Conservation Efforts of Kihansi Spray Toad Nectophrynoides Asperginis: Its Discovery, Captive Breeding, Extinction in the Wild and Re-Introduction

CONSERVATION EFFORTS OF KIHANSI SPRAY TOAD NECTOPHRYNOIDES ASPERGINIS: ITS DISCOVERY, CAPTIVE BREEDING, EXTINCTION IN THE WILD AND RE-INTRODUCTION

1Cuthbert L. Nahonyo, 1Ezekiel M. Goboro, 1Wilirk Ngalason, 2Severinus Mutagwaba, 1Richard S. Ugomba, 1Mohammed Nassoro, and 1Emmanuel S. Nkombe 1University of Dar es Salaam, Department of Zoology and Wildlife Conservation 2Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Species conservation depends on the initiatives to restore or retain and sustainably use the environment in which the species live. This paper highlights how development projects can affect biodiversity conservation and the challenges in achieving sustainable development. The paper discusses a case study of the Kihansi Spray Toad (KST) (Nectophrynoides asperginis) from its discovery, extinction in the wild, captive breeding and subsequent reintroduction to its native habitat; focusing on events, challenges, approaches in addressing issues, future prospects and achievements in the conservation of this endemic species. There has been considerable success in KST husbandry in captivity and reintroduction trials of the toad to the wild while concurrently the operations of the hydropower plant and the catchment ecosystem services have continued to provide electricity for domestic & industrial development and support human livelihoods respectively. The paper underscores the importance of interdisciplinary approach in addressing conservation problems and the need for serious commitment of participating parties, but also on the need to balance conservation with sustainable development.

Key words: Kihansi spray toad, extinction, reintroduction,

INTRODUCTION River at the Lower Kihansi Gorge. With the In the year 1994, the Lower Kihansi highest “head water value” 850m waterfall) Hydroelectric plant project was approved by the Lower Kihansi hydropower is irresistible the Government of Tanzania with funding and produces more electricity in the country from the World Bank (WB) (LKEMP 2004, than any of the three hydropower plants Channing et al. 2006, LKEMP 2011, NEMC (Table 1) that will enable the country attain 2011, Rija et al. 2011). This was the middle class economy by the year 2025; Tanzania Power VI project which was attain Sustainable Development Goals – approved in 1993 (credit 2489 - TA). The 2030 and achieve Agenda 2063. power project involved construction of a 180 MW hydroelectric facility on the Kihansi

Table 1: Comparative head water value between Kihansi hydropower plant and other plants

Plant/Turbine type Discharge at rated Head (m) Rated unit Output per unit capacity m3/s output (MW) 1m3/s Mtera (Francis) 47.0 92 40 0.80 Kidatu (Francis) 35.0 165 50 1.40 Pangani (Francis) 22.5 167 34 1.50 Kihansi (Pelton) 8.0 850 60 7.45 Source: TANESCO

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The project also involved the construction of proposed by the EIA (Poynton et al. 1998) a dam which is located at the upper part of (Fig. 1). Upon its discovery efforts to locate the Kihansi gorge along the Kihansi River in the species in similar waterfalls all over the the southern part of the Udzungwa country failed and it remains only in a small Mountains in Tanzania. An Environmental area covering 2 ha. in the Kihansi gorge in Impact Assessment (EIA) for the Project the Southern Udzungwa Mountains in was prepared in 1992 and the government Tanzania (Poynton et al. 1998). The natural agreed to prepare and implement an slippery cliffs and the water’s ferocity made Environmental Management Plan (EMP) the area relatively inaccessible to people, that focused primarily on mitigating the allowing the KST which gives birth to live upstream impacts on the area that would be toadlets (LKEMP 2004) to live undiscovered covered by water and to the communities for many years (Krajick 2006). The living in the vicinity of the project and waterfalls created mists that formed high downstream. This was in conformity with relative humidity and low temperatures in the National Environment Management Act the wetlands preventing the growth of forest (1983) and WB regulations. trees so creating a unique wetland habitat dominated by moss vegetation (Channing et The KST was discovered in 1996 during the al. 2006). monitoring of the gorge as part of the EMP

Figure 1: Location of Kihansi gorge and spray wetlands in the Kihansi River. MFSW = Main Falls Spray Wetland, USW = Upper Spray Wetland, LSW = Lower Spray Wetland, MGSW = Midgorge Spray Wetland and MSW = Mhalala Spray Wetland (Source: Channing et al., 2006).

