Incertae Sedis

Genera INCERTAE SEDIS Notes.-- The sevengenera to follow havepresented taxonomic challenges for morethan a century.Allozyme and DNA hybridizationdata suggestthat the enigmaticgenus Sapayoa is an outgroupto all other Tyrannoidea(S. M. Lanyon 1985, Sibley and Ahlquist1990), whereassyringeal characters suggest that Sapayoais allied as a sistergroup to, or within, the Tyrannidae(Prum 1990). Summarizingnumerous morphological characters, Prum and Lanyon (1989) hypothesizedthat Schiffornis,Laniocera, and Pachyramphus,along with three SouthAmerican genera, constitute a monophyleticassemblage. This "Schiffornis group"appears to be alliedto Piprites,Lipaugus, and Tityra, but cannotbe placedwithin the otherwiserather well-defined, monophyletic assemblages here referred to asthe families Tyrannidae,Cotingidae, and Pipridae(see also Prum 1990). We list theseseven genera as a group,incertae sedis, to acknowledgethat they are unequivocally tyrannoid but of uncertain affinity within the superfamily.

Genus SAPAYOA Harterr SapayoaHarterr, 1903, Novit. Zool. 10: 117. Type, by original designation,Sapayoa aenigma Harterr.

Sapayoaaenigma Hartert. Sapayoa. Sapayoaaenigma Hartert, 1903, Novit. Zool. 10:117. (Rio Sapayo[= SapalloGrande], prov. Esmeraldas,Ecuador.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest (0-1350 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropical zones). Distribution.--Residenton the Pacificslope of easternPanama (west to the Canalarea), westernColombia (upper Sinfi valley, C6rdoba),and northwesternEcuador (Esmeraldas). Notes.--Formerlyknown as Broad-billed Manakin; called Broad-billed Sapayoa by Sibley and Monroe (1990) and Ridgely and Tudor (1994).

GenusSCHIFFORNIS Bonaparte $chiffornisBonaparte, 1854, Ateneo Ital. 2:314. Type,by monotypy,Muscicapa turdina Wied. Heteropelma"Schiff" (not Wesma•l, 1849) Bonaparte,1854, Consp.Voluc. Anisod., p. 4. Type, by monotypy,Muscicapa turdina Wied. $cotothorusOberholser, 1899, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 51: 208. New name for HeteropelmaBonaparte, preoccupied.

Schiffornisturdinus (Wied). Thrush-likeSchiffornis. Muscicapaturdina Wied, 1831, Beitr. Naturgesch.Bras. 3(2): 817. (easternBrazil = Bahia.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Montane EvergreenForest (0-1500 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident[veraepacis group] on the Gulf-Caribbeanslope of Middle Amer- ica from southernVeracruz, northernOaxaca, Tabasco,northern Chiapas, Campecheand QuintanaRoo southto Nicaragua,and on both slopesof CostaRica (absentfrom the dry northwest)and Panama (east to Coc16and western Panam• province, and on CerroTacarcuna andCerro Pirre in easternDari6n); and [turdinusgroup] in centraland eastern Panama (west to the Canal area), and in SouthAmerica from Colombia, southernVenezuela and the Guianas south, west of the Andes to western Ecuador,and east of the Andes to northernBolivia and central and southeastern Brazil. Notes.--Groups:$. veraepacis(Sclater and Salvin, 1860) [Brown Schiffornis]and $. turdinus [Thrush-likeSchiffornis]. Vocal and plumage differencesexist betweenthese groups,including between the highlandand lowlandforms that approachone anotherin easternPanama. Similar differencesalso exist between highland and lowlandforms in South America.It is certainthat two or morespecies are involved, but the complexrequires careful GENERA INCERTAE SEDIS 4 ! 7 studyacross its entirerange, including attention to the relationshipsof thesegroups to the form S. virescensfrom southeasternBrazil. We chooseto retainthe groupsunder a single nameuntil the taxonomyand biogeographyof the complexare clarified.

Genus PIPRITES Cabanis PipritesCabanis, 1847, Arch. Naturgesch.13: 234. Type, by monotypy,Pipra pileata Temminck.

Pipritesgriseiceps Salvin. Gray-headedPiprites. Pipritesgriseiceps Salvin, 1865, Proc.Zool. Soc. London(1864), p. 583. (Tucurruque [= Tucurriquq, Costa Rica.) Habitat.--TropicalLowland Evergreen Forest (0-800 m; TropicalZone). Distribution.--Residenton the Caribbeanslope of easternGuatemala (near Izabal), eastern Honduras(Olancho), Nicaragua and CostaRica (southto Suretka). Notes.-- P. griseicepsand P. chloris(Temminck, 1822) [Wing-barredPiprites], a wide- spreadpolytypic species in SouthAmerica, constitute a superspecies.

Genus LIPA UGUS B oie Lipangus[typo. error = Lipaugus]Boie, 1828, Isis von Oken, col. 318. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1840),Muscicapa plumbea Licht. = Muscicapa vociferans Wied.

Lipaugus unirufus Sclater.Rufous Piha. Lipaugusunirufus Sclater, 1859, Proc. Zool. Soc. London,p. 385. (Playa Vicente, Oaxaca,Mexico, and Coban,Vera Paz, Guatemala= Playa Vicente, Veracruz;Bin- ford, 1989, Ornithol.Monogr. 43, p. 341-342.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest (0-1200 m; TropicalZone). Distribution.--Residentfrom southern Veracruz, northern Oaxaca, Tabasco and Chiapas southon the Caribbeanslope of CentralAmerica to Nicaragua,on both slopesof Costa Rica (absentfrom dry northwest)and Panama(more common on Caribbeanslope), and in western Colombia and northwestern Ecuador.

Genus LANIOCERA Lesson Laniocera Lesson,1840, Rev. Zool. [Paris] 3: 353. Type, by monotypy,Laniocera sanguinaria Lesson = Ampelis hypopyrra Vieillot.

Laniocera rufescens(Sclater). SpeckledMourner. Lipaugusrufescens Sclater, 1858, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1857), p. 276. (In rep. Guatimalensiprope urbem Coban = northernAlta Verapaz,Guatemala.) Habitat.mTropical Lowland EvergreenForest (0-750 m, to 1350 m in easternPanama and SouthAmerica; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Residentlocally on the Gulf-Caribbeanslope from southernMexico (northernOaxaca, Chiapas) south through Central America to CostaRica (alsoGulfo Dulce region on Pacific slope,north to Quepos)and Panama(Caribbean slope throughout, and rarely on Pacificslope from the Canal areaeastward), and in northernand western Colombia and northwestern Ecuador. Notes.--L. rufescensand the SouthAmerican L. hypopyrra(Vieillot, 1817) [Cinereous Mourner] constitutea superspecies.

GenusPACHYRAMPHUS Gray PachyrarnphusG. R. Gray, 1840,List GeneraBirds, p. 31. Type,by originaldesignation, Psaris cuvierii Swainson = Tityra viridis Vieillot. 418 GENERA INCERTAE SEDIS

Platypsaris[subgenus] Sclater, 1857, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 72. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Sclater, 1888), Pachyrhynchusaglaiae Lafresnaye.

Pachyramphusversicolor (Hartlaub). Barred Becard. Vireo versicolor Hartlaub, 1843, Rev. Zool. [Pads] 6: 289. (du la Nouvelle-Grenade = Bogotfi, Colombia.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Elfin Forest(1500-3000 m; Subtropicaland lower Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident in the mountainsof Costa Rica (Cordillera Central, Cordillera de Talamanca,Dota Mountains, rare in Cordillera de Tilaran), western Panama (western Chiriqui), and in South America from Colombia and northwesternVenezuela south, in the western Andes to northwestern Peru, and in the eastern Andes to northern Bolivia.

Pachyramphusrufus (Boddaert).Cinereous Becard. Muscicapa rufa Boddaert, 1783, Table PlanchesEnlum., p. 27. Based on "Le Gobe- moucheroux, de Cayenne" Daubenton,Planches Enlum., pl. 453, fig. 1. (Cayenne.) Habitat.--River-edge Forest,Gallery Forest,Secondary Forest, Tropical Lowland Ev- ergreenForest Edge (0-1500 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident locally in centraland easternPanama (from the Canal area, at least formerly, and easternPanamfi province and Dari6n, also a doubtfulrecord from "Ver- agua"), and in South America from central and northern Colombia east acrossnorthern Venezuela to the Guianas, and south, east of the Andes, to northeasternPeru, thence eastward acrossAmazonian Brazil to Par• (includingMaraj6 and Mexiana islands). Notes.--P. rufus and P. spodiurusSclater, 1860 [Slaty Becard], of westernEcuador and northwesternPeru, constitutea superspecies.

Pachyramphuscinnamomeus Lawrence. Cinnamon Becard. Pachyramphuscinnamomeus Lawrence, 1861, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N.Y. 7: 295. (on the Atlantic side of the Isthmus of Panama,along the line of PanamaRailroad -- Lion Hill, Canal Zone.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland Evergreen Forest and edge, SecondaryForest (0-750, to 1200 m in easternPanama and SouthAmerica; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Residenton the Gulf-Caribbeanslope of Middle America from north- easternOaxaca, Tabascoand Chiapas south to Nicaragua, on both slopesof Costa Rica (absentfrom the dry northwest)and Panama(more commonly on the Caribbeanslope), and in South America west of the Andes southto southwesternEcuador, and in northern Colombia and northwestern Venezuela. Notes.--P. cinnamomeusand the SouthAmerican P. castaneus(Jardine and Selby, 1827) constitutea superspecies.

Pachyramphuspolychopterus (Vieillot). White-winged Becard. Platyrhynchuspolychopterus Vieillot, 1818, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv.6d.) 27: 10. (Nouvelle-Hollande, error = Bahia, Brazil.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge, River-edgeForest, Gallery Forest, SecondaryForest (0-1200 m, to 1800 m in SouthAmerica; Tropical and lower Subtropical zones). Distribution.--Resident on the Caribbeanslope of easternGuatemala, southern Belize and Honduras,on both slopesof Nicaragua,Costa Rica (lesscommon in the dry northwest) and Panama,and in South America from Colombia,Venezuela, Tobago, Trinidad and the Guianassouth, mostly east of the Andes, to easternPeru, northernand easternBolivia, northernArgentina, Uruguay and southernBrazil. Southernmostpopulations in SouthAmer- ica move northwardin nonbreedingseason. Reported but not verified from extremesouth- easternMexico (Chiapas). GENERA INCERTAE SEDIS 419

Pachyramphusalbogriseus Sclater. Black-and-white Becard. Pachyrhamphusalbo-griseus Sclater, 1857, Proc.Zool. Soc. London,p. 78. (New Gre- nada, Bogota = Bogotfi, Colombia.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Tropical DeciduousForest (800-2100 m; 500- 3000 m in SouthAmerica; Tropical and Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident in Costa Rica (mainly on Caribbeanslope from Cordillera de Tilarfin southward)and western Panama (Chiriqu/ and Veraguas,records elsewhere are unverified); and locally in South America in northernColombia and northernVenezuela, and on both slopesof the Andesfrom extremesouthern Colombia south,west of the Andes to northwesternPeru, and eastof the Andesto centralPeru. The old recordof this species from Nicaraguapertains to P. polychopterus.

Pachyramphusmajor (Cabanis).Gray-collared Becard. Bathmidurusmajor Cabanis, 1847, Arch. Naturgesch.13: 246. (Xalapa [= Jalapa],Vera Cruz, Mexico.) Habitat.--MontaneEvergreen Forest, Pine-Oak Forest, Tropical Deciduous Forest, Trop- ical LowlandEvergreen Forest Edge (0-2500 m; SubtropicalZone, and TropicalZone in drier habitats). Distribution.--Residentfrom southernSonora, Sinaloa, western Durango, San Luis Po- tosf,Nuevo Le6n andTamaulipas south through the interiorhighlands of centraland southern Mexico, and on both slopesof Middle America (including the YucatanPeninsula) to E1 Salvador,Honduras, and north-centralNicaragua. Appears to descendto lower elevations in winter.

Pachyramphusaglaiae (Lafresnaye).Rose-throated Becard. PlatyrhynchusAglaice Lafresnaye, 1839, Rev. Zool. [Paris]2: 98. (Mexico = Jalapa, Veracruz.) Habitat.--Gallery Forest,Tropical Deciduous Forest, Tropical Lowland Evergreen Forest Edge (0-1250 m, locally to 2700 m; Tropicaland Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Breeds from southeasternArizona (locally), northeasternSonora, western Chihuahua,northeastern Coahuila, Nuevo Le6n and southernTexas (Cameron and Hidalgo counties)south along both slopesof Middle America (includingthe TresMafias Islandsand YucatanPeninsula) to Costa Rica, where primarily in the dry northwestsouth to the Gulf of Nicoya; recordsfrom the Caribbeanslope are probablymigrants; sight reports for south- westernNew Mexico and westernPanama (Chiriqu•) presumablyare vagrants. Wintersfrom northernMexico souththroughout the remainderof the breedingrange. Notes.--P. aglaiae,P. homochrous,P. niger, andtwo SouthAmerican species, P. validus (Lichtenstein,1823) [= P. rufus(Vieillot, 1816)] and P. minor (Lesson,1830), were placed in the genusPlatypsaris until the genericmerger by Snow (1973).

Pachyramphushomochrous Sclater. One-colored Becard. Pachyramphushomochrous Sclater, 1859, Proc. Zool. Soc.London, p. 142. (Pallatanga, Ecuador.) Habitat.--TropicalLowland Evergreen Forest, Tropical Deciduous Forest, Gallery Forest, SecondaryForest (0-900 m; TropicalZone). Distribution.--Resident locally from centralPanama (the Caribbeanslope in the Canal area, both slopesof easternPanamfi province, and in the Pacificlowlands of Dari6n) east across northern Colombia to northwestern Venezuela and south, west of the Andes, to northwestern Peru. Notes.--See commentsunder P. aglaiae. 420 FAMILY COTINGIDAE

Pachyramphus niger (Gmelin). JamaicanBecard. Laniusniger Gmelin, 1788, Syst.Nat. 1(1): 301. Basedon the "Black Shrike" Latham, Gen. Synop. Birds 1(2): 187. (in Jamaica.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Montane EvergreenForest (0-1800 m; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident on Jamaica. Notes.--See commentsunder P. aglaiae.

Genus TITYRA Vieillot

Tityra Vieillot, 1816, Analyse,p. 39. Type, by monotypy,"B6carde" Buffon -- Lanius cayanusLinnaeus. Eratot [subgenus]Kaup, 1852, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1851), p. 47. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1855), Lanius inquisitorLichtenstein.

Tityra semifasciata(Spix). Masked Tityra. Pachyrhynchussernifasciatus Spix, 1825, Avium Spec.Nov. Bras. 2: 32, pl. 44, fig. 2. (Parfi, Brazil.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Montane EvergreenForest, Secondary Forest (0-1200 m, locally to 2500 m; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident from southernSonora, Sinaloa, western Durango, southern Ta- maulipasand San Luis Potos/southalong both slopesof Middle America (includingthe YucatanPeninsula) to Panama(including C6baco and Coiba islands),and in SouthAmerica from northern Colombia, northern Venezuela, and Trinidad south, west of the Andes to western Ecuador, and east of the Andes from southeasternColombia and eastern Ecuador southto northernBolivia, thenceeastward over southernAmazonian Brazil to Amapa, Patti, and northern Maranh•o, and in French Guiana. Accidentalin southernTexas (Bentsen-RioGrande State Park, Hidalgo County; TO.S. 1995).

Tityra inquisitor (Lichtenstein).Black-crowned Tityra. Lanius inquisitor (Olfers MS) Lichtenstein, 1823, Verz. Doubl. Zool. Mus. Berlin, p. 50. (S5o Paulo, Brazil.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, SecondaryForest (0-1200 m; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident on the Gulf-Caribbeanslope of Middle America from south- easternSan Luis Potos/,Veracruz, eastern Puebla, northern Oaxaca, Tabasco, Chiapas and the YucatanPeninsula south to Nicaragua,on both slopesof CostaRica and Panama,and in South America from Colombia, Venezuela and the Guianas south, west of the Andes to western Ecuador, and east of the Andes to eastern Peru, northern and eastern Bolivia, eastern Paraguay,northeastern Argentina, and southernBrazil. Notes.--Formerly placed in the genusErator.

Family COTINGIDAE: Cotingas

Genus COTINGA Brisson

Cotinga Brisson, 1760, Ornithologie2: 339. Type, by tautonymy,Cotinga Brisson = Ampelis cotinga Linnaeus.

Cotinga amabilis Gould. Lovely Cotinga. Cotingaarnabilis Gould, 1857, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 64, pl. 123. (Guatemala-- northernAlta Verapaz,Guatemala.) FAMILY COTINGIDAE 421

Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Secondary Forest (0-1700 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Residentfrom southernVeracruz, northern Oaxaca and northern Chiapas south along the Caribbeanslope throughnorthern Guatemala, southern Belize, northern Hondurasand Nicaraguato southeasternCosta Rica; a sight report from westernPanama (Bocasdel Toro); may move seasonally. Notes.--C. arnabilis,C. ridgwayi and C. nattererii constitutea superspecies.

Cotinga ridgwayi Ridgway. TurquoiseCotinga. Cotinga ridgwayi (Zeled6n MS) Ridgway, 1887, Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus. 10: 1, pl. 6, fig. 3. (Pozo Azul, Costa Rica.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Secondary Forest (0-1400 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Residenton the Pacificslope from southwesternCosta Rica (southend of Gulf of Nicoya) southto westernPanama in westernChiriquf (Bugaba, E1 Volcfin). Notes.--See comments under C. arnabilis.

Cotinga nattererii (Boissonneau).Blue Cotinga. AmpelisNattererii Boissonneau,1840, Rev. Zool. [Paris] 3: 2. (Santa-F6de Bogota [Colombia].) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Secondary Forest (0-1250 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident on both slopesof Panamafrom westernColon and the Canal area east through Dari6n and San Blas, and in South America in northern and western Colombia south to northwestern Ecuador, and in northwestern Venezuela. Notes.-- See comments under C. arnabilis.

