division Downloaded by 89.163.35.42 on June 27, 2012 | http://pubs.acs.org Pesticide Science Society of Japan Publication Date: December 17, 2009 | doi: 10.1021/bk-2009-1014.fw001 American Chemical Society, Washington DC In Advances in Human Vector Control; Clark, J., et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2009. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Advances in human vector control / J. Marshall Clark, editor ; sponsored by the ACS AGRO Division, Pesticide Science Society of Japan. p. ; cm. -- (ACS symposium series ; 1014) Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN 978-0-8412-6977-4 (alk. paper) 1. Vector control. 2. Insects--Control. 3. Insects as carriers of disease. 4. Insecticides. I. Clark, J. Marshall (John Marshall), 1949- II. American Chemical Society. Division of Agrochemicals. III. American Chemical Society. IV. Nihon Noyaku Gakkai. V. Series: ACS symposium series, 1014. 0097-6156 ; [DNLM: 1. Insect Control--methods. 2. Arachnid Vectors. 3. Insect Vectors. 4. Insecticides. 5. Pest Control. QX 600 A2435 2009] RA639.3.A38 2009 614.4'3--dc22 2009020530 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48n1984. Copyright © 2009 American Chemical Society Distributed by Oxford University Press All Rights Reserved. Reprographic copying beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the U.S. Copyright Act is allowed for internal use only, provided that a per-chapter fee of $40.25 plus $0.75 per page is paid to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Downloaded by 89.163.35.42 on June 27, 2012 | http://pubs.acs.org Republication or reproduction for sale of pages in this book is permitted only Publication Date: December 17, 2009 | doi: 10.1021/bk-2009-1014.fw001 under license from ACS. Direct these and other permission requests to ACS Copyright Office, Publications Division, 1155 16th Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20036. The citation of trade names and/or names of manufacturers in this publication is not to be construed as an endorsement or as approval by ACS of the commercial products or services referenced herein; nor should the mere reference herein to any drawing, specification, chemical process, or other data be regarded as a license or as a conveyance of any right or permission to the holder, reader, or any other person or corporation, to manufacture, reproduce, use, or sell any patented invention or copyrighted work that may in any way be related thereto. Registered names, trademarks, etc., used in this publication, even without specific indication thereof, are not to be considered unprotected by law. PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA In Advances in Human Vector Control; Clark, J., et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2009. Foreword The ACS Symposium Series was first published in 1974 to provide a mechanism for publishing symposia quickly in book form. The purpose of the series is to publish timely, comprehensive books developed from the ACS sponsored symposia based on current scientific research. Occasionally, books are developed from symposia sponsored by other organizations when the topic is of keen interest to the chemistry audience. Before agreeing to publish a book, the proposed table of contents is reviewed for appropriate and comprehensive coverage and for interest to the audience. Some papers may be excluded to better focus the book; others may be added to provide comprehensiveness. When appropriate, overview or introductory chapters are added. Drafts of chapters are peer-reviewed prior to final acceptance or rejection, and manuscripts are prepared in camera-ready format. As a rule, only original research papers and original review papers are included in the volumes. Verbatim reproductions of previous published papers are not accepted. ACS Books Department Downloaded by 89.163.35.42 on June 27, 2012 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: December 17, 2009 | doi: 10.1021/bk-2009-1014.fw001 In Advances in Human Vector Control; Clark, J., et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2009. Chapter 1 Vector Biology Diagnostics and Public Health Pesticide Development through the Product Development Partnership Route. Janet Hemingway Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK Email [email protected] Public Health Pesticides play a key role in the control of many insect vector borne diseases. These include diseases causing severe human morbidity and mortality, such as malaria, dengue, filariasis, Japanese encephalitis and West Nile. The largest volume of insecticide is used to contain malaria, which still afflicts much of the tropical and sub-tropical world. Malaria elimination was attempted in the 1960s on the back of the discovery and deployment of DDT to control the mosquito vectors and chloroquine to control the parasite infections. Failure of the campaign has often been linked to the appearance of DDT resistance in many of the mosquito vectors, although the lack of political will to maintain the funding, infrastructure and vertical programmes needed for a sustained elimination campaign were probably more relevant. While the campaign failed to achieve its major Downloaded by 89.163.35.42 on June 27, 2012 | http://pubs.acs.org objectives, the many successes in this early elimination campaign served to Publication Date: December 17, 2009 | doi: 10.1021/bk-2009-1014.ch001 underline the make or break role that vector control has both in elimination and sustained control campaigns in areas of high and moderate malaria transmission. It is the lead intervention in the current Global Malaria Action Plan and the only tool that is capable of bringing intense or moderate transmission down to the low levels where elimination supported by drug treatment and vaccination is within reach. However, insecticides, like drugs and antibiotics have a finite product lifespan. The average lifespan of an agrochemical insecticide is approximately 40 years. The longevity of the product is heavily influenced by its efficacy compared to competitor products, the ability of the manufacturer to maintain its licenses to sell in an increasingly complex regulatory environment, and the rate at which the target insects against which it is used become operationally resistant. The market operates well where the market size and net profitability of the product, over the time period over which patent rights reduce generic © 2009 American Chemical Society 3 In Advances in Human Vector Control; Clark, J., et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2009. 4 competition, are sufficient to generate a substantive return once the capital costs associated with insecticide production plant, development, manufacture and sales costs have been factored into the calculations. Market size and profit margins within the high volume, low margin, tender-based public health pesticide market for malaria and most other vector borne diseases are not sufficiently large to stimulate industry to develop and maintain a robust pipeline of new Public Health Insecticides. All previous Public Health Pesticides were developed as formulations of existing agrochemical insecticides. While this generated four classes of public health insecticides for operational vector control over four decades trends of increasing selectivity and the move away from contact toxicity to delivery systemically through the crop plant, have meant that newer classes of agrochemicals cannot easily be repurposed for public health use. It is not surprising therefore, that DDT, despite its obvious environmental issues has still been retained for malaria control because of the severely restricted range of available alternatives. Over 20 publicly or charitably funded Product Development Partnerships (PDPs) now exist to share the risk and cost of developing a large range of drugs, vaccines and diagnostics for ‘orphan’ diseases whose market size and value would not warrant individual company investment. These have rejuvenated the R & D activities of the pharmaceutical industry for a range of diseases. The issues around Public Health Pesticides are very similar to those for ‘orphan’ drugs, with the baseline costs of ~US$200Million per new insecticide developed being prohibitive for the agrochemical industry alone to underwrite using normal industrial risk assessments and NPV calculations. The net result of this has been the long term disengagement of the agrochemical industry from development of new compounds into the public health market with a