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The production of hydroelectric power on International Trade in Endangered begun in 2000 and shortly, it was realized Species of Wild Flora and Fauna CITES that the generation of hydropower reduced placed the toad in its Appendix I. the volume of water needed to maintain the natural sprays in the wetlands from 16m3 to Other factors that are assumed to have 2m3 following the diversion of the Kihansi contributed to the extinction of the toad in River into tunnels running into the the wild include the flushing of the dam by hydropower plant and returning the water to releasing sediment contaminated with the river over 6 km downstream (LKEMP pesticides from upstream farms (Rija et al. 2011). Such a situation drastically affected 2011, Rija et al. 2014). Also safari ants the habitat where the KST inhabited as the Dorylus spp. that invaded the wetlands and wetlands became considerably drier in early became predators of the toads (NORPLAN 2000 and beyond (Rija et al. 2011). 2002). Thus the desire to tap hydropower for economic development created an A series of emergency mitigation measures environmental and ecological problems that were initiated in 2000 under the Immediate threatened species and the Kihansi gorge Rescue and Emergency Measures Project ecosystem. Appropriate measures had to be (IREMP) to conserve the spray wetland taken to ensure a win-win situation is habitat and the KST in-situ (IUCN 2002). realized. This study therefore intended to The IREM was established to implement the investigate how development projects like EMP and it also involved the installation of hydropower production can affect species artificial sprinklers and sending some 500 conservation and determine approaches toads to the United States of America (USA) which are used to mitigate the arising for captive breeding before the KST went ecological and environmental problems in extinct in the wild (Channing et al. 2006, order to ensure that economic development LKEMP 2011). International Union for and species conservation goals are both Conservation of Nature IUCN requires all achieved. “Critically Endangered and Extinct in the Wild taxa be subjected to ex-situ MATERIALS AND METHODS management to ensure the recovery of the Data were collected at Kihansi gorge, wild populations” (IUCN 2002). University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM), Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA), Regardless of the installation of artificial USA zoos keeping KSTs, National sprinklers, wild populations plummeted Environment Management Council from tens of thousands to a few in a couple (NEMC), Tanzania Wildlife Research months (Hirji and Davis 2009, LKEMP Institute (TAWIRI) and included literature 2011, Rija et al. 2011) possibly due to search and interview of various people. KST chytrid fungus attack. Although an ex-situ captive breeding program was established in assurance population of 500 animals was the year 2000 in the USA zoos. For a long established in Bronx and Toledo zoos (in time, the Toledo Zoo in Ohio was the only USA) in the year 2000, numbers in captivity place in the world where the KST was on fell steadily for 4 years reaching 15% of the display to the public. The Bronx Zoo in New original size (IUCN-CBSG 2007) due to York City opened a small exhibit in husbandry challenges. Successive periodic February 2010. In Tanzania, captive monitoring in the gorge confirmed the wild breeding facility was established in August extinction of the KST and by 2009 the IUCN 2010, with 100 toads from the Toledo and declared the species “extinct in the wild” Bronx Zoos in USA. The Kihansi captive (Channing et al. 2009) and The Convention breeding facility (KCBF) was established in