Genus CARPODECTES Salvin CarpodectesSalvin, 1865, Proc. Zool. Soc. London(1864), p. 583. Type, by original designation,Carpodectes nitidus Salvin.

Carpodecteshopkei Berlepsch.Black-tipped Cotinga. Carpodecteshopkei Berlepsch, 1897, Ornithol.Monatsber. 5:174. (SanJos6, Rio Dagua, Colombia.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest (0-900 m; TropicalZone). Distribution.--Resident in extremeeastern Panama (eastern Dari6n), and in SouthAmer- ica west of the Andes from northwesternColombia south to northwesternEcuador. May move seasonally. Notes.--The three allopatricforms of Carpodectes(hopkei, antoniae, and nitidus) were treatedas conspecificby Hellmayr (1929), but as separatespecies by Ridgway (1907) and by most recent authors (e.g., Wetmore 1972, Snow in Traylot 1979b, Snow 1982). We considerthese forms as membersof a superspecies.

Carpodectesantoniae Ridgway.Yellow-billed Cotinga. Carpodectesantonitc (Zeled6n MS) Ridgway, 1884, Ibis, p. 27, pl. 2. (Pirris, South- western Costa Rica.) Habitat.•Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Mangrove Forest (0-800 m; Tropical Zone, near sea level). Distribution.•Resident and local in the Pacific coastal forests of southwestern Costa Rica from the southernGolfo de Nicoya region (Pigres) southto the Osa Peninsula,and rare in extremewestern Panama in westernChiriquf (Pedregal, Puerto Armuelles), possibly eastas far as Coc16(Aguadulce; specimen lost). Appearsto move seasonallyin CostaRica. 422 FAMILY COTINGIDAE

Notes.--Also known as Antonia'sCotinga. See notesunder C. hopkei.

Carpodectesnitidus Salvin. Snowy Cotinga. Carpodectesnitidus Salvin, 1865, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1864), p. 583, pl. "36" [= 35]. (Tucurique[= Tucurriqui],Costa Rica.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, SecondaryForest (0-750 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident in the Gulf-Caribbean lowlands from northern Honduras (La Ceiba) souththrough Nicaragua and Costa Rica to extreme westernPanama (western Bocas del Toro). Appearsto move seasonallyin Costa Rica. Notes.--See notes under C. hopkei.

Genus QUERULA Vieillot Querula Vieillot, 1816, Analyse, p. 37. Type, by monotypy, "Piauhau" Buffon = Muscicapa purpurata Mtiller.

Querula purpurata (Mtiller). Purple-throatedFruitcrow. Muscicapapurpurata P. L. S. Mtiller, 1776, Natursyst.,Suppl., p. 169. Basedon "Gobe- Mouche noir h gorge pourprede Cayenne" Daubenton,Planches Enlum., pl. 381. (Cayenne.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest (0- 600 m; to 1050 m in SouthAmerica; TropicalZone). Distribution.--Resident in Costa Rica (entire Caribbean lowlands) and Panama (entire Caribbeanslope, and Pacific slopefrom Canal area eastward),and in South America from northern Colombia south, west of the Andes to northwestern Ecuador, and east of the Andes from eastern Colombia, southern Venezuela, and the Guianas south to northern Bolivia and Amazonian Brazil.

GenusCEPHALOPTERUS Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire CephalopterusGeoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1809, Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. [Paris] 13: 235,238. Type, by original designation,Cephalopterus ornatus Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire.

Cephalopterusglabricollis Gould. Bare-neckedUmbrellabird. Cephalopterusglabricollis Gould, 1851, Proc. Zool. Soc.London (1850), p. 92, pl. 20. (Cordillerade Chiriqu6in Veragua,at an elevationof 8000 feet [Panama].) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Tropical Lowland Evergreen Forest (breeds 800- 2500 m; 0-500 in nonbreedingseason; Subtropical Zone, seasonallyto Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident in Caribbeanslope of CostaRica (from Cordillerade Guanacaste southward)and westernPanama (highlands of Chiriqu•, Bocasdel Toro, and Veraguas); descendsto the Caribbeanlowlands in nonbreedingseason. Notes.--C. glabricollisand the SouthAmerican C. penduligerSclater, 1859 [Long-wattled Umbrellabird]were treatedas racesof C. ornatusGeoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1809 [Amazonian Umbrellabird]by Hellmayr (1929). Most authorsbefore and sincehave recognizedthree allopatricspecies (e.g., Ridgway 1907, Wetmore1972, Snowin Traylor 1979b, Snow 1982). The three constitutea superspecies.

GenusPROCNIAS Illiger ProcniasIlliger, 1811, Prodromus,p. 228. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1840), P. variegatus(L.) Ill. = Ampelis variegata Gmelin = Ampelisaverano Her- mann. FAMILY PIPRIDAE 423

Procnias tricarunculata (Verreaux and Verreaux). Three-wattled Bellbird. Casmarhynchustricarunculatus J. and E. Verreaux, 1853, Rev. Mag. Zool. (2)5: 193. (Bocos del toro (Nouvelle-Grenade) = Bocas del Toro, westernPanama.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest (breeds 900- 2300 m; 0-3000 m during nonbreedingseasons; Subtropical Zone, seasonallyto sealevel). Distribution.--Breeds in the highlandsof Nicaragua(including Isla de Ometepein Lago de Nicaragua),Costa Rica (Cordillerade Guanacasteand Peninsulade Nicoya souththrough the Cordillerade Talamanca)and westernPanama (Bocas del Toro, Chiriqui and Veraguas, possiblyalso to the Azuero Peninsula);highly mobile while not breeding,both ascending and descendingto adjacentforested habitats, especially the Caribbeanlowlands (also Pacific lowlandsin Panama,and rangingeast rarely to the Canal area). Casualin easternHonduras (Olancho).

Family PIPRIDAE: Manakins Notes.--Based on an exhaustivephylogenetic analysis of syringeal characters,Prum (1992) proposednew generic limits within the Pipridae, and discussedthe evolution of manakinsocial behavior based on his proposedphylogeny (Prum 1990, 1994). The biggest changesfrom existingclassifications involved creationof two new generafor certainspecies within the genusPipra, which Prum concludedto be polyphyletic.Studies are under way to testPrum's phylogenetic hypotheses based on othercharacters, especially using biochemical techniques.For the presentwe continueto recognizethe traditional generic limits of Snow(1975), excludingthose removed to a positionIncertae Sedis, above, but acknowledge the likelihood that some, perhapsall, of Prum's proposedchanges will prevail. Prum's alternativetreatments are providedunder the respectivespecies below.

Genus CHLOROPIPO Cabanis and Heine ChloropipoCabanis and Heine, 1859, Mus. Heineanum2:90 (note2). Type, by original designation,Chloropipo fiavicollis Cabanisand Heine = Pipra fiavicapilla Sclater.

Chloropipo holochlora Sclater.Green Manakin. Chloropipoholochlora Sclater, 1888, Cat. Birds Br. Mus. 14: xvi, 281,287. (Colombia and Amazonia -- BogotJ,Colombia.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest (600-1300 m; upper Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.---Resident in easternPanama (easternSan Blas and easternDari6n), and in South America south, west of the Andes to western Ecuador, and east of the Andes to eastern Peru. Notes.--Merged into the genusXenopipo Cabanis, 1847 by Prum (1992).

Genus MANACUS Brisson Manacus Brisson, 1760, Ornithologie4: 442. Type, by tautonymy,Manacus Brisson = Pipra manacusLinnaeus.

Manacus candei (Parzudaki). White-collared Manakin. Pipra Candei Parzudaki, 1841, Rev. Zool. [Paris] 4: 306. (h Truxillo, dans la baie de Honduras= Trujillo, Honduras.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest Edge, Secondary Forest (0-950 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Residenton the Gulf-Caribbeanslope of Middle Americafrom southern Veracruz,northern Oaxaca, Tabasco, Chiapas, southern Campeche, southern Quintana Roo, and Belize south to westernPanama (Bocas del Toro). Notes.--Traylor (1979b), treatedthis and all other forms in the genusManacus as sub- 424 FAMILY PIPRIDAE speciesof M. manacus(Linnaeus, 1766), citing Haffer's (1967) summary of limited hy- bridizationbetween parapatric forms as evidencefor incompletespeciation. Eisenmann (in litt., cited by Haffer) speculatedthat M. candei has intergradedwith M. vitellinusin north- westernPanama, causing an intermediatepopulation to occurthere (M. [v.] cerritusPeters, 1927 [Almirante Manakin]). We treat M. candei and all other well-differentiated,allopatric or parapatricforms (M. aurantiacus,M. vitellinus,M. rnanacus)as membersof a superspecies.If candeiis mergedwith vitellinus,Collared Manakin may be usedfor the species; if theseforms are merged into M. rnanacus,Bearded Manakin appliesto the singlewidespread species.See commentsunder M. aurantiacus.

Manacus aurantiacus (Salvin). Orange-collaredManakin. Chiromachcerisaurantiaca Salvin, 1870, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 200. (Mina de Chorcha and Bugaba, Chiriqui, Panama.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest Edge, SecondaryForest (0-1400 m; Trop- ical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident [aurantiacusgroup] on Pacific slope of southernCosta Rica (entranceof the Gulf de Nicoya) and westernPanama (east to the Azuero Peninsula);and [viridiventrisgroup] in westernand northernColombia and northwesternEcuador. Notes.--Groups:M. aurantiacus[Orange-collared Manakin] andM. viridiventrisGriscom, 1929 [Greenish-belliedManakin]. M. aurantiacusoften is merged with M. vitellinus, its closestrelative within the superspecies.No evidence of contact or intergradationexists betweenthe two in westernPanama, however. Because of differencesin size, plumage,and leg color,M. aurantiacusis recognizableat the samelevel as vitellinus.See notesunder M. candei.

Manacus vitellinus (Gould). Golden-collaredManakin. Pipra vitellina Gould, 1843, Proc.Zool. Soc.London, p. 103. (Panam• = PanamaCity, Panama.) Habitat--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge, SecondaryForest (0-1200 m; Trop- ical Zone). Distribution.--Residentin Panama(the entireCaribbean lowlands, including Bastimentos and Escuelo de Veraguasislands, and the Pacific coast from easternVeraguas eastward), and .in northwestern Colombia. Notes.--See comments under M. aurantiacus and M. candei.

Genus CORAPIPO Bonaparte CorapipoBonaparte, 1854, Ateneo Ital. 2: 316. Type, by monotypy,Pipra gutturalis Linnaeus.

Corapipo altera Hellmayr. White-ruffed Manakin. Corapipoleucorrhoa altera Hellmayr, 1906, Bull. Br. Ornithol. Club 16: 84. (Carrillo, Costa Rica.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest (0-1500 m, breedsabove 400 m; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident in foothillsand highlands from easternHonduras (Olancho) south througheastern Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panamato northwesternColombia (west of the Atrato Valley and southto the Serraniade Baud6). Notes.--Snow in Traylor (1979b) follows many previousauthors in merging C. altera with the SouthAmerican C. leucorrhoa(Sclater, 1863) [White-bibbedManakin]. Conspic- uously different wing formulae of these two forms, presumablyreflecting differencesin display, prompt other authors(e.g. Wetmore 1972) to recognizeboth as species.Together with C. gutturalis (Linnaeus, 1766) [White-throatedManakin] of northernSouth America, C. altera and C. leucorrhoaconstitute a superspecies. FAMILY PIPRIDAE 425

Genus CHIROXIPHIA Cabanis ChiroxiphiaCabanis, 1847, Arch. Naturgesch.13: 235. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1855), .Pipra caudataShaw and Nodder. ChiroprionBonaparte, 1854, Consp. Voluc. Anisod., p. 5. Type, by originaldesignation, Pipra pareola Linnaeus. Notes. The genusChiroxiphia consists of five similar,entirely allopatric forms. Four of them, namely, C. linearis, C. lanceolata,C. pareola (Linnaeus,1766) [Blue-backedMan- akin], and C. bolivianaAllen, 1889 [YungasManakin; seeParker and Remsen1987], differ from one anotheronly slightlyin plumageornamentation and displaybehavior; these four forms constitutea superspecies.

Chiroxiphia lanceolata (Wagler). Lance-tailed Manakin. Pipra lanceolataWaglet, 1830, Isis von Oken, col. 931. (Guiane sive Cajenna,error = Cerro Turumiquire,Sucre, Venezuela.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Gallery Forest,Tropical Lowland Evergreen Forest (0-1500 m; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident in extreme southwesternCosta Rica (Golfo Dulce region and CarlasGordas), on the Pacific slopeof Panamaeast to westernDari6n (locally also on the Caribbeanslope in the Canal area,and on C6bacoand Coiba islands),and in SouthAmerica in northern Colombia (east of the R•o Sinfi), and northern Venezuela north of the Orinoco River eastto Sucre (includingMargarita Island) and southto Santander.

Chiroxiphia linearis (Bonaparte).Long-tailed Manakin. Pipra linearis Bonaparte,1838, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1837), p. 113. (Mexico = Santa Efigenia, Oaxaca.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Gallery Forest,Secondary Forest (0-1500 m; Trop- ical Zone) Distribution.--Resident on the Pacific slope from Oaxaca (west to Chivela) south to northwesternCosta Rica (eastto the Dota Mountains),and on the Caribbeanslope of Costa Rica from Ochomogoto (formerly?) Juan Vinas.

Genus PIPRA Linnaeus Pipra Linnaeus, 1764, Mus. Adolphi Friderici 2 (Prodr.): 32. Type, by subsequent designation(G. R. Gray, 1840), Parus aureola Linnaeus. Notes.--Prum (1992) concludedfrom syringealcharacters that the genusPipra, as here construed,is polyphyletic.See commentsunder Pipra pipra and Pipra coronata.

Pipra pipra (Linnaeus).White-crowned Manakin. Parus Pipra Linnaeus,1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1' 190. Basedmainly on the "Caco- tototl" Seba,Thes. 2: 102, pl. 96, fig. 5. (in Indiis, error -- Surinam.) Dixphia Reichenbach,1850, Avium Syst.Nat., pl. 63. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1855), Pipra leucocilla Linnaeus = Pipra pipra Linnaeus. LepidothrixBonaparte, 1854, Consp.Voluc. Anisod., p. 6. Type, by subsequentdesignation(G. R. Gray, 1855), Pipra cyanocapillaWagl. = Pipra cyanocapillaHahn = Pipra coronata Spix. Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest, Montane Evergreen Forest (475 to 1500 m; in SouthAmerica, also sea level to 600 m; upperTropical and lowerSubtropical zones). Distribution.•Resident [anthracinagroup] locally in the highlandsof centralCosta Rica (primarily on Caribbeanslope of CordilleraTalamanca and CordilleraCentral) and western Panama(eastern Chiriqu/, both slopesof Veraguas,and the Caribbeanslope of Coc16);and [pipra group]in SouthAmerica from northernColombia, southern Venezuela, and the Guian- as south to central Peru and Amazonian and coastal southeastern Brazil. Notes.-- Placedin the monotypicgenus Dixiphia by Prum (1992). Groups:P. anthracina Ridgway,1906 [Zeledon'sManakin] and P. pipra [White-crownedManakin]. Several species probablyare involvedin this complex,as highlandand lowlandforms approach one another in easternPeru, and vocal differencesexist among severalforms. 426 FAMILY OXYRUNCIDAE

Pipra coronata Spix. Blue-crownedManakin. Pipra coronataSpix, 1825, Avium Spec.Nov. Bras. 2: 5, pl. 7, fig. 1. (ad pagumSt. Pauli in sylviis fl. SolimoEns= S5o Paulo de Oliven•a, Rio Solim6es,Brazil.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest, Secondary Forest (0-1350 m; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident [velutinagroup] locally in CostaRica (northwestto the Gulf of Nicoya on the Pacific slope, and in the Sixaola region in the southeast),adjacent western Panama(western Chiriquf, Bocas del Toro,northern Veraguas), eastern Panama (both slopes from the Canal area eastward), western and northern Colombia, and northwesternEcuador; [coronatagroup] in South America from southeasternColombia and southernVenezuela south, east of the Andes, to northern Peru and extreme western Amazonian Brazil; and [exquisitagroup] in central and southernPeru, northernBolivia, and western and central Amazonian Brazil. Notes.--Placedin the genusLepidothrix by Prum (1992). Groups:P. velutinaBerlepsch, 1883 [Velvety Manakin], P. coronata [Blue-crownedManakin], and P. exquisitaHellmayr, 1905 [ExquisiteManakin].

Pipra erythrocephala(Linnaeus). Golden-headed Manakin. Parus erythrocephalusLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 191. Based on Parus auricapillus Klein, Hist. Avium, p. 86, and "The Golden-headedBlack Titmouse" Edwards,Nat. Hist. Birds 1: 21, pl. 21, lower fig. (in America australi= Surinam.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest (0-1200 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropical zones). Distribution.--Resident in easternPanama (from easternSan Blas and easternPanama provinceeastward), and in SouthAmerica from northwesternand northernColombia, Ven- ezuela, Trinidad, and the Guianas south to northeastern Peru and Amazonian Brazil north of the Amazon. Notes.--P. erythrocephala,P. mentalis,and P. rubrocapilla Temminck, 1821 [Red-headed Manakin] constitutea superspecies;erythrocephala and mentalis overlap narrowly on the Pacific slope of Panama(e.g., near Maje), and a hybrid has been reported(Ridgely and Tudor 1989).

Pipra mentalis Sclater.Red-capped Manakin. Pipra mentalisSclater, 1857, Proc.Zool. Soc.London (1856), p. 299, pl. 121. (Cordova [= C6rdoba] in the State of Vera Cruz, Southern Mexico.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest (0-1050 m; TropicalZone). Distribution.--Residenton the Gulf-Caribbeanslope of Middle Americafrom southern Veracruz,Oaxaca, Tabasco, Chiapas and the YucatanPeninsula (except the northwest)south to Nicaragua,on both slopesof Costa Rica (absentfrom the dry northwest),and Panama (east on the Caribbeanslope to western San Blas, and on the Pacific to easternPanama province), and in SouthAmerica west of the Andes in westernColombia and northwestern Ecuador. Notes.---Alsoknown as Yellow-thighed Manakin. See comments under P. erythrocephala.