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June 2011.The second colony of 200 KSTs the problems and determine the right from USA arrived in February 2011 to top medication for the toads. Toads were also up the breeding colony brought in 2010 but observed to assess their physical fitness, this second batch was purposely for external parasites and signs for fungal experimental purposes. The third batch of infection. Microscopes are used to test the 500 toads came in May 2012 and was samples collected to determine diseases and distributed to both facilities (UDSM and parasites. Kihansi) for captive breeding and was also for experimental purposes. The considerable Terraria are lighted to supply the KSTs and success of the breeding program of the KSTs the vegetation with Ultra violet (UV) light. in captivity both in the USA and Tanzania Cages are also furnished with different plant paved the way to eventual reintroduction of species for controlling primary production the toads in the wild a process which begun and gaseous exchange in the cages and in October 2012 by reintroducing 2,433 provision of perching platform to KSTs. toads, 2,000 at the Upper spray wetland Facility rooms are air conditioned to control (USW) and 433 at Mhalala spray wetland microclimate and are also installed with (MSW) which are two of the five wetlands extractor fans for air exchange. the Kihansi toad inhabited before its wild extinction. Activities in the facilities include Total count method was used during KST cleanliness of the cages, feeding of the census in all captive breeding facilities in KSTs, attending the feeder insects, water Tanzania and USA zoos where all toads in quality monitoring and microclimate each terrarium were counted. Records were monitoring inside the facilities [using indoor made on age, sex and whether an adult Onset Hobo data loggers (temperature and female was gravid or not. humidity) and AXIOM thermometers (temperature)]. In-door temperature is The re-introduction of the KST incorporated regulated using air conditioners. Strict bio- several pre-release scientific experiments secure protocols are enforced whenever one including ex-situ pilot experiments that were is in the facility. The KSTs in captivity are conducted at UDSM and Kihansi captive fed with a variety of feeder insects which breeding facilities. Following the successes include fruit flies, Cricket Pin-heads, Bean of these experiments an international beetles, Isopods and Springtail. Like in workshop of amphibian experts was Tanzania, the KST in the USA are fed with convened in Dar es Salaam in February 2010 Springtail, Fruitflies, House Crickets, Bean which ended up drafting the “Kihansi Spray beetles and Isopods. In the USA zoos, the Toad Reintroduction Guidelines” which food is bought from dealers while in were prepared under the IUCN guidance. Tanzania the KST food is reared within the Soon after in the same year soft release facilities. experiments were started, followed by hard release trials. Some experiments conducted The KSTs in the facilities are under prior to the KST reintroduction included intensive medical care that includes the disease challenging experiments conducted determination of diseases, parasites and at SUA and ex-situ pilot experiments worms that require undertaking of including exposing the toads to untreated pathological and fecal tests involving substrates presumed to contain chytrid swabbing of the toad bellies and feet. Once fungus. The substrates were obtained from the toads show abnormal conditions or die the Kihansi gorge spray wetlands and were detailed medical examinations are conducted mixed with the captive toads with their by qualified veterinary doctors to establish surrogate species from the wild. The results

Tanz. J. Sci. Vol. 43(1), 2017 from these experiments suggested that KSTs encountered in the process of reintroducing could be successfully reintroduced back to the toads to the wild. Achievements attained the Kihansi spray wetlands as its substrate in both husbandry and reintroduction appeared not to harbor infectious agents that process were also noted and recorded. These could threaten the survival of the KST, and included the efforts employed to ensure the soft release experiments in Kihansi gorge. toad does not go extinct, maintenance of the catchment ecosystem health and integrity for Carrying KST surveys in the gorge involved species survival, sustained hydropower surveying the upper and Mhalala spray production and support of community wetlands during the night where flashlights livelihoods. Also international collaboration were used. Timed-constrained audio-visual of scientists and stakeholders in the project surveys according to Howell (2002) were planning, implementation, monitoring and used to survey the wetlands in which the evaluation were observed. toads have been reintroduced and systematic walks along transects were employed to RESULTS AND DISCUSSION count all the detected KSTs and other KSTs in captive breeding facilities amphibians (Harper et al. 2010, Channing Captive breeding program at the Bronx zoo and Howell 2006). Survey and monitoring began with 500 toads flown from the at the Upper spray wetland were conducted Kihansi gorge in Tanzania after the systematically during day and night hours establishment of the Immediate Rescue and while the Mhalala spray wetland was Emergency Measures (IREM) project surveyed only during the day to avoid (Channing et al. 2006, LKEMP 2011). This deadly slides due to its slippery and steep was a necessary measure since it was nature. Careful walks along sprinkler lines obvious the wild toad population was facing were encouraged to avoid extensive imminent danger due to water diversion for disturbance to the wetland vegetation and hydropower production. The Toledo Zoo the possibility of stepping on toads. Crabs established the breeding colony of KSTs and other potential predators detected during with toads from the Detroit Zoo. The KST the surveys were also recorded and population increased to more than 5,000 identified according to Spawls et al. (2004), toads in 2009 in the two zoos, the Toledo Gabriel and Gerber (2002) and Picker et al. zoo in Ohio being the zoo that holds a big (2002). Snakes that were commonly seen population of the KSTs in USA. In October were the house snakes. Sex and age classes 2015, the estimated population size both at of the toads were identified whenever the Toledo and Bronx Zoos were 6,000 possible. The information on the activity of KSTs despite of several shipments of the the toads once spotted (whether vocalizing, toads to Tanzania for captive breeding and amplexing, moving, sitting on vegetation reintroduction to the Kihansi gorge. etc.) was recorded. Footwear and equipment were sterilized to prevent the possible spread The success attained at the UDSM captive of chytrid fungi from equipment and breeding facility came after a series of clothing into the gorge, and from one site to challenges in the management of the toads in another. Footwear and equipment were first captivity. Some of the reasons were deaths rinsed in water and then bathed/immersed in caused by some husbandry difficulties, a sodium hypochlorite solution (100 mg/L) which included high temperature due to air for at least 2 minutes (Weldon 2006). condition malfunctioning and relative humidity variation becoming extremely Amphibian husbandry challenges in captive intolerable for the KSTs to survive facilities were noted, as well the challenges especially when there was power cuts and