Family OXYRUNCIDAE: Sharpbills Notes.-- Oxyruncuscristatus has a uniquemosaic of conflictingcharacters that prohibit classifyingit as a memberof any of the largertyrannoid families. Sibley et al. (1984) and Sibleyand Ahlquist (1990) placedit within theCotingidae based on DNA-DNA hybridization data. S.M. Lanyon (1985; a coautherof Sibley et al., 1984) later questionedthis conclusion, and alsoprovided allozyme data suggestingthat Oxyruncusclustered with tyrantflycatchers, tityras, andbecards. Prum (1990) found syringealsimilarities with the becards,but excluded it from the well-defined"Schiffornis group" to which becardsbelong (Prum and Lanyon 1989) on other,compelling morphological grounds. Prum recommended incertae sedis status. Presumably,Oxyruncus was an early offshootduring the radiation of the Tyrannoidea,and we acknowledgeits uniquenessby retainingits family status. FAMILY MELIPHAGIDAE 427

Genus OXYRUNCUS Temminck OxyruncusTemminck, 1820, Man. Ornithol. (ed. 2) 1: lxxx [genericcharacters only, no type speciesindicated]. Type, by monotypy,Oxyrhyncus cristatus Swainson.

Oxyruncus cristatus Swainson.Sharpbill. Oxyrhyncus[sic] cristatusSwainson, 1821, Zool. Illus. (1)1(9): pl. 49. (Brazil.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest (700-1400 m; 0-1800 m in SouthAmerica; Subtropical Zone, in SouthAmerica also Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident (with disjunct distribution)in Costa Rica (mainly Caribbean slope, from Cordillera de Guanacastesouth, and, perhapsformerly, in Dota Mountains), Panama (recordedBocas del Toro, westernChiriqui, Veraguasand the cerrosof eastern Dari6n), and in SouthAmerica locally in southernVenezuela, Guyana, Surinam, eastern Peru, northwesternBolivia, eastern Amazonian and southeasternBrazil, and eastern Para- guay.

Suborder PASSERI: Oscines Notes.--See Sibley and Ahlquist (1990) and Sheldonand Gill (1996) for hypotheseson relationshipsamong families in this Suborder.The arrangementof families here follows Sibley and Ahlquist (1990) in recognizingthe close relationshipsof the Meliphagidae, Laniidae,Vireonidae, and Monarchidae to the Corvidae,i.e., theparvorder Corvida of Sibley and Ahlquist (1990); see also A.O.U. (1997).

Family MELIPHAGIDAE: Honeyeaters

Genus MOHO Lesson Moho Lesson,1830, Trait60rnithol., p. 302. Type, by monotypy,Meropsfasciculatus Latham = Gracula nobilis Merrem.

Moho braccatus Cassin. Kauai Oo. Mohoa [sic] braccataCassin, 1855, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.Philadelphia 7: 440. (Sandwich Islands -- Kauai, Hawaiian Islands.) Habitat.--Thick, undisturbed native forest. Distribution.--Residenton Kauai, in the Hawaiian Islands(possibly extinct, the last knownmale survivingat leastto 1988 in the Alakai Swampregion). Notes.--Known also as the Ooaa. tMoho apicalis Gould. Oahu Oo. Moho apicalis Gould, 1860, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 381. (Owhyhee = Oahu, Hawaiian Islands.) Habitat.--Presumably forest. Distribution.--EXTINCT Formerlyresident on Oahu, in the Hawaiian Islands(disap- pearedin a shortperiod after 1837). Notes.--Moho apicalis,M. bishopi,and M. nobdismay constitutea superspecies. tMoho bishopi (Rothschild).Bishop's Oo. Acrulocercusbishopi Rothschild, 1893, Bull. Br. Ornithol. Club 1: 41. (Island of Mo- lokai.) Habitat.--Forest, primarily ohia. Distributiøn'--EXTINCT Formerly residenton Molokai, in the Hawaiian Islands (last reportedin 1904). Reportsof oos on Maui from 1901 to 1981 may refer to this species (Sabo 1982). 428 FAMILY LANIIDAE

Notes.--Also known as Molokai Oo. See commentsunder M. apicalis.

?Moho nobilis (Merrem). Hawaii Oo. Gracula nobilis Merrem, 1786, Avium Rat. IconesDescr. 1(1): 7, pl. 2. (Insula•San- duicenses= island of Hawaii.) Habitat.--Heavy forest. Distribution.--EXTINCT. Formerly resident on Hawaii, in the Hawaiian Islands (last definiterecord in 1898; one reportedheard in 1934). Notes.--See commentsunder M. apicalis.

Genus CHAETOPTILA Sclater ChaetoptilaSclater, 1871, Ibis, p. 358. Type, by original designation,Entomyza an- gustiplumaCassin [= Peale].

?Chaetoptilaangustipluma (Peale). Kioea. Entomiza?angustipluma Peale, 1848, U.S. Explor. Exped. 8: 147. (Hawaii.) Habitat.--Forest. Distribution.--EXTINCT. Formerly residenton Hawaii, in the Hawaiian Islands(last reportedin 1859).

Family LANIIDAE: Shrikes

Genus LANIUS Linnaeus Lanius Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1' 93. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Swainson, 1824), Lanius excubitor Linnaeus.

Lanius cristatus Linnaeus. Brown Shrike. Lanius cristatusLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 93. (in Benghala = Bengal.) Habitat.--Deciduous and coniferous woodland. Distribution.--Breedsfrom northernSiberia south to Mongolia,Manchuria, and Japan. Winters from India east to eastern China, and south to southeasternAsia and the East Indies. Casual or accidentalin the westernAleutians (Attu, Shemya),on St. LawrenceIsland, in south-coastalAlaska (Anchorage), and in California (Farallon Islands, and Olema marsh, Marin County). Notes.--Also known as Red-tailedShrike. Sibley and Monroe (1990) consideredL. cristatus to form a superspecieswith L. collurio Linnaeus,1758 [Red-backedShrike] and L. isabellinusEhrenberg, 1833 [Rufous-tailedShrike].

Lanius ludovicianusLinnaeus. Loggerhead Shrike. Lanius ludovicianusLinnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 134. Based on "La Pie- griechede la Louislane"Brisson, Ornithologie 2: 162, pl. 15, fig. 2. (in Ludovicia = Louisiana.) Habitat.--Open countrywith scatteredtrees and shrubs, agricultural fields, savanna, desert scrub, and, occasionally,open woodland;habitat always has fences, low trees, brush, or other hunting percheswith at least some bare ground or very short grass (Tropical to Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breedsfrom California(except the northwesternportion, but including the ChannelIslands), eastern Oregon, eastern Washington, central Alberta, central Saskatch- ewan, southernManitoba, Minnesota (except northeastern), southern Ontario, southwestern Quebec, and Pennsylvania(formerly from central New York, central Maine, southwestern New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia) south to southernBaja California (including Cedros FAMILY VIREONIDAE 429

Island), through central Mexico (not in coastal lowlands) to central Oaxaca and Veracruz, and to the Gulf coastand southernFlorida; in recentyears scarce and local in the northeastern part of the breedingrange. Winters from central Washington,eastern Oregon, California, southernNevada, Utah, southernColorado, southernKansas, central Missouri, Illinois, central Ohio, and Virginia (casuallynorth to the Canadianborder) southto the southernlimits of the breedingrange, rarely to Chiapas. Casual from southern British Columbia south (west of the Cascades) to southwestern Oregon, and in northwesternGuatemala and the Bahama Islands (Andros). Accidental on Bermuda. Notes.--See comments under L. excubitor.

Lanius excubitor Linnaeus. Northern Shrike.

Lanius ExcubitorLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 94. (in Europa = Sweden.) Habitat.--Open deciduousor coniferouswoodland, taiga, thickets,bogs, and scrub;in migration and winter, also open situationswith scatteredtrees, savanna,semi-desert, and cultivated lands. Distribution.--Breeds [excubitorgroup] in North America from westernand northern Alaska, northern Yukon, northwestern and southern Mackenzie, and southwesternKeewatin south to southern Alaska (west to the Alaska Peninsula), northwesternBritish Columbia, northern Alberta, northern Manitoba, northern Ontario, northern and central Quebec, and southern Labrador, and in the Old World from northern Scandinavia, northern Russia, and northernSiberia south to centralEurope, central Russia, central Asia, and the Kuril Islands; and [rneridionalisgroup] from southernEurope, the Canary Islands,and northernAfrica (north of the Sahara) east to India. Winters[excubitor group] in North America from centralAlaska and the southernportions of the breedingrange in Canada,Minnesota, and northwesternWisconsin south (irregularly) to northern California, central Nevada, northern Arizona, central New Mexico, northern Texas, northwestern Oklahoma, Kansas, central Missouri, northern Illinois, central Indiana, northernOhio, Pennsylvania,and New Jersey,casually to the centralAleutians, south to the southernparts of California, Arizona, and New Mexico, to northernTexas, northernTen- nessee,North Carolina, and Bermuda, and in Eurasia throughoutthe breedingrange, the northernpopulations being mostly migratory; and [rneridionalisgroup] generally within the breedingrange, but easternpopulations winter southto northernIndia and west to northeastern Africa. Resident[leucopygos group] acrossnorth-central Africa in the southernportions of the Sahara. Notes.--Also known as Great Gray Shrike. Groups:L. excubitor[Northern Shrike], L. rneridionalisTemminck, 1820 [SouthernGray Shrike], and L. leucopygosEhrenberg, 1833 [SaharanShrike]. Lanius excubitorand L. ludovicianus,along with the Asiatic L. spheno- cercusCabanis, 1873 [ChineseGray Shrike], constitutea superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970).

Family VIREONIDAE: Vireos Notes.--The systematicposition of the Vireonidae has always been controversial;see Sibley and Ahlquist (1982b) for a review. We follow Johnsonet al. (1988), Sibley and Ahlquist (1990), and Sheldonand Gill (1996) in placing the vireos within the "Corvida" assemblage.There seemsto be no evidencefor their traditionalplacement within the nine- primafled oscines(e.g., seeRaikow 1978). For relationshipswithin the Vireonidaeand lack of justificationfor subfamiliesand subgenerain this family, seeJohnson et al. (1988). The formerly recognizedsubfamilies Vireolaniinae and Cyclarhininaehave often been given family status,but seeZimmer (1942), Barlow and James(1975), Raikow (1978), Orenstein and Barlow (1981), and Sibley and Ahlquist (1982a) for reasonsfor their inclusionwithin the Vireonidae. 430 FAMILY VIREONIDAE

Genus VIREO Vieillot

Vireo Vieillot, 1808, Hist. Nat. Ois. Amer. Sept. 1 (1807): 83. Type, by subsequent designation(Gadow, 1883), Vireo musicusVieillot = Muscicapa noveboracensis Gmelin = Tanagra grisea Boddaert. VireosylvaBonaparte, 1838, Geogr.Comp. List, p. 26. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1841), Muscicapa olivacea Linnaeus. NeochloeSclater, 1858, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1857), p. 213. Type, by monotypy, Neochloe brevipennisSclater. Lanivireo Baird, 1858, in Baird, Cassin,and Lawrence,Rep. Explor. Surv. R. R. Pac. 9: xix, "xxxxv" [= xxxv], 329. Type, by originaldesignation, Vireoflavifrons Vieil- lot. SolivireoOberholser, 1974, Bird Life Tex., p. 997. Type, by original designation,Mus- cicapa solitaria Wilson. Melodivireo Oberholser,1974, Bird Life Tex., p. 998. Type, by original designation, Muscicapagilva Vieillot.

Vireo brevipennis(Sclater). Slaty Vireo. Neochloebrevipennis Sclater, 1858, Proc.Zool. Soc.London (1857), p. 213. (Orizaba, [Veracruz,] Southern Mexico.) Habitat.--Arid Montane Scrub, Pine-Oak Forest (1200-2100 m; Subtropicaland lower Temperatezones). Distribution.--Residentin the highlandsof southernJalisco, Colima, Guerrero,Morelos, Oaxaca, and western Veracruz. Notes.--Sometimesplaced in the monotypicgenus Neochloe.

Vireo griseus (Boddaert). White-eyed Vireo. Tanagra grisea Boddaert, 1783, Table PlanchesEnlum., p. 45. Based on "Tanagra olive, de la Louisiane" Daubenton,Planches Enlum., pl. 714, fig. 1. (Louisiana = New Orleans.) Habitat.--Dense undergrowthat deciduousforest edge and treefalls;more widespread in migrationand winter, but primarily in densethickets (Tropical to lower Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breeds [griseusgroup] from centralIowa, southeasternMinnesota (rarely), southernWisconsin, southern Michigan, extreme southern Ontario, southern New York, and southernMassachusetts south to easternSan Luis PotosLnorthern Hidalgo, extremenorthern Veracruz,Tamaulipas, southern Texas, the Gulf coast,southern Florida (including the Florida Keys), and Bermuda, and west to easternNebraska (formerly), easternKansas, central Oklahoma,west-central Texas, and Coahuila;and [perquisitorgroup] in northeasternPuebla and north-central Veracruz. Winters[griseus group] from centralTexas, the Gulf states,extreme southeastern Virginia (Dismal Swamp),the BahamaIslands (east to San Salvador),and Bermuda south along the Gulf-Caribbeanslope of Mexico (includingthe YucatanPeninsula, also on the Pacificslope in southeasternOaxaca), Belize, Guatemala,Honduras, and (rarely) northernNicaragua, on Cuba and the Isle of Pines,and in the Cayman and Swan islands;and [perquisitorgroup] presumablyin the breedingrange. Casual[griseus group] north to North Dakota, southernManitoba, southern Minnesota, northernMichigan, southernQuebec, Maine, and Nova Scotia,west to California,Utah, Arizona, Colorado, southernNew Mexico, Chihuahua, and south to Costa Rica, Panama, PuertoRico (includingMona Island), and the Virgin Islands(St. John); a sightreport for the RevillagigedoIslands (Socorro). Notes.--AlthoughV. griseus[White-eyed Vireo] and V. perquisitorNelson, 1900 [Ve- racruzVireo] were regardedby Eisenmann(1955) as distinctspecies, they are similarin manyrespects. Species and superspeciesboundaries in the "white-eyedvireo" complex(all speciesfrom V. griseusthrough V. nanus)are poorly understood and their accuratedefinition awaits further research. FAMILY VIREONIDAE 431

Vireo crassirostris(Bryant). Thick-billed Vireo. Lanivireo crassirostrisBryant, 1859, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 7:112. (New Prov- idence, Bahama Islands.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Arid Lowland Scrub, Mangrove Forest. Distribution.--Resident [crassirostrisgroup] in the Bahamas(virtually throughout,even smallislands), northern cays off Cubanmainland, including Cayo Cocoand Cayo Paredones (rare winter resident),Cayman Islands, and TortueIsland (off Hispaniola);and [approxirnans group] on Providenciaand adjacentSanta Catalina islands (in the westernCaribbean Sea). Casual[crassirostris group] in southernFlorida (Hypoluxo Island, Lantana, Dry Tortugas, and Flamingo). Notes.--Groups: V. crassirostris[Thick-billed Vireo] and V. approxirnansRidgway, 1884 [Old ProvidenceVireo]. See commentsunder V. griseus and V. pallens.

Vireo pallens Salvin. MangroveVireo. Vireo pallens Salvin, 1863, Proc. Zool. Soc. London,p. 188. (Realejo, Nicaragua,and Punta Arenas, Costa Rica -- Punta Arenas, Costa Rica.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Mangrove Forest, Arid Lowland Scrub (Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident[pallens group] along the Pacificcoast from southwesternSonora southto Nayarit, and from Oaxacasouth to Costa Rica (to the Gulf of Nicoya); and [serni- fiavus group] on the Gulf-Caribbeancoast and many islandsfrom the YucatanPeninsula (includingHolbox and Mujeresislands) and eastern Guatemala (Pet6n) south through Belize (includingSoldier Cay) and Honduras(including the Bay Islands)to Nicaragua(Bluefields area). Notes.-•Groups: V. pallens [Mangrove Vireo] and V. sernifiavusSalvin, 1863 [Maya Vireo]. Consideredby Hellmayr (1935) to be conspecificwith V. griseus.Mayr and Short (1970) consideredV. pallens and V. griseusto constitutea superspecies.Sibley and Monroe (1990) consideredV. pallens, V. bairdi, V. gundlachii, V. crassirostris,and V. caribaeusto be membersof a superspecies.See commentsunder V. griseus.

Vireo bairdi Ridgway. Cozumel Vireo. Vireo bairdi Ridgway, 1885, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 3: 22. (Cozumel Island, Yucatan.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Secondary Forest (Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident on Cozumel Island, off Quintana Roo. Notes.--See commentsunder V. griseus and V. pallens.

Vireo caribaeusBond and Meyer de Schauensee.St. Andrew Vireo. Vireo caribaeus Bond and Meyer de Schauensee,1942, Not. Nat., Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,no. 96, p. 1. (St. Andrew's [= San Andr6s] Island, Colombia.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Mangrove Forest, Arid Lowland Scrub. Distribution.--Resident on Isla San Andr6s, in the western Caribbean Sea. Notes.--Sometimesregarded as a race of V. pallens or V. modestus;for a discussionof relationships,see Barlow and Nash (1985). See commentsunder V. griseusand V. pallens.

Vireo modestus Sclater. Jamaican Vireo. Vireo modestusSclater, 1861, Proc. Zool. Soc. London(1860), p. 462. (In ins. Jamaica.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Secondary Forest,Montane Evergreen Forest (0-1500 m). Distributiøn'•Resident on Jamaica. Notes.---Also known as JamaicanWhite-eyed Vireo. See commentsunder V. griseusand V. caribaeus. 432 FAMILY VIREONIDAE

Vireo gundlachii Lembeye. Cuban Vireo. Vireo gundlachiiLembeye, 1850, Aves Isla Cuba, p. 29, pl. 5, fig. 1. (Cuba = Cien- fuegos,Cuba.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest, Tropical Deciduous Forest, Add Lowland Scrub, SecondaryForest (0-700 m). Distribution.--Resident on Cuba (includingmany cays) and the Isle of Pines. Notes.--See commentsunder V. griseusand V. pallens.

Vireo latimeri Baird. Puerto Rican Vireo. Vireo latimeri Baird, 1866, Rev. Amer. Birds 1: 364. (north side of Puerto Rico.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Secondary Forest, Arid Lowland Scrub (0-900 m). Distribution.--Resident on PuertoRico (exceptthe easternportion). Notes.--See commentsunder V. griseus.

Vireo nanus (Lawrence). Flat-billed Vireo. Empidonaxnanus Lawrence, 1875, Ibis, p. 386. (St. Domingo = DominicanRepublic.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest (0-1200 m). Distribution.--Residenton Hispaniola(including Gonave Island). Notes.--See commentsunder V. griseus.

Vireo bellii Audubon. Bell's Vireo. Vireo bellii Audubon,1844, Birds Amer. (octavoed.) 7: 333, pl. 485. (shortdistance below Black SnakeHills = near St. Joseph,Missouri.) Habitat.---Dense brush,willow thickets,mesquite, streamside thickets, and scruboak; in arid regionsusually near water; in migrationand winter, primarily in densescrub (Tropical, Subtropical,and Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breeds from coastal southernand interior California (north to Santa Bar- bara andInyo counties,now scarceand local; formerly also in theinterior to TehamaCounty), southern Nevada, southwesternUtah, northwestern and east-centralArizona, southernNew Mexico, northeasternColorado, Nebraska, South Dakota, westernNorth Dakota, southeastern Minnesota, southern Wisconsin, northeastern Illinois, northwestern and central Indiana, and southwesternMichigan southto northernBaja California, southernSonora, southern Du- rango,Zacatecas, southern Tamaulipas, southern and easternTexas, north-central Louisiana, Arkansas,southwestern Tennessee, southwestern Kentucky, southernIndiana. and western Ohio. Winters from southernBaja California and southernSonora (casually north to central California, southernArizona, southernTexas, Louisiana,and southernFlorida) south,primarily on the Pacific slopeand in the interior of Middle America,to Honduras,casually to north-centralNicaragua. Migrates regularlythrough northern Mexico, casually(mostly in fall) throughthe Gulf states east to Florida. Casualor accidentalnorth to Montana,Wyoming, and southernOntario, and eastto New York (Long Island), New Hampshire,New Jersey,and South Carolina.

Vireo atricapillus Woodhouse.Black-capped Vireo. Vireo atricapilla Woodhouse,1852, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia6: 60. (Rio San Pedro, 208 miles from San Antonio, on road to E1 Paso del Norte, Texas = Devils River, near Juno, Val Verde County, Texas; Sextonand Tomer, 1990, Bull. Texas Ornithol. Soc. 23: 2-5.) Habitat.--Dense low thicketsand scruboak, with many openings,and mostly on rocky hillsides;in winter, also semi-aridtropical scrub. FAMILY VIREONIDAE 433

Distribution.--Breeds from south-centralKansas (Comanche County, formerly) south throughwest-central Oklahoma and westernand centralTexas (east to Dallas, Waco,Austin, and San Antonio areas,and westto Abilene, San Angelo, and Big Bend) to centralCoahuila. Winters from Sinaloa and Durango south to southernOaxaca. Migrates through western and southernTexas and central Mexico (east to M6xico and Tamaulipas). Casual north to easternNebraska and northeasternKansas. Accidental in Arizona (Tucson) and southernOntario (Long Point). A sightreport from Mississippiis questionable. Notes.--Sibley and Monroe (1990) consideredV. atricapillusand V. nelsonito constitute a superspecies.

Vireo nelsoni Bond. Dwarf Vireo.

Vireo nanus (not Empidonax nanus Lawrence) Nelson, 1898, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 12: 59. (Querendaro,Michoacan, Mexico.) Vireonelsoni Bond, 1936,Auk 53: 458. New namefor Vireo nanusNelson, preoccupied. Habitat.--Arid Montane Scrub (1500-2400 m; SubtropicalZone, to lower Temperate Zone in winter). Distribution.--Breeds locally in the highlandsfrom Guanajuatoand Michoacfin to north- em Oaxaca (west of the Isthmusof Tehuantepec). Winterspresumably mostly in the breedingrange (ascendingin migrationto higherele- vations);a report from Sinaloais questionable.

Vireo vicinior Coues.Gray Vireo. Vireo vicinior Coues,1866, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia18: 75. (Fort Whipple, Arizona.) Habitat.---Dry oak-juniperand pinyon-juniper woodlands, dry chaparral,and thorn scrub; in migration and winter, also desertand arid scrub. Distribution.--Breeds locally from southernCalifornia (northto Inyo County), southern Nevada, southern Utah, western and southeasternColorado, and northwestern and central New Mexico southto northwesternBaja California, centraland southeasternArizona, southern New Mexico, westernTexas (east to Kinney, Colorado,and Kerr counties),and north- westernCoahuila (Sierra del Carmen). Winterslocally in centraland in southernBaja California, southwesternArizona (rarely), Sonora(including Tibur6n and San Estebanislands), and (rarely) westernTexas (Big Bend region). Migrates throughBaja California and Durango. Casualto the ChannelIslands off California.Accidental in Oklahoma(Cimmaron County), Wisconsin(Sheboygan County), and San Luis PotosLSight reportsfrom TexasPanhandle are unsubstantiated.

Vireo osburni (Sclater). Blue Mountain Vireo. Laletesosburni Sclater, 1861, Proc.Zool. Soc.London, p. 72, pl. 14, fig. 2. (Freeman's Hall, Trelawny Parish,Jamaica.) Habitat.--Montane Evergreen Forest, Tropical Lowland Evergreen Forest, Secondary Forest(600-2000 m; Tropicaland Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident in the hills and mountainsof Jamaica(most commonlyin the Blue Mountains).

Vireofiavifrons Vieillot. Yellow-throatedVireo. VireofiavifronsVieillot, 1808, Hist. Nat. Ois. Amer. Sept. 1 (livr.9): 85,pl. 54. (•tats Unis -- easternUnited States.) Habitat.--Primarily tall opendeciduous forest and woodland, tall riparianwoodland, and, 434 FAMILY VIREONIDAE lessfrequently, mixed deciduous-coniferous woodland with tall trees;in migrationand winter, a variety of woodedhabitats. Distribution.--Breeds from southeasternSaskatchewan, southern Manitoba, Minnesota, northernWisconsin, northern Michigan, southernOntario, southwesternQuebec, northern New Hampshire,and southwesternMaine southto easternTexas, the Gulf coast,and central Florida, and west to central North Dakota, eastern South Dakota, easternNebraska, eastern Kansas, eastern Oklahoma, and west-central Texas. Winters from northernand south-centralOaxaca and southernVeracruz southalong both slopesof Middle America(including the YucatanPeninsula and Cozumel Island), and from extreme southernFlorida throughthe BahamaIslands, Cuba, the Isle of Pines, and the CaymanIslands to centralColombia and northern Venezuela, casually in southernCalifornia and the Virgin Islands(St. Thomas,St. John).No documentedwinter records in the eastern United States north of southern Florida Migrates regularlythrough eastern North America eastof the Rockies,Bermuda (rare), and easternMexico, casuallythrough western North Americafrom northernCalifornia, Nevada, eastern Colorado, and western Texas southward. Casual or accidental north to central Saskatchewan, western Ontario, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland. Accidental in the Lesser Antilles (St. Vincent, Barbados),Tobago, Chaca- chacareIsland (off Trinidad), and the British Isles; sight reportsfor Idaho and Nayarit.

Vireo plurnbeus Coues.Plumbeous Vireo. Vireoplumbeus Coues, 1866, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia18: 74. (Fort Whipple, Arizona.) Habitat.--Open yellowpine forest, pine-oak association, oak scrub, pinyon-juniper woodland, and riparianwoodland; in migrationand winter,a variety of woodedhabitats (Sub- tropical and Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breeds from west-central Nevada, extreme south-central Idaho, northeastern Utah, central and southeasternMontana, southwestern South Dakota, and north- westernNebraska south through the westernUnited States(from mountainsof east-central California east of crest of Sierra Nevada and southernCalifornia) east to western Texas and Mexico to Belize, Guatemala, E1 Salvador, and Honduras. Winters from the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico south to Honduras. Migrates throughthe Great Basin,Utah, Wyoming,western and centralColorado, New Mexico, and northern and central Mexico. Casual or accidentalin south-centralOregon (Harney County), northwesternNevada, easternColorado, and southwesternLouisiana. Sight recordsfrom easternNorth America are unsubstantiated. Notes.--Vireo solitarius, V. cassinii, and V. plumbeuswere formerly regardedas subspeciesof V. solitarius[Solitary Vireo]; they constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990).Specific status of thethree forms is basedupon differences in morphology,coloration, vocalizations(Borror 1972, James1981), and genetics(Murray et al. 1994, Johnson1995). Assignmentof populationsfrom Central America to V. plumbeusis tentative.

Vireo cassinii Xantus de Vesey. Cassin'sVireo. Vireo cassiniiXantus de Vesey, 1858, Proc.Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,10:117 (Fort Tejon, California.) Habitat--Open coniferousor mixed coniferous-deciduouswoodland, pine-oak association, oak woodland;in migrationand winter, a varietyof woodedhabitats (Temperate Zone). Distribution--Breeds from southernBritish Columbia (including VancouverIsland), southwesternAlberta, and westernMontana southto central Idaho and east-centralOregon, throughnorthern California and extremewest-central Nevada, thence west of the axis of the SierraNevada to the coastalslopes of the mountainsof southernCalifornia and northern Baja California(Sierra San Pedro Martfr) andin the Capedistrict of southernBaja California. Winters from the southwesternUnited States (rare) and northwesternMexico south to Guatemala. Casual in northwestern California. FAMILY VIREONIDAE 435

Migrates through the Pacific coastal states,Idaho, western Montana, the Great Basin, Utah, Arizona, and eastwardin the Rocky Mountain region throughColorado, New Mexico, and western Texas. Casualor accidentalin southeasternAlaska, Oklahoma(Cimmaron County), New York, and New Jersey. Notes.--See commentsunder V. plumbeus.

Vireo solitarius (Wilson). Blue-headed Vireo. Muscicapasolitaria Wilson, 1810, Amer. Ornithol. 2: 143, pl. 17, fig. 6. (Bartram's woods,near Philadelphia[Pennsylvania].) Habitat.--Open coniferousor mixed coniferous-deciduouswoodland; in migration and winter, a variety of woodedhabitats, but favors tall woodlandwith live oaks and pines (TemperateZone). Distribution.•Breeds from northeasternBritish Columbia and Alberta (except southwestern part), southwesternMackenzie, northern and southeasternAlberta, northern Sas- katchewan, central Manitoba, northern Ontario, southernQuebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and southwestern Newfoundland south to north-central North Dakota (probably),north-central and northeasternMinnesota, northern Wisconsin, south- centralIndiana, south-centralOhio, easternPennsylvania, northern New Jersey,and Mas- sachusetts,and southin the Appalachiansand Piedmontregion to easternTennessee, north- easternAlabama, centralGeorgia, northwestern South Carolina, centralNorth Carolina, and central Virginia. Winters from central Texas, southernArkansas, the northernportions of the Gulf states, and southernVirginia south to southernFlorida, Cuba, the Isle of Pines, and (probably) Jamaica,and through easternand southernMexico and Central America (mostly Gulf- Caribbeanslope) to Costa Rica. Migrates throughthe centraland easternUnited States,mostly eastof the Rockies(rarely easternNew Mexico and westernTexas) and casuallythrough Bermuda and the northern Bahama Islands. Casual or accidental in California, southern Arizona, eastern Colorado, and Greenland. Sight reportsfrom Panama. Notes.--See commentsunder V. plumbeus.

Vireo earmioli Baird. Yellow-wingedVireo. Vireo carmioli Baird, 1866, Rev. Amer. Birds 1: 356. (Dota [= Santa Mafia de Dota], San Jos•, Costa Rica.) Itabitat.--Montane EvergreenForest (2000-3300 m; upper Subtropicaland Temperate zones). Distribution.--Resident in the mountains of Costa Rica (Cordillera Central, Dota Moun- tains, and Cordillera de Talamanca)and westernPanama (western Chiriqu0. Notes.--Genetic evidencesupports a sisterrelationship between V. carmioli and V. huttoni (Johnsonet al. 1988). Also known as Carmiol's Vireo.

Vireo huttoni Cassin. Hutton's Vireo. Vireo Huttoni Cassin,1851, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia5: 150. (Montereyand Georgetown,California = Monterey,California.) Habitat.--Pine-oak association,oak woodland,riparian woodland,and locally in tall chaparraland denseundergrowth at edge of humid coniferousforest (Subtropicaland Tem- perate zones). Distribution.--Resident from southwesternBritish Columbia (including VancouverIs- land) souththrough western Washington, western Oregon, and California (west of the Sierra Nevadadivide, includingthe ChannelIslands) to northwesternBaja California;in the Cape district of southernBaja California; from central Arizona, southwesternNew Mexico, and westernTexas (also casuallyin Real County) souththrough the highlandsof Mexico to central and southernOaxaca; and from Chiapasto westernGuatemala. 436 FAMILY VIREONIDAE

Casual in the desertregion of southeasternCalifornia and southwesternArizona; a sight report for easternOregon. Notes.--An allozyme study (Cicero and Johnson1992) showeda pronounceddifference betweenpopulations in California and Arizona. See commentsunder V. carrnioli.

Vireo hypochryseusSclater. Golden Vireo. Vireo hypochryseusSclater, 1863, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1862), p. 369, pl. 46. (Mexico.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Gallery Forest (0-2000 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident on the Pacific slope of Mexico from southernSonora south to Oaxaca (west of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec);in interior from Jalisco to Morelos; also in the Tres Mafias Islands,off Nayarit.

Vireo gilvus (Vieillot). Warbling Vireo. Muscicapagilva Vieillot, 1808, Hist. Nat. Ois. Amer. Sept. 1 (livr.6): 65,pl. 34.(l•tat de New-Yorck -- New York.) Habitat.---Open deciduousand mixed deciduous-coniferouswoodland, riparian forest and thickets (commonlyin associationwith cottonwoods,aspen, and tree willows; often near water), pine-oak association,orchards, and parks; in migration and winter, a variety of woodedhabitats (Subtropical and Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breeds [swainsoniigroup] from southeasternAlaska, northernBritish Co- lumbia, west-central and southwestern Mackenzie, northern and southeasternAlberta, south- westernSaskatchewan, central Wyoming, southwesternSouth Dakota, andwestern Nebraska southto northernBaja California (alsoin the Victoria Mountainsof southernBaja California), southernNevada, central and southeasternArizona, the highlandsof Mexico (Sierra Madre Occidental to M6xico, Morelos, and central Oaxaca), southern New Mexico, and western Texas; and [gilvus group] from central Alberta, central Saskatchewan,southern Manitoba, western and southern Ontario, extreme southwesternQuebec, Maine, New Brunswick, and southernNova Scotia (probably) southto southeasternTexas (casually), southernLouisiana (formerly), central Mississippi,northern Alabama, southeasternTennessee, western North Carolina, central SouthCarolina, and Virginia, and west to southeasternMontana, northern and eastern North Dakota, eastern South Dakota, eastern Nebraska, Kansas, and southeastern Colorado. Winters [swainsoniigroup] in Mexico (mostly Pacific slope and interior) from southern Sonora south to Oaxaca, and east to Hidalgo and southeasternVeracruz, casually north to southernCalifornia and southernArizona; and [gilvusgroup] from Oaxaca(rarely), southern Veracruz, and Chiapas south through Guatemalato E1 Salvador,rarely to Hondurasand Nicaragua.Accidental in Bermuda(late December). Migrates [swainsoniigroup] through southwestern Canada and the westernUnited States; and [gilvus group] regularly throughthe south-centralUnited Statesand easternMexico, rarely (or casually)through the southeasternstates east to southernFlorida and Bermuda. Casual [swainsoniigroup] in south-coastalAlaska (Anchorage,Middleton Island), southern Louisiana,and northernFlorida; and [gilvusgroup] in Nova Scotia (Seal Island), New- foundland(Great Codroy), and westernCuba. A sightreport [groupuncertain] from northeastern Costa Rica. Notes.--The two groupsdiffer morphologically,vocally, genetically,and ecologically, and possiblyrepresent distinct species,V. swainsoniiBaird, 1858 [WesternWarbling-Vireo] and V. gilvus [EasternWarbling-Vireo] (J. C. Barlow, pers. comm.); they were treated as speciesby Sibley and Monroe (1990) and Phillips (1991). Relationshipsbetween V. gilvus and V. leucophrysremain uncertain;some authors(e.g, Blake in Paynter 1968, Mayr and Short 1970) treat them as conspecific;herein they are treated as sisterspecies (Johnson et al. 1988) that form a superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990).

Vireo leucophrys(Lafresnaye). Brown-capped Vireo. Hylophilus leucophrysLafresnaye, 1844, Rev. Zool. [Paris] 7: 81. (Colombie = Co- lombia.) FAMILY VIREONIDAE 437

Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Secondary Forest (1200-2600 m; Subtropicaland Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident locally in the highlandsfrom easternSan Luis Potosfand southern Tamaulipassouth through Hidalgo and Puebla to Veracruz;from southeasternOaxaca through Chiapasand Guatemala to Honduras;and in the mountainsof CostaRica andwestern Panama (east to Veraguas),and from easternPanama (Dari6n), Colombia, and northernVenezuela south in the Andes to central Bolivia. Notes.--See commentsunder V. gilvus.