Nahonyo et al. - Conservation efforts of Kihansi spray toad … operational failure of the backup generator. the gradual fall and rise of the KST At normal circumstances the temperature in numbers. The trend began improving in the toad rooms is supposed to be at the range October 2013 when the population size was of 16–20°C and 53–86% relative humidity 497 and continued to increase until when it (Rija et al. 2014) above which mass deaths reached 3,005 in February 2016. must occur. Normal frequent deaths of adult KSTs and low birth rate also contributed to

Figure 2: KST trend at UDSM captive breeding facility from October 2010 to February 2016

The increase of the KST population was also females. The population increase based on due to the increase in the number of adult the trend from December 2014, indicates the females able to give birth to an average of annual total count of the toads was almost 13 toadlets per female. Increase of food twice the annual number in the previous production (fruit flies, springtails, Isopods year. and Crickets pinheads) also had a significant contribution to the rise of the KST KCBF was initiated in June 2011 with 60 population size. The data based on daily individuals from the captive breeding collection of toadlets show there is facility at the UDSM. Other stocks of 250, extremely higher birth rate than before 566 and 2,000 toads were brought in 2012 ranging from 50 to 100 toadlets born per day and 400 toads were brought in 2013 from especially for the period between December the USA respectively. At KCBF there are 2015 and March 2016 unlike in 2011 to five insect feeders. The main feeder insects 2014 where birth rate ranged between 5 to include fruit flies, Crickets pinheads, bean 20 weeks. From December 2015 to March beetles, Isopods and springtail. The bean 2016, the new born were produced from a beetles and isopods are not used on regular population size of 1,145 adult toads of basis due to complexity in handling them. which 542 were males and 603 were All insects are fed on daily basis with

Tanz. J. Sci. Vol. 43(1), 2017 vegetables, fruits and poultry food. The increase and mass declines. The reasons containers are cleaned and water is provided associated with this population trend include to the feeder insects. Each insect species is the facility not being able to maintain the treated differently depending on its ecological and biological requirements of biological and ecological requirements. the KST. The highest number of KSTs at KCBF was 858 toads in June 2012 whereas The KST population at the KCBF since 2011 the smallest was 15 toads in April 2012 (Fig. has not been stable with few instances of 3).

Figure 3: KST population at the Kihansi captive breeding facility from 2011 to April 2016

KCBF experienced an outbreak of the KST suggests the toads to suffer from Chytridiomycosis that at one time wiped bacteria attack. Loss of weight for the KST about 304 toads in one room. Except for the suggests fighting among animals especially December 2012 population crash due to between males, food scarcity, presence of chtridiomycosis (Makange et al. 2014) no bacteria, parasites and worms whose eggs other confirmed reasons have been ruled out can be observed through fecal tests. Some as among the causes of KST population gravid toads have been facing most of the drop. The facility has experienced different problems above at the time of giving birth population declines in different periods since while some toads break their legs usually 2012 to date. Several reasons were during a fight between males. In captivity associated with such declines including the primary diseases of adult KSTs have failure of the water treatment unit, air been lungworm infection, caused by conditioners malfunction and lack of Rhabditiform nematodes, and Gram- nutrient supplements. Monitoring of health negative septicaemia (Lee et al. 2006). On condition has enabled the understanding of several occasions gravid females suffer from the various disease conditions in KSTs at oedema and die. If oedema is diagnosed KCBF and other facilities. For example, early the toads are treated with a topical KSTs can show a state of swellings on their application of enrofloxacin (Baytril) (Lee et bodies associated with the failure of proper al. 2006). functioning of either liver, kidney or heart. Reddish colour on some parts of the skin for 29

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Medical treatments for the KST can be and thereafter the number begins a sharp applied in various ways including applying decline. The reasons for the decline of the medical drops on an individual toad, dipping toads after every release are scientifically the toads in a solution placed in a dish 3/4 not yet established. However, it may inches deep mixed of water and medicine probably be related to the adaptation failure and, applying medical powder on food in the wild because of having stayed in before feeding and socking a towel in captivity for more than a decade where they medicated water and fold the toads gently in were predators’ free, received medication a towel and got easy food. With an average life span of 2 – 3 years the toads being returned to the KCBF has four trained staff out of which wild are about the 6th to 7th generation. In the three were trained twice in the USA in wild the KST are probably not able to locate amphibian husbandry. KCBF occasionally food and avoid potential predators like crabs contributes KSTs for release in the Kihansi (Potomonautes sp.) and snakes. So far there Gorge for example the facility provided 250 is no evidence that weather conditions and toads for hard release in 2012. The centre is chytrid fungus are a problem for toads also used for practical training and about 70 released back into the wild. university students have undertaken field training at Kihansi at different times and Kihansi catchment conservation and levels from 2011 to 2015. The facility sustainable development provides awareness and conservation In all its phases since the year 2000 to date education to local communities and the the Kihansi project in collaboration with Tanzanian public at large who visit the stakeholders have indulged in an effort to facility at different times since 2011. conserve the Kihansi catchment for the purpose of conserving the ecosystem but Reintroduction and monitoring of the also protect the KST habitat. This initiative KSTs in the Kihansi gorge has involved the central government, local In 1995, the long term environmental government, village communities, NGOs monitoring program for flora and fauna of and parastatal institutions. The major goal the Kihansi gorge was initiated. It was has been to ensure that the catchment, which established to investigate the long-term is an important water source for hydropower impact of the hydropower project on production and rivers providing water for animals, plants and the environment. Among irrigation, fishing, flooding lowland plains the parameters chosen for monitoring were used for agriculture and protecting the amphibians (LKEMP 2006). A total of 5,416 habitat for the toads, is effectively Kihansi spray toads have been released in conserved. All these serve the purpose of the spray wetlands of the Kihansi gorge sustainable development where people’s since the beginning of the reintroduction in livelihoods are maintained and improved, October 2012. Out of the reintroduced 5,416 and economic development and KSTs, the number that still survives in the environmental conservation are achieved. gorge is estimated to be 54 individuals as of December 2015 (Ngalason et al 2015). This Role of captive facilities in research and is probably a conservative figure as it is education anticipated that there are more toads The UDSM breeding facility has played a surviving in the area. During monitoring, the significant role in the conservation of the data showed that there is a high population KST. It had contributed 100 toads for the of toads at the night of release and for the first hard release in the gorge in 2012. next two days following each hard release Students studying Wildlife Conservation and