Vireo philadelphicus(Cassin). Philadelphia Vireo. Vireosylviaphiladelphica Cassin, 1851, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 5: 153. (Bingham'swoods, near Philadelphia,Pennsylvania.) Habitat.--Open deciduousor mixed deciduous-coniferouswoodland, forest edge, second growth, and alder and willow thickets,especially near streams;in migrationand winter, a variety of wooded habitats. Distribution.--Breeds from northeastern British Columbia, northern Alberta, northwestern Saskatchewan,central Manitoba, northern Ontario, south-centralQuebec, New Bruns- wick, and southwesternNewfoundland (not known to breed in Nova Scotia) southto south- central Alberta, central Saskatchewan,southern Manitoba, north-central North Dakota, north- easternMinnesota, northern Michigan, southernOntario, northernNew York, southernQue- bec, Prince Edward Island, and northernNew England. Wintersfrom Chiapas(rarely north to southernVeracruz and the YucatanPeninsula) south to the westernhighlands of Panama,rarely to northernColombia. Casual in coastalsouthern California, and accidental in southernLouisiana. Migrates primarily east of the Rockies and west of the Appalachians,rarely through California in fall (casuallyin springin centraland southernregions of the state),and less commonlythrough the southeasternUnited Statessouth to the Gulf coast,southern Florida, and Cuba. Casual in east-centraland south-coastalAlaska (Eagle, Middleton Island), southwestern British Columbia,eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, Montana, Wyoming, easternColo- rado, Arizona, southernNew Mexico, western Texas, Nova Scotia, Bermuda, the Bahama Islands (Abaco, Eleuthera,New Providence),Jamaica, Guerrero, and northwesternOaxaca; accidentalin the British Isles;a sightreport for northernBaja California.

Vireo olivaceus (Linnaeus).Red-eyed Vireo. Muscicapaolivacea Linnaeus,1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 327. Basedmainly on "The Red Ey'd Flycatcher" Catesby,Nat. Hist. Carolina 1: 54, pl. 54. (in America septentrionali = South Carolina.) Habitat.--[olivaceus group] Deciduousand mixed coniferousforest, second-growth woodland,riparian woodland; in migrationand winter,a variety of open forest,woodland, and scrub habitats;[chivi group] Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, SecondaryForest, TropicalDeciduous Forest, Gallery Forest(0-1500 m; Tropicaland Subtropicalzones.) Distribution.--Breeds [olivaceusgroup] from southeasternAlaska (probably), southwesternand northeasternBritish Columbia (includingVancouver Island), west-centraland southwesternMackenzie, northern Alberta, northwestern and central Saskatchewan,north- centralManitoba, northern Ontario, south-central Quebec (including Anticosti and Magdalen islands),New Brunswick,Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and southernNewfoundland southto northernOregon, northern Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, easternColorado, western Oklahoma,northeastern Coahuila (probably), south-central (Edwards Plateau) and eastern Texas (south to Nueces River), the Gulf coast, and southernFlorida; and [chivi group] in South America from Colombia, Venezuela(including Margarita Island), Tobago,Trinidad, and the Guianas south, west of the Andes to northwestern Peru and east of the Andes to central Argentina. Winters[olivaceus group] in SouthAmerica east of the Andesin the Amazonbasin of eastern Colombia, southern Venezuela, eastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, and western Brazil; and [chivi group]in the northernpart of the breedingrange southto the Amazonbasin. 438 FAMILY VIREONIDAE

Migrates[olivaceus group] through eastern North America (east of theRockies), the Gulf- Caribbeanslope of Mexico,Bermuda, the Bahama Islands, the Greater Antilles, the Cayman Islands,along both slopes of Middle America(from Chiapas southward) and northern South America,rarely but regularlythrough California (more frequent in fall), rarelyelsewhere in westernNorth America south of the breedingrange. Casual or accidental[olivaceus group] in central and south-coastalAlaska (Fairbanks, Anchorage,Middleton Island), Chile, Greenland, Iceland, the British Isles (almost annually), the Netherlands,Germany, France, and Malta; sightreports for southernYukon and northern Baja California. Notes.--The two groupsare sometimesregarded as separatespecies because of a wide hiatus in distribution,but recent biochemicalstudies (Johnson and Zink 1985) indicatethat chivi (Vieillot, 1817) [Chivi Vireo] and olivaceus[Red-eyed Vireo] are closelyrelated and presumablyconspecific, whereas V. fiavoviridis is distinctat the specieslevel; the approach of the breedingranges (with no suggestionof any intergradation)of the chivi groupand fiavoviridisin easternPanama and northwesternColombia also supportsrecognition of fiavoviridisat the specieslevel. The residentpopulation on Fernandode Noronha,formerly consideredto be conspecificwith the chivigroup, is recognizedas a species,V. gracilirostris Sharpe,1890, by Olson(1994). Vireo olivaceus,V. gracilirostris,V. fiavoviridis,V. altiloquus,and V. magisterare alsoclosely related and may constitutea superspecies(Blake in Paynter1968, Mayr and Short 1970, Sibleyand Monroe 1990).

Vireofiavoviridis (Cassin).Yellow-green Vireo. VireosylviafiavoviridisCassin, 1851, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia5: 162,pl. 11. (Panamaand San Juande Nicaragua= San Juandel Sur, Nicaragua.) Habitat.--SecondaryForest, Tropical Deciduous Forest, Gallery Forest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge (0-1700 m; Tropicaland Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Breeds from central Sonora, northern Nuevo Le6n (to Sierra Picachos, Sierrade losLampazos), and (rarely) southern Texas (lower Rio GrandeValley) southalong both slopesof Middle America(including the TresMafias Islands,off Nayafit) to Costa Rica and Panama(Pacific slope east to easternPanamfi province, including Coiba and the Pearl islands). Winters in South America in the western Amazon Basin from eastern Ecuador south to central Bolivia. Migratesthrough Middle America(including islas Providencia and San Andr6s)and Colombia.Recorded annually in fall in California. Casual or accidentalin southernArizona, southeasternNew Mexico, southwestern,central and southeasternTexas, southwesternLouisiana, Bermuda, Florida, the LesserAntilles (Bar- bados), and Venezuela. Notes.--See comments under V. olivaceus.

Vireo altiloquus (Vieillot). Black-whiskeredVireo. Muscicapaaltiloqua Vieillot, 1808, Hist. Nat. Ois. Amen Sept. 1 (livr. 7): 67, pl. 38. (Jamaica,Saine-Domingue, etc. = St. Thomas,Virgin Islands.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Secondary Forest,Mangrove Forest (0-900 m). Distribution.--Breeds in central and southernFlorida (Cedar Keys and New Smyrna Beachsouthward, mainly coastal), the BahamaIslands, throughout the Greaterand Lesser Antilles(where permanent resident), Little Cayman,and Cayman Brac in theCayman Islands, islands of the western Caribbean Sea (Providenciaand San Andr6s), and islandsoff the north coastof Venezuela(Netherlands Antilles eastto Margarita Island). Wintersapparently in SouthAmerica from eastern Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas south, east of the Andes, to northeasternPeru and Amazonian Brazil (but many of these recordswithin this range may pertain to transients),rarely on Hispaniola,Puerto Rico, and in the northern Lesser Antilles and Providencia and San Andr6s islands. Migrates (mostlyin spring)along the Gulf coastfrom westernFlorida to southeastern FAMILY VIREONIDAE 439

Louisiana(where summerreports suggest possible breeding), on Trinidad, and casuallyon the Caribbeanslope of Panama. Casualin Texas,southwestern Louisiana, North Carolina,Virginia, Bermuda,Belize, Costa Rica, and Tobago;a sightreport for QuintanaRoo. An old recordfrom Hondurasis without basis (Monroe 1968). Notes.--See comments under V. olivaceus.

Vireo magister (Lawrence). YucatanVireo. Vireosylviamagister (Baird MS) Lawrence, 1871, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N.Y. 10: 20. (Belize, Br. Honduras.) Itabitat.--Tropical Deciduous Forest, Secondary Forest, Mangrove Forest (Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Residentin theCayman Islands (Grand Cayman), on theYucatan Peninsula (including Mujeres and Cozumel islands) southto Belize (including small cays offshore), and on the Bay and Hog islandsoff the Caribbeancoast of Honduras. Accidental in southeasternTexas (photos,29 April - 27 May 1984, Bolivar Peninsula; Morgan et al. 1985). Notes.--See comments under V. olivaceus. Also known as Belize Vireo.

Genus HYLOPHILUS Temminck Hylophilus Temminck, 1822, PlanchesColor., livr. 29, pl. 173. Type, by subsequent designation(G. R. Gray, 1840), Hylophiluspoicilotis Temminck. Notes.--This genusmay be paraphyletic(Johnson et al. 1988).

Hylophilusfiavipes Lafresnaye.Scrub Greenlet. HylophilusfiavipesLafresnaye, 1845, Rev. Zool. [Paris] 8: 342. ("Bogotfi," Colombia.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Gallery Forest,Secondary Forest, Mangrove Forest (0-1000 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident [viridifiavusgroup] on the Pacific slope of southwesternCosta Rica (north to Gulf of Nicoya area) to central Panama(also Isla Coiba, and the Caribbean slope in the Canal area); and [fiavipesgroup] in South America from northernand eastern Colombia eastthrough Venezuela (also Margarita Island and Tobago). Notes.--Groups: H. viridifiavusLawrence, 1861 [Yellow-greenGreenlet] and H. fiavipes [ScrubGreenlet]. Hylophilusfiavipes and H. olivaceusTschudi, 1844 [OlivaceousGreenlet], of easternEcuador and Peru, may constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990).

Hylophilusochraceiceps Sclater. Tawny-crowned Greenlet. Hylophilusochraceiceps Sclater, 1859, Proc.Zool. Soc.London, p. 375. In statuOaxaca reipubl. Mexicanae . . . Playa Vicente = Playa Vicente, Veracruz; Binford, 1989, Ornithol. Monogr. 43, p. 344.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest (0-1200 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropical zones). Distribution.--Resident [ochraceicepsgroup] from northeasternOaxaca and southern Veracruzsouth on the Gulf-Caribbeanslope (except Yucatfin) to Nicaragua,on both slopes of Costa Rica (absentfrom the dry northwest)and Panama,and in South America from Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas south, west of the Andes to western Ecuador and east of the Andes to central Bolivia and Amazonian Brazil (north of the Amazon); and [rubrifrons group] in Amazonian Brazil southof the Amazon. Notes.--Groups: H. ochraceiceps[Tawny-crowned Greenlet] and H. rubrifrons Sclater and Salvin 1867 [Red-fronted Greenlet].

Hylophilus aurantiifrons Lawrence.Golden-fronted Greenlet. Hylophilusaurantiifrons Lawrence, 1861, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N.Y. 7: 324. (Atlantic slope,along the line of the PanamaRailroad = Canal Zone.) 440 FAMILY VIREONIDAE

Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Gallery Forest,Secondary Forest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge (0-1300 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Residentfrom easternPanama (west to westernPanam• province on the Pacificslope, and in the Canal area on the Caribbeanslope) east across northern Colombia to northern Venezuela and Trinidad. Notes.--Sibley and Monroe (1990) consideredH. aurantiifronsand SouthAmerican H. semibrunneusLafresnaye, 1845 [Rufous-napedGreenlet], to constitutea superspecies.

Hylophilus decurtatus(Bonaparte). Lesser Greenlet Sylvicola decurtata Bonaparte,1838, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1837), p. 118. (Gna- tamain = Pacific slope,Ixtapa to Antigua, Guatemala.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest, Tropical Deciduous Forest, Gallery Forest, SecondaryForest (0-1400 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident [decurtatusgroup] from southeasternSan Luis Potos•,Veracruz, northeasternPuebla, northern and southeasternOaxaca, Chiapas, and northern Quintana Roo southalong both slopesof Middle America (exceptYucat•) to centralPanama (east to the Canal area);and [minorgroup] from easternPanama (west to the Canal area) souththrough northern and western Colombia to western Ecuador. Notes.--Although the two groupsare often recognizedas separatespecies, H. decurtatus [Gray-headedGreenlet] and H. minor Berlepschand Taczanowski,1884 [LesserGreenlet], they intergradethrough eastern Panam• province and the Canal area (Wetmoreet al. 1984).

Genus VIREOLANIUS Bonaparte Vireolanius(Du Bus de GisigniesMS) Bonaparte,1850, Consp.Gen. Avium 1(2): 330. Type, by monotypy,Vireolanius melitophrys Bonaparte. SmaragdolaniusGriscom, 1930, Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 438, p. 3. Type, by original designation,Vireolanius pulchellus Sclater and Salvin.

Vireolanius melitophrysBonaparte. Chestnut-sided Shrike-Vireo. Vireolanius melitophrys(Du Bus de Gisignies MS) Bonaparte, 1850, Consp. Gen. Avium 1(2): 330. (Mexico = Jico, near Jalapa,Veracruz.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Pine-Oak Forest (1350-3000 m; Subtropicaland lower Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident in the highlandsfrom Jalisco,southeastern San Luis Potosfand Veracruz south to western Guatemala.

Vireolaniuspulchellus Sclaterand Salvin. Green Shrike-Vireo. Vireolaniuspulchellus Sclater and Salvin, 1859, Ibis, p. 12. (Guatemala.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest (0-1000 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropical zones). Distribution.--Resident on the Gulf-Caribbeanslope of Middle America from southern Veracruz,northern Oaxaca, and Chiapas south to Nicaragua,on the Pacificslope of Chiapas, Guatemala,and E1 Salvador,on both slopesof CostaRica (exceptthe dry northwest),and mainly on the Caribbeanslope of Panama (east to western San Blas and easternPanam• province). Notes.•Vireolanius pulchellusand V. eximiusconstitute a superspecies(Sibley andMon- roe 1990) and are perhapsconspecific (Hellmayr 1935). These two speciesare frequently placed in the genusSmaragdolanius (Eisenmann 1955).

Vireolanius eximius Baird. Yellow-browed Shrike-Vireo. Vireolaniuseximius Baird, 1866, Rev. Amer. Birds 1: 398. ("Bogot&" Colombia.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Montane EvergreenForest (0-1500 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropicalzones). FAMILY CORVIDAE 441

Distribution.--Resident in extreme eastern Panama (eastern Dari6n), northern Colombia and western Venezuela. Notes.--See commentsunder V. pulchellus.

Genus CYCLARHIS Swainson CyclarhisSwainson, 1824, Zool. J. 1: 294. Type, by monotypy,Tanagra gujanensis Gmelin.

Cyclarhisgujanensis (Gmelin). Rufous-browedPeppershrike. Tanagra gujanensisGmelin, 1789, Syst.Nat. 1(2): 893. Basedon "Verderoux" Buffon, Hist. Nat. Ois. 5: 27. (in Gujanae silvis ingentibus= French Guiana.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge, Gallery Forest,Secondary Forest, Montane EvergreenForest Edge (0-2800 m; Tropical and Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident [gujanensisgroup] from southeasternSan Luis Potosf,southern Tamaulipas,Veracruz, Hidalgo, Puebla,northern Oaxaca, and Chiapassouth on both slopes of Middle America (includingthe YucatanPeninsula, and Cancunand Cozumel islands)to Panama(including Isla Coiba), and in SouthAmerica from northernand easternColombia, Venezuela(including Margarita Island), Trinidad, and the Guianassouth, east of the Andes, to northwesternArgentina and southernBrazil; [virenticepsgroup] in westernEcuador and northwesternPeru; [viridis group] in north-centralArgentina and northernParaguay and [ochrocephalagroup] southeasternBrazil, southernParaguay, Uruguay, and northeastern Argentina. Notes.--Groups: C. gujanensis[Rufous-browed Peppershrike], C. virenticepsSclater, 1860 [Yellow-backedPeppershrike], C. viridis (Vieillot, 1822) [Chaco Peppershrike],and C. ochrocephalaTschudi, 1845 [Ochre-crownedPeppershrike].

Family CORVIDAE: Crows and Jays Notes.--For informationon relationshipsamong genera, see Peters (1962), Hardy (1969), Mayr and Short (1970), Goodwin (1976), Sibley and Ahlquist (1990), Sibley and Monroe (1990) and Espinosade los Monteros(1997).

GenusPERISOREUS Bonaparte PerisoreusBonaparte, 1831, G. Arcad. Sci. Lett. Arti [Rome] 49: 42. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1840), Corvuscanadensis Linnaeus.

Perisoreuscanadensis (Linnaeus). Gray Jay. Corvus canadensisLinnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 158. Based on "Le Geay brun de Canada" Brisson,Ornithologie 2: 54, pl. 4, fig. 2. (in Canada = Quebec.) Habitat.•Coniferous and mixed coniferous-deciduousforest (primarily spruce),including open and partly open woodlandand aroundbogs. Distribution.--Resident [canadensisgroup] (partly migratoryin northernparts of breeding range) from northernAlaska, northernYukon, northernMackenzie, southwesternKee- watin, northern Manitoba, northern Ontario, northern Quebec, northern Labrador, and New- foundland south to southernAlaska (west to the Alaska Peninsula, but absent from humid coastalforests of south-coastaland southeasternAlaska), British Columbia (except southwestern),eastern Washington, northeastern and east-central Oregon, Idaho, Utah, east-central Arizona (White Mountains), north-centralNew Mexico, centralColorado, and southwestern South Dakota (Black Hills), and (east of the Rocky Mountains) to central Saskatchewan, southernManitoba, northernMinnesota, northernWisconsin, northern Michigan, southern Ontario, northernNew York, northernNew England,New Brunswick,and Nova Scotia;and [obscurusgroup] in the coastalranges and Cascadesfrom southwesternBritish Columbia (including VancouverIsland) south through western and central Washingtonand western and centralOregon to northernCalifornia (to Trinity, Siskiyou,and Modoc counties). Wanders[canadensis group] north of breedingrange, and southin winter irregularlyto 442 FAMILY CORVIDAE northwesternNebraska, central Minnesota, southeasternWisconsin, central Michigan, southern Pennsylvania,central New York, Connecticut,and Massachusetts. Notes.--The two groupsmay be separatespecies, P. canadensis[Canada Jay] and P. obscurusRidgway, 1873 [OregonJay] (Phillips 1986). Perisoreuscanadensis and the Old World P. infaustus(Linnaeus, 1758) [SiberianJay] and P. internigrans(Thayer and Bangs, 1912) [SichuanJay] may constitutea superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970).