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Marine Science at the University of Dar es The University of Dar es Salaam has thus Salaam use the facility to learn about ex-situ been involved in the history of the KST conservation and amphibian husbandry. since its discovery. The baseline survey team Awareness creation on wildlife and which in 1996 discovered the toad environmental impact is another role played comprised a member of staff from UDSM, by the facility in educating primary and in the Department of Zoology and Wildlife secondary school pupils and students and to Conservation. whoever visits the facility. The facility has been a center for some graduate students to UDSM is involved in conducting research, conduct their field studies and allow monitoring, and provision of professional volunteers to work and broaden their consultations. The University units which knowledge on ex-situ species conservation. have been involved in research and All staff, visitors, field students and monitoring include the Institute of Resource volunteers must observe bio-secure Assessment (land use/land cover), protocols at all times while at the facility. Department of Zoology and Wildlife Most importantly, the facility undertakes Conservation (amphibian, avifauna, primates research work on various aspects of which monitoring), Department of Botany some are published in international journals (woodland and wetland vegetation like the “Research Article on Activity monitoring), Department of Water Resources Patterns and Fine Scale Resource Engineering (water flow), and the Partitioning in the Gregarious Kihansi Spray Department of Aquatic Sciences and Toad Nectophrynoides asperginis in Fisheries Technology (DASFT) (macro Captivity” published on Zoo Biology 9999: invertebrates, water quality, limnology). 1–8 in 2014. Another paper on “Recruitment These units have been monitoring and survivorship of the Kihansi Spray Toad parameters like KST population dynamics & (Nectophrynoides asperginis) in captivity” other amphibians, landscape and land use was presented at the 10th TAWIRI Scientific changes, primate populations, avifauna, Conference in December 2015. Three aquatic invertebrates, spray wetlands research works on the diet and food habits of vegetation, woody vegetation, limnology KST in captivity and on KST genetic and water resources/flow. viability are underway. The UDSM has also been providing staff Institutional roles and participation in the and technical support in the KST project reintroduction process. Two University The UDSM is the technical adviser to the employees have trained in the USA in NEMC, which runs this ongoing project amphibian husbandry and are actively taking through funding from the World Bank and the lead in looking after toads in the captive now Global Environment Facility (GEF) to breeding facility. The University has restore and conserve the Kihansi catchment provided land for the facility and its Estates ecosystem. Conservation of the species Department has provided professional within the Kihansi gorge is a component in guidance in the facility construction process. which the Kihansi spray toad is included and Estates department are also continuing to of which the University of Dar es Salaam provide technical advice in the rehabilitation particularly the Department of Zoology and of the captive facility at Kihansi. Wildlife Conservation and other units are involved. UDSM has benefited from the project in terms of capacity building. The LKEMP project has provided various teaching

Nahonyo et al. - Conservation efforts of Kihansi spray toad … materials and equipment for the teaching of protecting the Kihansi ecosystem, the conservation biology, which include books, environment and supporting livelihoods. The DVDs, computers, a vehicle and other Kihansi Spray Toad should be viewed as a teaching accessories. LKEMP has also “Flagship Species” which alerted humans on supported the establishment of the Master of the environmental problem affecting the Science in Biodiversity Conservation Kihansi catchment due to the hydropower programme which started to be offered in development project. Through this flagship the 2009/2010 academic year with 9 species the Kihansi ecosystem has received students enrolled in the first batch. The its due attention and efforts are continuing to project has also trained in the field of ensure its protection. From these initiatives conservation biology 2 University staff in the environment has been conserved, water Doctor of Philosophy and 2 in Master of flows maintained for the production of Science programme. hydropower, river flows have continued to maintain the livelihoods of fishermen and Apart from the UDSM other institutions that farming communities in the Kilombero have actively taken part in the whole process valley, rainfall has been maintained in the include Vice Presidents’ Office through catchment and impliedly the habitat of the NEMC (Project management and toad has been protected. The capacity which coordination), World Bank, GEF and Tanzanians have built in amphibian Government of Tanzania through the husbandry makes them key global resource Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism persons in amphibian conservation because (funding), Wildlife Conservation Society – it is commonly agreed among experts that no WCS (funding and management of KSTs in other amphibian species threatened with US zoos), Bronx, Toledo and Detroit zoos in extinction has given the global community the USA (KST husbandry), SUA (amphibian of scientists and big challenge like the KST. diseases and pathology research and monitoring), Tanzania Pesticides Research Challenges in amphibian husbandry and Institute – TPRI (pesticides residues reintroduction research in Kihansi river system and dam), Regardless of strict protocols in the KST IUCN (technical advice in KST facilities, the toads are occasionally attacked reintroduction process), Tanzania Electric by Chytrid fungus resulting into mass deaths Supply Company – TANESCO (installation at the Kihansi facility. Also failures in the and maintenance of artificial sprinkler facility infrastructure such as air system in the gorge), TAWIRI (weather conditioning system and water filtration monitoring, management of Kihansi system both at UDSM captive breeding research centre facility), Rufiji Basin Water facility and KCBF have sometimes caused office (water user rights, water flow and toads’ mortality. On the other hand the quality), Kilolo, Mufindi and Kilombero reintroduction of the KST in the wild might districts (community sensitization, take time because the toads are adapting awareness and mobilization in Kihansi slowly in the environment where they have catchment conservation). to find food, evade predators and overcome diseases unlike in captivity where they had Project successes free meals, predator free environment and Over almost 20 years at which the project received medical treatment. The has been in place since the discovery of the reintroduction of the toads is a process that toad it can be said that it has been quite has to happen in stages from surviving of the successful in the rescuing the species from reintroduced toads in the wild, breeding, extinction, conserving the species,