Genus CYANOCITTA Strickland

CyanocittaStrickland, 1845, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (1)15: 260, 261. Type, by original designation,Corvus cristatusLinnaeus.

Cyanocittastelleri (Gmelin). Steller'sJay. CorvusStelleri Gmelin, 1788, Syst.Nat. 1(1): 370. Basedon "Steller'sCrow" Latham, Gen. Synop.Birds 1(1): 387. (in sinu Natka Americae borealis = Nootka Sound, VancouverIsland, British Columbia.) Habitat.--Primarily coniferousand mixed coniferous-deciduousforest, including humid coniferousforest in northwesternNorth America and arid pine-oakassociation in the Middle American highlands(upper Subtropicaland Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident from south-coastaland southeasternAlaska (west to the Kenai Peninsula),coastal and central British Columbia (includingthe Queen Charlotte and Van- couver islands),southwestern Alberta, westernMontana, Wyoming, and Coloradosouth to southernCalifornia, Arizona, throughthe highlandsof Middle America (except Belize) to north-centralNicaragua, and eastto east-centralColorado, central New Mexico, andwestern Texas(Davis and Guadalupemountains). Casual north to northern British Columbia, east to west-central and southernSaskatchewan, southwestern South Dakota, northwestern Nebraska, southwestern Kansas, western Okla- homa, and centralTexas, and southto extremenorthwestern Baja California. Accidentalin southernQuebec (Cap Rouge); a sight report for Vermont. Notes.--Cyanocitta stelleri and C. cristata hybridize occasionallyin centralColorado; they may constitutea superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970).

Cyanocittacristata (Linnaeus).Blue Jay. Corvuscristatus Linnaeus, 1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 106. Basedon "The Blew Jay" Catesby,Nat. Hist. Carolina 1: 15, pl. 15. (in America septentrionali= SouthCar- olina.) Habitat.--Primarily forest (deciduousor mixed deciduous-coniferous),open woodland, parks, and residentialareas, especially where oaks and beech are common. Distribution.--Resident from east-central British Columbia, northern Alberta, central Sas- katchewan, central Manitoba, central Ontario, southern Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland south to central and southeasternTexas, the Gulf coast,and southernFlorida (includingthe upperFlorida Keys), andwest to Montana, northern and easternWyoming, easternColorado, and east-centralNew Mexico. Northernpopulations are partly (and variably) migratoryto the southernparts of the breedingrange, and irregular or casualwest to southernBritish Columbia, westernWash- ington,western and central Oregon, California (mostly northern), west-central Nevada, Idaho, Utah, Montana, Arizona, and western New Mexico. Accidental on Bermuda. Notes.--See comments under C. stelleri.

GenusCALOCITTA Gray CalocittaG. R. Gray, 1841, List GeneraBirds, ed. 2, p. 50. Type, by originaldesignation, Pica bullockii Waglet --- Pica formosa Swainson. FAMILY CORVIDAE 443

Calocittacolliei (Vigors).Black-throated Magpie-Jay. Pica colliei Vigors, 1829, Zool. J. 4 (1828): 353, pl. 12. (San Blas, Nayarit,Mexico.) Habitat.--TropicalDeciduous Forest, Gallery Forest, Secondary Forest (0-1100 m; Trop- ical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Residenton the Pacific slope from southernSonora and western Chihuahua southto Nayarit, Jalisco,and (possibly)northern Colima. A reportfrom southeasternArizona (Douglas) is almostcertainly based on an escaped individual. Notes.--Calocittacolliei and C. formosaconstitute a superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990), and havebeen considered conspecific (e.g., Phillips1986). If treatedas a single species,Magpie Jay is the appropriateEnglish name.

Calocittaformosa (Swainson). White-throated Magpie-Jay. Pica formosaSwainson, 1827, Philos.Mag. (n.s.) 1: 437. (Temiscaltipec,Mexico = Temascaltepec,M6xico.) Habitat.--TropicalDeciduous Forest, Gallery Forest, Secondary Forest (0-1250 m; Trop- ical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Residenton thePacific slope from Colima, Michoacfin, and western Puebla southto northwesternCosta Rica (Gulf of Nicoyaregion), also in arid interiorvalleys on the Gulf-Caribbeandrainage in Chiapas,Guatemala (Motagua Valley), andHonduras. Notes.--See comments under C. colliei.

Genus CYANOCORAX Boie CyanocoraxBoie, 1826,Isis von Oken,col. 975. Type, by monotypy,Corvus pileatus Temminck= Pica chrysopsVieillot. PsilorhinusRtippell, 1837, Mus. Senckenb.2(2): 188. Type,by monotypy,Psilorhinus mexicanusRtippell = Pica toorio Waglet. CissilophaBonaparte, 1850, Consp.Gen. Avium 1(2): 380. Type, by monotypy,Gar- rulussanblasianus Lafresnaye = Pica san-blasianaLafresnaye. XanthouraBonaparte, 1850, Consp.Gen. Avium 1(2): 380. Type, by subsequentdesignation(G. R. Gray, 1855), Corvusperuvianus Gmelin = Corvusyncas Boddaert.

Cyanocoraxdickeyi Moore. TuftedJay. Cyanocoraxdickeyi Moore, 1935, Auk 52: 275, pl. 13. (RanchoBatel, 5 miles N.E. of Santa Lucia, altitude 5200 ft., Sinaloa, Mexico.) Habitat.--MontaneEvergreen Forest, Pine-Oak Forest (1500-2200 m; Subtropicaland Temperate zones). Distribution.•Residentin the mountainsof southeasternSinaloa, northeastern Nayarit, and southwesternDurango.

Cyanocoraxaffinis Pelzeln.Black-chested Jay. Cyanocoraxaffinis Pelzeln, 1856, Sitzungsber.K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-Naturwiss. KI., 20, p. 164. (Bogotfi,Colombia.) Habitat.--TropicalLowland Evergreen Forest Edge, Secondary Forest, Tropical Decid- uousForest, Gallery Forest(0-1500 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropicalzones). Distributiøn'•Resident in southeasternCosta Rica (Sixaola region), Panama(both slopes),northern and easternColombia, and northwesternVenezuela.

Cyanocoraxyncas (Boddaert).Green Jay. Corvusyncas Boddaert, 1783, Table PlanchesEnlum., p. 38. Based on Daubenton, PlanchesEnlum., pl. 625. (Peru = Chilpes,depto. de Junin.) 444 FAMILY CORVIDAE

Habitat.•Montane EvergreenForest, Tropical DeciduousForest, Secondary Forest (0- 2800 m; Tropical and Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident [luxuosusgroup] from Nayarit, Nuevo Le6n, and southernTexas south in Middle America on the Pacific slope to westernGuatemala, and on the Gulf- Caribbeanslope to Belize, easternGuatemala, and north-centralHonduras (to the Tela region and Valle del Agufin); and [yncasgroup] in South America from northernColombia and northernVenezuela south, primarily on east slope of the Andes, to centralBolivia. Casual [luxuosusgroup] north to southeasternTexas (College Station). Notes.--Groups: C. luxuosus(Lesson, 1839) [Green Jay] and C. yncas [Inca Jay].

Cyanocoraxmorio (Wagler). Brown Jay. Pica morio Waglet, 1829, Isis von Oken, col. 751. (Mexico = Alvarado, Veracruz.) Habitat.--Gallery Forest,Secondary Forest, Tropical Deciduous Forest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge (0-1500 m; Tropical to lower Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident from extreme southernTexas (Starr County), Nuevo Le6n, and Tamaulipassouth on the Gulf-Caribbeanslope of Middle America to westernPanama (re- cordedBocas del Toro and westernCo16n), locally also on the Pacificdrainage in central Costa Rica. Notes.--Two distinctcolor morphs were formerlyregarded as separatespecies (Miller et al. 1957), C. morio [Plain-tippedBrown-Jay] and C. mexicanus(Rtippell, 1837) [White- tippedBrown-Jay], the former occurringsouth to Tabaõco,the latternorth to centralVeracruz.

Cyanocoraxmelanocyaneus (Hartlaub). Bushy-crested Jay. Garrulus (Cyanocorax)melanocyaneus Hartlaub, 1844, Rev. Zool. [Paris] 7: 215. (Gua- temala.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Pine-Oak Forest, SecondaryForest (600-2400 m; Subtropicaland lower Temperatezones, occasionally Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident in the highlands (rarely lowlands) of Guatemala, E1 Salvador, Honduras,and westernNicaragua. Notes.--Also known as Hartlaub'sJay. Cyanocoraxmelanocyaneus is closelyallied to the C. sanblasianus-yucatanicuscomplex; a reasonabletreatment might be to considerthese three speciesand C. beecheiias a superspecies.

Cyanocoraxsanblasianus (Lafresnaye). San Bias Jay. Pica San-BlasianaLafresnaye, 1842, Mag. Zool. [Paris] str. 2, 4 (Ois.), pl. 28, p. 1 and plate. (h Acapulco et h San Blas sur la ctte ouest du Mexique = Acapulco, Guerrero.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest (0-1200 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident on the Pacific slopefrom Nayaxit southto centralcoastal Guer- rero. A flock of eightindividuals recorded in Arizona (1937-1939, Tucson)is generallyregarded as an escapedgroup becausethis speciesis entirely sedentaryas far as is known. Notes.--Also known asBlack-and-blue Jay. Cyanocoraxsanblasianus and C. yucatanicus constitutea superspecies(Sibley andMonroe 1990). Seecomments under C. melanocyaneus.

Cyanocoraxyucatanicus (Dubois). Yucatan Jay. Cyanocittayucatanica Dubois, 1875, Bull. Acad. R. Sci. Lett. Beaux-ArtsBelg. (2)40: 797. (Yucatan.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, SecondaryForest (Tropical Zone). Distributiøn'--Resident in Tabasco,northern Chiapas, the YucatanPeninsula, northern Guatemala (Pettn), and northern Belize. Notes.--See commentsunder C. melanocyaneusand C. sanblasianus. FAMILY CORVIDAE 445

Cyanocoraxbeecheii (Vigors). Purplish-backedJay. Pica Beecheii Vigors, 1829, Zool. J. 4 (1828): 353. (Montereale = Mazatlan, Sinaloa, or San Blas, Nayarit.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest (0-700 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident on the Pacific slopefrom southernSonora to northernNayarit. Recordsfrom California and westernTexas are regardedas escapedcage-birds. Notes.--Also known as Beechey'sJay. See commentsunder C. rnelanocyaneus.

Genus CYANOLYCA Cabanis

CyanolycaCabanis, 1851, Mus. Heineanum 1: 233. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1855), Cyanocoraxarrnillatus G. R. Gray = Garrulus viridi-cyanus Lafresnayeand d'Orbigny.

Cyanolycacucullata (Ridgway). Azure-hoodedJay. Cyanocoraxcucullatus Ridgway, 1885, Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus. 8: 23. (Navarro, Costa Rica.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest (800-2100 m; Subtropicaland lower Temperate zones). Distribution.--Residentlocally in the mountains,primarily on the Gulf-Caribbeanslope, in easternMexico (southeasternSan Luis Potos/, Hidalgo, Veracruz,Puebla, northernand southeasternOaxaca, and interior Chiapas),Guatemala, western Honduras (east to the Sula Valley), CostaRica, and westernPanama (east to Veraguas). Notes.--Cyanolycacucullata and the SouthAmerican C. pulchra (Lawrence,1876) appear to constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990).

Cyanolycapumilo (Strickland).Black-throated Jay. Cyanocoraxpurnilo Strickland,1849, in Jardine,Contrib. Ornithol., p. 122 (in text). (Guatemala= mountainsabove Antigua, depto.Sacatep6quez.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Pine-Oak Forest (1900-3000 m; Subtropicaland lower Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident in the mountainsof Chiapas,Guatemala, northern E1 Salvador (at least formerly), and Honduras;reports from Belize and Nicaraguaare unsatisfactory. Notes.--Also known as Strickland'sJay.

Cyanolycanana (Du Bus de Gisignies).Dwarf Jay. Cyanocoraxnanus Du Bus de Gisignies, 1847, Bull. Acad. R. Sci. Lett. Beaux-Arts Belg. 14: 103. (Le Mexique = Mexico.) Habitat.--Pine-Oak Forest,Pine Forest(1600-3200 m; upperSubtropical and Temperate zones). Distribution.--Resident, at least formerly, in the mountainsof Veracruz, Puebla, and Oaxaca,now possiblyrestricted to the latter state;reports from M6xico are opento question.

Cyanolycaargentigula (Lawrence). Silvery-throatedJay. Cyanocittaargentigula Lawrence, 1875, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N.Y. 11: 88. (Talamanca, Costa Rica = near Pico Blanco, above Sipurio, Costa Rica.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest (2000-3200 m; Subtropicaland lower Temperate zones). Distributiøn'--Resident in the mountainsof Costa Rica (Cordillera Central on slopesof Irazfi and Turrialba volcanoes,and the Cordillera de Talamanca)and westernPanama (western Chiriquf). 446 FAMILY CORVIDAE

Cyanolycamirabilis Nelson. White-throatedJay. Cyanolyca mirabills Nelson, 1903, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 16: 154. (Omilteme [= Omiltemi], Guerrero.) Habitat.--Pine-Oak Forest,Montane Evergreen Forest (1800-3500 m; upperSubtropical and Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident in the mountainsof Guerrero (Sierra Madre del Sur) and Oaxaca (Sierra de Miahuatl•n and Sierra de Yucuyacua). Notes.--Also known as Omiltemi Jay.

Genus APHELOCOMA Cabanis AphelocomaCabanis, 1851, Mus. Heineanum1: 221. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Baird, 1858), Garrulus californicusVigors. Sieberocitta[subgenus] Coues, 1903, Key N. Amer. Birds (ed. 5) 1: 497. Type, by original designation,Cyanocitta ultramarina arizonae Ridgway = Corvus ultra- marinus Bonaparte.

Aphelocomacoerulescens (Bosc). Florida Scrub-Jay. Corvus coerulescensBosc, 1795, Bull. Sci. Soc. Philom. Paris 1 (1791-1799): 87. (in Amer. Septentrional.= Florida.) Habitat.--Oak scrub with widely scatteredpines, especiallywhere low-growing and periodicallyburned. Distribution.--Residentlocally in the Floridapeninsula, especially on centraland coastal sandridges; formerly more widespreadthroughout the peninsulanorth of the Everglades (north to Gilchrist,Clay, and Duval counties). Notes.--Aphelocomacoerulescens, A. californica,and A. insulariswere previously treated as a single species,A. coerulescens[Scrub Jay], following Hellmayr (1934) and Pitelka (1945, 1951). Species-leveldifferentiation of the widely disjunctcoerulescens and the Santa Cruz Island endemicinsularis is confirmedby genetic,morphologic, behavioral, and fossil data (Peterson1992, Pitelka 1951, Woolfendenand Fitzpatrick 1984, Haemig 1989, Emslie 1996).

Aphelocomainsularis Henshaw.Island Scrub-Jay. Aphelocomainsularis Henshaw, 1886, Auk 3: 452. (Santa Cruz Island, California.) Habitat.--Open oak woodland. Distribution.--Resident on Santa Cruz Island in the Channel Islands, California. Notes.--Also known as Santa Cruz Jay. See notes under A. coerulescens.

Aphelocomacalifornica (Vigors). WesternScrub-Jay. Garrulus CalifornicusVigors, 1839, Zool. Voy. "Blossom," p. 21, pl. 5. (Monterey, California.) Habitat.--Scrub (especiallyoak, pinyon, and juniper), brush,chaparral, pine-oak association; also gardens,orchards, riparian woodland,mangroves (southern Baja California), and tropical deciduousforest (southernMexico) (Subtropicaland Temperatezones, upper TropicalZone in southernMexico). Distribution.--Resident [californicagroup] from southwesternWashington south through westernand centralOregon, California (excepteastern mountains), and northwesternand west-centralNevada to southernBaja California; [woodhouseiigroup] from southeastern Oregon,southern Idaho, southernWyoming, western and southernColorado, and extreme westernOklahoma southto easternCalifornia (from White Mountainsto ProvidenceMoun- tains), southernArizona, in the Mexican highlandsto northeasternSonora, Jalisco, central Guanajuato,M6xico, Distrito Federal,and Hidalgo, and eastto westernand centralTexas; and [sumichrastigroup] from Tlaxcalasouth to Oaxaca(west of the Isthmusof Tehuantepec), Puebla, and west-central Veracruz. FAMILY CORVIDAE 447

Casual [groupuncertain] in southwesternBritish Columbia(Langley); and [californica group]in easternWashington, and [woodhouseiigroup] in southeasternCalifornia, southern Manitoba, northernWyoming, Illinois, central Kansas,and the Texas Panhandle. Notes.--See notesunder A. coerulescens.Genetic and behavioraldata (Peterson1991, 1992, Petersonand Burt 1992) suggestthat the threegroups may be separatespecies: A. californica[California Scrub-Jay], A. woodhoused(Baird, 1858) [Woodhouse's Scrub-Jay], andA. sumichrasti(Baird andRidgway, 1874) [Sumichrast'sScrub-Jay].

Aphelocomaultramarina (Bonaparte).Mexican Jay. Corvus ultramarinusBonaparte, 1825, J. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia4: 387. (No locality given = Temascfiltepec,M6xico.) Habitat.--Pine-Oak Forest,Gallery Forest,Pine Forest(1200-3400 m; Subtropicaland Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident[ultramarina group] from centralArizona and southwestern New Mexico south to Colima, northern Michoacfin, M6xico, northern Morelos, Puebla and west- centralVeracruz, and [couchiigroup] from westernTexas (Brewster County), northern Chi- huahua,and northern Coahuila south through west-central Nuevo Le6n, western Tamaulipas, and SanLuis Potosfto westernJalisco (Aguas Calientes, Ceretaras), and Hidalgo. A record of a specimen,evidently now lost, supposedlycollected in 1906 in southern Kansas(Keith 1940) requiresverification. Notes.-•Alsoknown as Gray-breastedJay and ArizonaJay. Isozymeanalyses suggest that the two groupstreated together constitute a paraphyleticspecies (Peterson 1992). The ultramarinagroup, A. ultramarina(Bonaparte, 1825) [UltramarineJay] exhibitsdelayed maturationin bill color,whereas the couchiigroup, A. couchii(Baird, 1858) [Couch'sJay] doesnot, but a broadintermediate area existswhere the groupsmeet in centralMexico (Peterson1991). Differencesin vocaland social behavior also exist between northerly populationsof the two groups(Brown and Horvath 1989), but manypopulations remain un- studied.The couchiigroup is hypothesizedto have arisenthrough hybridization with A. californica(Brown and Li 1995), but evidenceremains weak. Althoughsuggestive, these studiesare insufficient to meritrecognition of two speciesand to delineatewhich populations would belongto each.

Aphelocomaunicolor (Du Bus de Gisignies).Unicolored Jay. Cyanocoraxunicolor Du Bus de Gisignies, 1847, Bull. Acad. R. Sci. Lett. Beaux-Arts Belg. 14(2): 103. (le Mexique= SanCrist6bal [= Ciudadde Las Casas],Chiapas.) Habitat.--Pine-Oak Forest,Montane Evergreen Forest, Pine Forest(1300-3300 m; Sub- tropical and lower Temperatezones). Distribution.--Residentlocally in mountainsof south-centralGuerrero (Sierra Madre del Sur), M6xico (formerly), Hidalgo, westernPuebla, Oaxaca (Sierra de Jufi_rezand Sierra de Zempoaltepec),Chiapas, Guatemala, northern E1 Salvador,and Honduras.

Genus GYMNORHINUS Wied GymnorhinusWied, 1841, Reise N.-Amer. 2: 21. Type, by monotypy,Gymnorhinus cyanocephalusWied.

Gymnorhinuscyanocephalus Wied. PinyonJay. Gymnorhinuscyanocephalus Wied, 1841, Reise N.-Amer. 2: 22. (am Maria-River -- between the Marias and Yellowstonerivers, Montana.) Habitat.--Pinyon-juniperwoodland; in nonbreedingseason also scrub oak and sagebrush. Distribution.--Breeds from centralOregon, southern Idaho, centralMontana, western SouthDakota, and northwesternNebraska south through California (primarily the eastern and southernmountains) to northernBaja California (Sierra Jufirezand Sierra San Pedro MS.rtir), southernNevada, northwesternand east-centralArizona, central (probablyalso southern) New Mexico and western Oklahoma. 448 FAMILY CORVIDAE

Wintersthroughout the breedingrange and irregularly from northwesternOregon, southern Washington,northern Idaho, and centralMontana southto southeasternCalifornia, southeastern Arizona, northern Chihuahua, and western and central Texas, and east to western Nebraskaand westernKansas, casually to North Dakotaand to coastalCalifornia (including the Channel Islands). Casual in Iowa; a sight report for southwesternSaskatchewan. Notes.--Hardy (1969) did not considerthe genusGymnorhinus to be part of the New Worldjays but insteadcloser to the genusNucifraga. Ligon (1974) treatedGymnorhinus as a specialized,early offshootof the New World jays.

Genus NUCIFRAGA Brisson Nucifraga Brisson, 1760, Ornithologie1: 30; 2: 58. Type, by tautonymy,Nucifraga Brisson = Corvus caryocatactesLinnaeus.

Nucifraga columbiana (Wilson). Clark's Nutcracker. Corvus columbianusWilson, 1811, Amer. Ornithol. 3: xv, 29, pl. 20, fig. 2. (shoresof the Columbia -- Clearwater River, abouttwo miles north of Kamiah, Idaho County, Idaho.) Habitat.--Open coniferousforest, forest edge, and clearings,exposed ridges, primarily at high elevationsof mountains,ranging to lower limits of alpine tundra; in winter also irregularlyin lowlands. Distribution.--Resident from south-centralBritish Columbia, southwesternAlberta, western andcentral Montana, westernand southeasternWyoming, and southwesternSouth Dakota souththrough the mountainsof central and easternWashington, eastern Oregon, central and eastern California, and Nevada, and in the Rockies to east-central Arizona and southern New Mexico; isolatedpopulations in northernBaja California (Sierra San PedroMfirtir) and southernNuevo Le6n (Cerro Potos0. Wandersirregularly north to western,central and southeasternAlaska, southernYukon, central Alberta, central Saskatchewan,and southernManitoba, west to coastalOregon and coastalcentral (casually southern) California (includingthe ChannelIslands), and southto southeasternCalifornia (casual), southern Arizona, northern Sonora (Sierra de la Madera), and western Texas, and east to southwestern South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas. Casual or accidentaleast to Minnesota,Iowa, Wisconsin,western Ontario, Pennsylvania, Missouri, Arkansas, west-centralLouisiana, central and northern Texas, and Guadalupe Island; a sightreport for Michigan.

Genus PICA Brisson Pica Brisson, 1760, Ornithologie 1: 20; 2: 35. Type, by tautonymy,Pica Brisson = Corvuspica Linnaeus.

Pica pica (Linnaeus).Black-billed Magpie. CorvusPica Linnaeus,1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 106. (in Europa = Uppsala,Sweden.) Habitat.--Open country with scatteredtrees, riparian and open woodland,forest edge, and farmlands, in either arid or humid habitats. Distribution.--Resident in North America from south-coastalAlaska (west to the Alaska Peninsulaand ShumaginIslands), southernYukon, northernAlberta, central Saskatchewan, central Manitoba, extreme southwesternOntario, and northern Minnesota south (absentfrom coastalareas and regionswest of the Cascadeand Sierra Nevada rangesfrom southeastern Alaska southward)to northeasternand east-centralCalifornia (to Inyo County), south-central Nevada, Utah, extreme northeasternArizona (Apache County, formerly more widespread), northernNew Mexico, western (casually northeastern)Oklahoma, central Kansas,and Ne- braska (except southeastern);and in the Old World from the British Isles, Scandinavia, northernRussia, and centralSiberia southto the Mediterraneanregion, northwestern Africa, the Near East, Iran, the Himalayas,Southeast Asia, easternChina, Taiwan, and Japan. FAMILY CORVIDAE 449

Wanders casually or irregularly from northern (Umiat) and west-centralAlaska, central Yukon, southern Mackenzie, southernKeewatin, northern Saskatchewan,northern Manitoba, central Ontario, and southernQuebec, and south to southwesternBritish Columbia, western Washington,western Oregon, northwestern and west-centralCalifornia (southernCalifornia reportsprobably pertain to escapedindividuals), southern Nevada, northern Arizona, southern New Mexico, western Texas, northern Missouri, and western Iowa; accidental on Banks Island. Also occurscasually or accidentallyfarther east, but no doubtmany record•pertain to escapedindividuals; recorded from Wisconsin, Michigan, southernOntario, southern Quebec,and New Brunswicksouth to Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, West Virginia (breedingre- portedin the CanaanValley), and Pennsylvania(breeding reported in Pittsburgharea), also in Florida (breedingreported in Collier County). Notes.--Known in Old World literature as the Magpie. Pica pica and P. nuttalli are closely related and constitutea superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970); they are considered conspecificby Phillips (1986). North American populationsdiffer morphologicallyfrom Eurasianpopulations (Vaurie 1959), and geneticdata suggestthat more than one species may exist (Zink et al. 1995).

Pica nuttalli (Audubon).Yellow-billed Magpie. Corvus Nutalli [sic] Audubon, 1837, Birds Amer. (folio) 4: pl. 362, fig. 1. (Upper California, aroundthe village of Sta. Barbara.) I-Iabitat.--Open oak woodlandinterspersed with grasslandsor cultivatedlands, open riparian woodland,and savanna. Distribution.--Resident in California in the Sacramentoand San Joaquinvalleys (from ShastaCounty southto Kern County),and in valleysof the coastranges from SanFrancisco Bay southto SantaBarbara County (formerly to VenturaCounty). Casualnorth to near the Oregonborder in northernCalifornia (SiskiyouCounty). Notes.--See commentsunder P. pica and Verbeek (1972).

Genus CORVUS Linnaeus CorvusLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 105. Type, by tautonymy,Corvus corax Linnaeus(Corvus, prebinomial specific name, in synonymy).

Corvus monedula Linnaeus. Eurasian Jackdaw. CorvusMonedula Linnaeus,1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 105. (in Europa = Sweden.) I-Iabitat.-- Open woodlandand aroundtowns. Distribution.--Resident throughoutmost of the Palearctic. Casual (beginningin 1983) in northeasternNorth America in southernOntario, south- easternQuebec, Nova Scotia, Miquelon Island, Massachusetts,Connecticut, and Rhode Island (P. W. Smith 1985); also in Pennsylvania(Lewisburg), where a pair was apparently breeding(1985, Amer. Birds 39: 300, 913). Many (if not all) North American recordsmay be the result of ship-assistedindividuals. Notes.--Known in Old World literature as the Jackdaw.

Corvusbraehyrhynehos Brehm. AmericanCrow. Corvusbrachyrhynchos C. L. Brehm, 1822, Beitr. V6gelkd. 2: 56. (NordlichenAmerika = Boston, Massachusetts.) I-Iabitat.--Open forest and woodlandfor nestingand roosting,increasing in urban and suburbanareas, open and partly open countryfor foraging,including agricultural lands, urban areas, orchards,and tidal flats; restrictedmostly to riparian woodlandand adjacent areasin arid regions. Distribution.--Breeds from extreme southeasternAlaska (east of C. caurinus), north- central British Columbia, southwesternMackenzie, northern Saskatchewan,northern Man- itoba, northernOntario, south-centralQuebec, and Newfoundlandsouth (except in Pacific coastalareas southto northwesternWashington) to extreme northwesternBaja California 450 FAMILY CORVIDAE

(to lat. 32ø S.), central Arizona, southernNew Mexico, central and southeasternTexas, the Gulf coast,and southernFlorida (exceptthe Florida Keys). Wintersfrom southernCanada (British Columbia east to Newfoundland)south throughout the breedingrange, occasionally to the Florida Keys, and casuallyto southernArizona. Introduced and established on Bermuda. Casual in eastern Keewatin, northwestern Sonora and western Chihuahua. Notes.--Also known as Common Crow. Corvus brachyrhynchosand C. caurinus are closely related and may be conspecific(Johnston 1961, Phillips 1986); they constitutea superspecies.Although a few authorsconsider C. brachyrhynchosand the Old World C. coroneto be closelyrelated (or even conspecific)(Meise 1928, Dorst 1947, Dement'ev and Gladkov 1954), the relationshipsof the latter appearto be with other Old World species (Goodwin 1976). Mayr and Short (1970) consideredC. brachyrhynchosand C. nasicusto constitutea superspecies,but see Goodwin (1976).

Corvus caurinus Baird. Northwestern Crow.

Corvus caurinus Baird, 1858, in Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence, Rep. Explor. Surv. R. R. Pac. 9: xliii, 559, 569. (WashingtonTerritory and northwesterncoast = Fort Steilacoom,Washington.) Itabitat.----Coastaltidelands near coniferouswoodland or forest edge, foragingalso in adjacentcroplands and aroundhuman habitation. Distribution.--Resident alongthe Pacificcoast from south-coastaland southeasternAlas- ka (west to Kodiak Island) souththrough western British Columbia (includingthe Queen Charlotteand Vancouverislands) to northwesternWashington (Puget Soundarea). Reportsfrom northwesternOregon (Portland area) are questionable. Notes.--See commentsunder C. brachyrhynchos.

Corvuspalmarum Wtirttemberg.Palm Crow. Corvuspalmarum Wtirttemberg,1835, Erste Reise N. Amen.:68. (vicinity of Cibao Mountains,Dominican Republic.) Itabitat.--Pine Forest,Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest (0-2000 m). Distribution.--Resident on Cuba (locally in Pinar del Rio and Camagtieyprovinces, formerly more widespread)and Hispaniola(mostly in the mountains). Notes.--See comments under C. sinaloae.

Corvus nasicus Temminck. Cuban Crow.

Corvus nasicusTemminck, 1826, PlanchesColor., livr. 70: 413. (Cuba.) Itabitat.--Tropical Lowland Evergreen Forest, Secondary Forest, Pine Forest (0- 1500 m). Distribution.--Resident on Cuba (includingthe Isle of Pines)and in the southernBahama Islands (Providenciales,North Caicos, and Grand Caicos). Notes.--Corvus nasicus,C. jamaicensis,and C. leucognaphalusare closely related and may constitutea superspecies(Johnston 1961, Goodwin 1976). See commentsunder C. brachyrhynchos.

Corvus leucognaphalusDaudin. White-neckedCrow. Corvus leucognaphalusDaudin, 1800, Trait60rnithol. 2: 231. (Puerto Rico.) Itabitat.-•Pine Forest,Secondary Forest, Mangrove Forest (0-1500 m). Distribution.--Resident on Hispaniolaand, formerly,Puerto Rico (whereextirpated, not recorded since 1963). Casual on Gon•ve and Saona islands. Note$.--See commentsunder C. nasicus.Appears to be more closelyrelated to ravens than crows (Rea, in Phillips 1986). FAMILY CORVIDAE 451

Corvusjamaicensis Gmelin. JamaicanCrow. CorvusjamaicensisGmelin, 1788, Syst.Nat. 1(1): 367. Basedlargely on the "Chattering Crow" Latham, Gen. Synop.Birds 1(1): 377. (in Jamaicaemontanis = Jamaica.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland Evergreen Forest, SecondaryForest, Montane Evergreen Forest (0-1200 m). Distribution.--Resident on Jamaica. Notes.--See comments under C. nasicus.

Corvus imparatusPeters. Tamaulipas Crow. Corvus imparatus Peters, 1929, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington42: 123. New name for Corvus mexicanusAuct. (not Gmelin) [= Quiscalus mexicanus]. (Rio La Cruz, Ta- maulipas,Mexico.) Habitat.--Pastures/AgriculturalLands, Tropical Deciduous Forest, Secondary Forest, Pas- tures/AgriculturalLands (0-900 m; TropicalZone). Distribution.--Resident on the Gulf coastfrom Nuevo Le6n, Tamaulipas,and southern Texas (Brownsville) south to San Luis Potosf and northern Veracruz. Regular postbreedingvagrant in southernTexas north to Starr and Kenedy counties. Notes.--See commentsunder C. sinaloae. Formerly known as Mexican Crow.

Corvus sinaloae Davis. Sinaloa Crow. Corvussinaloae Davis, 1958, Wilson Bull. 70: 163. (Escunapa[= Escuinapa],Sinaloa, Mexico.) Habitat.--Gallery Forest,Tropical DeciduousForest, Secondary Forest, Pastures/Agri- cultural Lands (0-700 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident on the Pacific coast of Mexico from southern Sonora south to southwesternNayarit. Notes.--Differs from C. imparatusin vocalizationsand appearsto representa distinct species(Davis 1958, Webber and Hardy 1985, Hardy 1990a, 1990b); they constitutea superspecies[Mexican Crow], which may or may not also include C. ossifragus(Mayr and Short 1970) and C. palmarum (Mayr and Short 1970; but see Goodwin 1976).

Corvus ossifragusWilson. Fish Crow. Corvusossifragus Wilson, 1812, Amer.Ornithol. 5: 27, pl. 37, fig. 2. (GreatEgg-Harbor = Beasley'sPoint, New Jersey.) Habitat.--Beaches, bays, inlets, lagoons, swamps,and, less frequently, deciduousor coniferouswoodland, in inland situationsprimarily in bald-cypressswamps and alongmajor watercourses,locally also in urban and suburbanareas. Distribution.--Resident locally from New York (northwestto Ithaca) and Massachusetts southalong the Atlantic-Gulf coastto southernFlorida, and west to southernTexas; inland alongmajor river systemsto northwesternLouisiana, eastern Oklahoma, southeastern Kansas, southeasternMissouri, southernIllinois, southwesternKentucky, western Tennessee, central Georgia, western South Carolina, northwesternNorth Carolina, central Virginia, central Maryland, extremeeastern West Virginia, and central Pennsylvania. Casual in southernMaine (Portland); sight reports for southwesternIndiana, southern Ontario, and Nova Scotia. Notes.--See commentsunder C. brachyrhynchosand C. sinaloae.

Corvus hawaiiensis Peale. Hawaiian Crow. Corvushawaiiensis Peale, 1848, U.S. Explor.Exped. 8: 106. (a few miles inlandfrom the village of Kaawaloa, Hawaii.) Habitat.--Upland forest and forest edge, and grazedlands. 452 FAMILY MONARCHIDAE

Distribution.---Residentin the Hawaiian Islands on Hawaii, where now very much re- ducedin numbersand restrictedto Hualalai and southwesternslopes of Mauna Kea. Notes.--Also known as Alala. For use of the name hawaiiensis see Banks (1983)

Corvus cryptoleucusCouch. ChihuahuanRaven. Corvuscryptoleucus Couch, 1854, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia7: 66. (State of Tamaulipas,Mexico = Charco Escondido,Tamaulipas.) Habitat.--Northern TemperateGrassland, Arid Lowland Scrub,Arid MontaneScrub (0- 2400 m; Tropicaland Subtropicalzones). Distribution.---Resident(mostly) from northernSonora, south-central and southeastern Arizona, central and northeasternNew Mexico and southeastern(formerly northeastern) Colorado southto Michoacfin,Guanajuato, Quer6taro, San Luis Potosiand Tamaulipas,and east to western Kansas, western Oklahoma, and central and southern Texas. Northeastern populations,especially those in Kansas,are migratory southwardin winter. Notes.--Also known as White-necked Raven, a name now restricted to the African C. albicollis Latham, 1790. See comments under C. corax.