Tanz. J. Sci. Vol. 43(1), 2017 population increase to re-establishment of the toads in their native habitat. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are sincerely grateful to all institutional CONCLUSION AND roles and coordination of the Project. RECOMMENDATIONS University of Dar es Salaam, Vice Given the complexity of the project in terms President’s Office-NEMC, Ministry of of ex-situ conservation of the KST Natural Resources and Tourism-Wildlife population, planning and implementation of Division, TANESCO, Ministry of Water, the hard release of the toads to the wild and WCS, Bronx and Toledo Zoos, IUCN, World their eventual surviving in the wild it should Bank, GEF, SUA, Districts and Local be considered that the project is a Governments, independent researchers considerable success though there is still including Kim Howell, Charles Msuya, more to be done especially in the Allan Channing, Bill Newmark, James reintroduction of the toad to the wild. The Gibbs, Che Weldon, Andrew Odum, Jennifer fact that Tanzania can now proudly boast of Pramuk, and many others not forgetting the its ability to successfully care for the species media. both in captivity and in the wild does not need to be underscored. Further planned and REFERENCES ongoing research should focus on diseases Channing A and Howell KM 2006 like Chytrid fungus, endo and ectoparasites Amphibians of East Africa. Cornell that may probably affect the KSTs released University Press, Ithaca, New York. in the wild. The lack of adaptation of the Channing A, Finlow-Bates KS, Haarklau released toads to the wild environment after SE, and Hawkes PG 2006 The biology the absence of over a decade and other and recent history of the Kihansi spray survival skills such as ant predator behavior toad Nectophrynoides asperginis in need to be studied to understand how the Tanzania. J. East Afr. Nat. Hist. 95:117– toads can cope with the natural environment. 138. The suitability of microclimate in the gorge Channing A, Howell KM, Loader S, is another area that needs to be considered to Menegon M, and Poynton JC 2009 ascertain the survival of the KST in the wild. Nectophrynoides asperginis. In: IUCN Researchers should also design a more 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened accurate sampling technique for the released Species. Version 2010.1. toads, which will take into account the www.iucnredlist.org detection probability of the toads to allow Gabriel M and Gerber A 2002 Aquatic accurate estimation of the toads surviving in Invertebrates of South African Rivers - the wild. However, the cost of the project in Field Guide. Institute for Water Quality all its phases so far approximates USD 12 Studies million. This is an enormous amount of Harper EB., Measey J, Patrick DA, funding which calls for serious commitment Menegon M and Vonesh JR 2010 Field and political will among the host nation and Guide to the Amphibians of the Eastern the global community to ensure that the Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests of intended goal is ultimately achieved. For Tanzania and Kenya. Camerapix Tanzania, plans to streamline activities and Publishers International, Nairobi, Kenya. obligations of the participating institutions in Hirji R and Davis R 2009 Environmental post project funding period should be Flows in Water Resources Policies, speeded up for sustainability of the activities Plans, and Projects Case Studies. The and eventual success of this unique species World Bank Environment Department and ecosystem conservation initiative. April 2009. pp 159.

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