Corvus corax Linnaeus. Common Raven. Corvus Corax Linnaeus,1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 105. (in Europa = Sweden.) Habitat.--A wide variety of situationsfrom lowlandsto mountains,open countryto forestedregions, and humid regionsto desert,but most frequentlyin mountainousor hilly areas,especially in vicinity of cliffs, a preferrednesting site (Tropicalto Temperatezones). Distribution.--Residentin North America from westernand northernAlaska (including islandsin the Bering Sea) and northernCanada (throughout, including Arctic islandsnorth to Prince Patrick and southernEllesmere) southto the Aleutians (west to Attu), California (including the Channel Islands), southernBaja California (including the RevillagigedoIs- lands,and islands in the Gulf of California),through Mexico andthe highlands of Guatemala, E1Salvador, and Honduras to north-centralNicaragua, east to theeastern edge of theRockies, extreme western Oklahoma, and western and central Texas, and, east of the Rockies, south to central and eastern Montana, central Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba, northern Min- nesota,northern Wisconsin, central Michigan, southernOntario, New York, northernCon- necticut, western Massachusetts, southeastern Maine, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland,also locally in the Appalachiansof westernPennsylvania, West Virginia, western Maryland, easternKentucky, western Virginia, easternTennessee, western North Carolina, northwesternSouth Carolina, and northwesternGeorgia; formerly bred locally south to northern Arkansas and northeastern Alabama; and in the Palearctic from Greenland, Iceland, and Scandinavia east across the Arctic coasts to northern Siberia, and south to the Canary Islands,northwestern Africa, the Mediterraneanregion, Near East, Iran, the Him- alayas,Manchuria, and Japan. Wanderssporadically or casuallysouth throughout the Great Plains and to the southern shoresof the GreatLakes, New Jersey,and southernNew England,also to lower elevations in the Appalachiansin central (formerly coastal)Virginia and westernSouth Carolina. Notes.--Also known as Northern Raven or Holarctic Raven, and, in Old World literature, as the Raven. Mayr and Short (1970) suggestedthat Corvuscorax and the Old World C. ruficollisLesson, 1830 [Brown-neckedRaven], constitutea superspecies.

Family MONARCHIDAE: Monarchs

Genus CHASIEMPIS Cabanis ChasiempisCabanis, 1847, Arch. Naturgesch.13: 207. Type, by monotypy,Muscicapa sandvichensisLatham = Muscicapa sandwichensisGmelin.

½hasiempissandwichensis (Gmelin). Elepaio. Muscicapasandwichensis Gmelin, 1789, Syst.Nat. 1(2): 945. Basedon the "Sandwich Fly-catcher"Latham, Gen. Synop.Birds 2(1): 344. (in insulisSandwich = Hawaii.) FAMILY ALAUDIDAE 453

Turdus sandwichensisGmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 813. Based on the "Sandwich Thrush" Latham, Gen. Synop. Birds 2(1): 39. Subjectivesynonym of Muscicapa sandwichensisGmelin, 1789; see Olson (1989). Habitat.--Forested areas,especially in regionsof high rainfall. Distribution.--Resident in the Hawaiian Islands (Kauai, Oahu, and Hawaii).

Family ALAUDIDAE: Larks Notes.--Placementof the Alaudidae here in the linear sequenceis based largely on historicalinertia, not data. Sibley and Ahlquist's(1990) DNA-DNA hybridizationsuggest that the Alaudidaeare a basal group in a lineage (superfamilyPasseroidea) that includes the families Peucedramidaethrough Estrildidae in our currentlinear sequence.Sheldon and Gill (1996), however,found that the Alaudidae are best retainednear their traditionalplace in linear sequences.

Genus ALAUDA Linnaeus Alauda Linnaeus,1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 165. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Selby, 1825), Alauda arvensisLinnaeus.

Alauda arvensisLinnaeus. Sky Lark. Alauda arvensisLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 165. (in Europa: apricis = Uppsala, Sweden.) Habitat.--Fields with tall grass;in Palearcticregion, open country,grasslands, tundra, marshyand sandyareas, and large clearings. Distribution.--Breeds [arvensisgroup] from the British Isles, Scandinavia,northern Rus- sia, and northernSiberia southto northwesternAfrica, the northernMediterranean region, Asia Minor, northernChina, and Korea, and (once) on the Pribilof Islands (1995; St. Paul Is.); and [japonica group] in Japan. Winters[arvensis group] from the breedingrange (exceptthe northernportions) south to northernAfrica, the PersianGulf and easternChina; and [japonica group] in the Ryukyu Islands. Migrates [arvensis group] regularly through the western Aleutians (Near Islands), and casuallyas far eastas the Pribilofs(St. George,where possibly has bred) and as far north as St. Lawrence Island. Introducedand established[arvensis group] in the Hawaiian Islands (main islandsfrom Niihau eastward),British Columbia(southern Vancouver Island, with recentspread to San Juan Island, Washington),New York (Brooklyn in 1887, where extirpatedby 1913), Aus- tralia, and New Zealand; and [japonica group] in the Hawaiian Islands (in 1934). Birds introduced elsewhere in North America did not become established. Accidental[arvensis group] in the northwesternHawaiian Islands(Kure), Bermuda,Ma- deira, and the Canary Islands. An individual, which was photographedand extensively studied,wintered for seven successiveyears (1978-1985) at Point Reyes, California; this bird [arvensisgroup] was probablyone of the Asiatic races (Morlan and Erickson 1983). Notes.--Also known as EuropeanSkylark, EurasianSkylark, or CommonSkylark, and, in Old World literature,as the Skylark.North Americanintroductions, those in the Hawaiian Islands(with one exception),and the vagrantindividual reported from Bermudapertain to the Europeanrace, A. a. arvensis; transientsthrough Alaska, the report from Kure, and probablythe California individual, are referableto the SiberianA. a. pekinensisSwinhoe, 1863, a subspeciesof the arvensisgroup. One Hawaiian introduction(in 1934) was of the Japaneseform [japonica group], the relationshipsof which are uncertain;it may be a full species,A. japonica Temminckand Schlegel, 1848 [JapaneseSkylark], a subspeciesof the Asiatic speciesA. gulgulaFranklin, 1831, or, as hereregarded, a subspeciesofA. arvensis.

Genus EREMOPHILA Boie ErernophilaBole, 1828, Isis von Oken, col. 322. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Sharpe, 1874), O. alpestris = Alauda alpestrisLinnaeus. 454 FAMILY HIRUNDINIDAE

OtocorisBonaparte, 1838, Nuovi Ann. Sci. Nat. Bologna2: 407. Type,by monotypy, Philerernoscornutus Bonaparte = Alaudacornuta Wilson = Alaudaalpestris Lin- naeus.

Eremophila alpestris(Linnaeus). Horned Lark. Alaudaalpestris Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 166. Basedmainly on "The Lark" Catesby,Nat. Hist. Carolina1: 32, pl. 32. (in Americaseptentrionali -- coast of South Carolina.) Habitat.--Short-grassprairies, tundra, sandy regions, desert playas, grazed pastures, stub- ble fields, and open cultivatedareas; favors habitatswith at least some areas of bare soil (Tropical[locally], Subtropical,Temperate, and Borealzones). Distribution.--Breeds [alpestrisgroup] in North America from westernand northern Alaska, the Arctic coastof northernCanada, Banks, Prince Patrick, Devon, and northern Baffin islands,northern Quebec, northern Labrador, and Newfoundlandsouth to southern Baja California(including many islands), central Sonora, in the CentralPlateau region of Mexico to westernVeracruz and Oaxaca (to sealevel in the Isthmusof Tehuantepec),and to the Gulf coast(from northwestern Tamaulipas to southeasternTexas, formerly to south- westernLouisiana), northern Louisiana, southern Missouri, southern Tennessee, northwestern Mississippi,northern Alabama, and South Carolina; and in Eurasia from the Arctic coast southto extremenorthern Africa, Asia Minor, the Himalayas,and Japan. Winters[alpestris group] in North Americafrom southernCanada (British Columbia east to Newfoundland)south throughout the breedingrange, and, locally or irregularly,to the Gulf coastand southern Florida; in Colombia;and in Eurasiain thebreeding range except for the morenorthern portions. Resident[alpestris group] in theEastern Andes of Colombia(near Bogotfi); and [teleschowi group] in west-centralChina. Accidental[alpestris group] in Greenland,Iceland, the western Aleutians (Shemya), and Bermuda. Notes.--Knownin the Old Worldas Shore Lark. Groups:E. alpestris[Horned Lark] and E. teleschowi(Przewalski, 1887) [Przewalski'sLark]. Erernophilaalpestris and the North AfricanE. bilopha(Temminck, 1823) [Temminck'sLark] may constitutea superspecies (Mayr and Short 1970).

Family HIRUNDINIDAE: Swallows

SubfamilyHIRUNDININAE: Typical Swallows

Genus PROGNE Boie ProgneBoie, 1826,Isis von Oken,col. 971. Type,by monotypy,Hirundo purpurea "Gm. Wils. pl. 39, fig. 2" = Hirundo subisLinnaeus. PhceoprogneBaird, 1865,Rev. Amer.Birds 1: 272, 283. Type,by subsequentdesignation (Sharpe,1885), Hirundo tapera Linnaeus. Notes.--Moleculardata (Sheldon and Winklet 1993)indicate that Phaeoprogne should not be separatedfrom Progne.

Progne subis (Linnaeus).Purple Martin. Hirundosubis Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 192.Based on "The GreatAmerican Martin" Edwards,Nat. Hist. Birds 3: 120, pl. 120. (ad sinumHudsonis -- Hudson Bay.) Habitat.--Ineastern North America, restricted to areaswith artificial nest boxes, largely in towns,farmlands, and other open areas, nesting also in manmadestructures; in western North America,locally in openpine andpine-oak associations, and saguarodesert (Sub- tropicaland Temperate zones; in winteralso Tropical Zone). FAMILY HIRUNDINIDAE 455

Distribution.--Breeds locally from southwesternBritish Columbia(southern Vancouver Island), westernWashington, western Oregon, and easternIdaho southto southernBaja California, Isla Tibur6n (off Sonora), northern Arizona, central Utah, western Colorado, New Mexico, andwestern Texas), and in the Mexicanhighlands to Michoacfin,Guanajuato, and San Luis Potosi; and from central Alberta, central Saskatchewan,southern Manitoba, westernand southernOntario, southernQuebec, southernNew Brunswick, and central Nova Scotia south (east of the Rockies) to southern Texas, the Gulf coast, and southern Florida (exceptthe Florida Keys). Winters,presumably, mainly in Amazoniaand south-centralBrazil, but winter rangenot well known;records from elsewherein SouthAmerica, if valid, may refer to migrantsonly. No documentedwinter recordsfor anywherein North America or Middle America. Migrates regularlythrough Middle America (both slopes,rarely on the Pacificslope south of Nicaragua)and the Florida Keys, and casuallythrough the Bahamas,Cuba, and Grand Cayman. Casual north to the Pribilof Islands (St. Paul), westernand northernAlaska, central Yukon, centralOntario, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, Clipperton Island, and CocosIsland. Accidental in Bermuda and the British Isles. Notes.--Species limits in this complex are uncertain.Progne subis, P. cryptoleuca,P. dorninicensis,P. sinaloae, and P. chalybea, along with the South American P. rnodesta complex(including P. elegans)[Southern Martin], constitutea superspecies(Peters in Mayr and Greenway1960, Mayr and Short 1970). See commentsunder these other species.

Progne cryptoleuca Baird. Cuban Martin. Progne cryptoleucaBaird, 1865, Rev. Amer. Birds 1' 277. (Cuba and Florida Keys? = Remedios, Cuba.) Habitat.--Arid LowlandScrub, Pastures/Agricultural Lands, Second-growth Scrub, Pine Forest (0-1500 m). Distribution.--Breeds on Cuba, includingthe Isle of Pines. Winter rangeunknown. Three specimenstaken at Quirigu• and one from Gualfin,in the Caribbeanlowlands of Guatemala,and reportedas P. cryptoleucaare referableto P. chalybea; anotherindividual from Belize is referableto P. subis;possibly in Brazil. Migrates throughJamaica and Curaqao. A sight report for the Bahama Islands (Eleuthera). Notes.--Variouslytreated as a full species,a raceof P. dorninicensis(Peters in Mayr and Greenway 1960, Phillips 1986), or a race of P. subis(Mayr and Short 1970); see further commentsunder thesespecies.

Progne dominicensis(Gmelin). CaribbeanMartin. Hirundo dorninicensisGmelin, 1789, Syst.Nat. 1(2): 1025. Basedon "L'Hirondellede S. Domingue" Brisson,Ornithologie 2: 493, and "Hirondelle d'Amerique" Dau- benton,Planches Enlum., pl. 545, fig. 1. (in insula S. Dominici = Hispaniola.) Habitat.--Second-growthScrub, Pastures/Agricultural Lands (0-1500 m). Distribution.--Breeds in the Greater Antilles (from Jamaicaand Hispaniolaeastward, absentfrom Cuba and the Isle of Pines),Lesser Antilles, Tobago,and Curaqao. Winter range unknown,but presumablyin South America (no West Indian recordsin November or December). Casual or accidentalin the Bahamas(Mayaguana, Great Inagua, and Grand Turk), the Cayman Islands,and on Cozumel Island. Notes.--Progne dorninicensisand P. sinaloaeare often consideredconspecific (Phillips 1986) [Snowy-belliedMartin]. See commentsunder P. subis.

Progne sinaloae Nelson. Sinaloa Martin. Progne sinaloeeNelson, 1898, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 12: 59. (Plomosas,Sinaloa.) Habitat.--Pine-Oak Forest(1100-2800 m; Subtropicaland lower Temperatezones). 456 FAMILY HIRUNDINIDAE

Distribution.--Breeds in the Sierra Madre Occidental of western Mexico from central Sonora and southwesternChihuahua south through Sinaloa, northernNayarit, and northwestern Jalisco to central Michoacfin. Winter range unknown,but presumablyin South America. Casual in northern Guatemala (Pet6n). Accidental in Bermuda. Notes.--See comments under P. subis and P. dominicensis.

Progne chalybea (Gmelin). Gray-breastedMartin. Hirundo chalybeaGmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 1026. Basedmostly on "L'Hirondelle de Cayenne" Brisson,Ornithologie 2: 495, pl. 46, fig. 1. (in Cayenna = Cayenne.) Habitat--Second-growth Scrub, Pastures/AgriculturalLands (0-1700 m; Tropical and Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Breeds from Nayarit,northeastern Coahuila, Nuevo Le6n, andTamaulipas southalong both slopesof Middle America (includingIsla Coiba off Panama),and in South America from Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad, and the Guianas south, west of the Andes to northwesternPeru and east of the Andes to central Argentina and southernBrazil. Winters from Nayarit and Belize southalong both slopesof Middle America and South America to northernBolivia and central Brazil (southernmostbreeding populations also migratory,ranging north as far as Venezuelaand Amazonian Brazil). Casualin southernTexas (Rio GrandeCity, Hidalgo County) and Tobago. Notes.--See comments under P. subis.

Progne elegansBaird. SouthernMartin. Progneelegans Baird, 1865, Rev. Amer. Birds 1: 275, note. (Rio Bermejo,Argentina.) Habitat--Second-growth Scrub, Low SeasonallyWet Grassland,(0-500 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Breeds from easternBolivia, Paraguay,and Uruguaysouth to centralAr- gentina. Wintersnorth to easternPeru, Colombia,and AmazonianBrazil, possiblyeastern Panama (PuertoOlbad/a, San Blas; summersight reports of dark martinsin easternPanamfi province and the Canal area may pertain to this species). Accidentalin southernFlorida (Key West) and the Falkland Islands. Notes.--ResidentSouth American species P. modestaGould, 1838, from the Galapagos Islands,and P. murphyiChapman, 1925, from the coastof Peruand Chile, may be conspecific with P. elegans(as P. modesta[Southern Martin]) (Eisenmann1959b, Mayr andShort 1970, Short 1975). See commentsunder P. subis.

Progne tapera (Linnaeus).Brown-chested Martin. Hirundo Tapera Linnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 345. Based on "L'Hirondelle d'Am6rique" Brisson,Ornithologie 2: 502, pl. 45, fig. 3. (in America = Pernambuco, easternBrazil.) Habitat--Low SeasonallyWet Grassland,Pastures/Agricultural Lands, Rivers; in migration and winter in a wide variety of open and partly open situationsin lowland areas (Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Breeds from northern Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas south, east of the Andes, to northernArgentina and southernBrazil; also west of the Andes in southwestern Ecuador and northwestern Peru. Winters from southern Bolivia and southern Brazil northward to northern South America and Panama (both slopes, irregularly westward to western Bocas del Toro and western Chiriqui); a sight report from central Costa Rica. Accidental in Massachusetts(specimen, Monomoy; Petersenet al. 1986); a sight report for Florida. Notes.--Formerly placedin the monotypicgenus Phaeoprogne, but geneticdata (Sheldon FAMILY HIRUNDINIDAE 457 and Winkler 1993) supportearlier treatments(e.g., Petersin Mayr and Greenway 1960) that mergedPhaeoprogne into Progne.

Genus TACHYCINETA Cabanis

TachycinetaCabanis, 1850, Mus. Heineanum 1: 48. Type, by original designation, Hirundo thalassina Swainson. Callichelidon (Bryant MS) Baird, 1865, Rev. Amer. Birds 1:271 [in key, as "Callo- chelidon"], 303. Type, by original designation,Hirundo cyaneoviridisBryant. Kalochelidon[subgenus] H. Bryant, 1867, Proc. BostonSoc. Nat. Hist. 11 (1866): 95. Type, by monotypy,Hirundo euchryseavar. dominicensisBryant = Hirundo sclateri Cory = Hirundo euchryseaGosse. Iridoprocne [subgenus]Coues, 1878, Birds Colo. Valley, p. 412. Type, by original designation,Hirundo bicolor Vieillot. LamprochelidonRidgway, 1903, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 16: 106. Type, by original designation,Hirundo euchryseaGosse. Leucochelidon[subgenus] Brooke, 1974, DurbanMus. Novit. 10: 135. Type, by original designation,Petrochelidon meyeni Cabanis = Hirundo leucopygaMeyen.

Tachycinetabicolor (Vieillot). Tree Swallow. Hirundo bicolor Vieillot, 1808, Hist. Nat. Ois. Amer. Sept. 1 (1807) (livr. 6): 61, pl. 31. (Centredes l•tats-Unis = New York.) Habitat.--Opensituations usually near water, including'streams, lakes, ponds, marshes, and coastalregions; in migrationand winter,may forageover any habitat,but favorsmarshes and lakes. Distribution.--Breeds from western and central Alaska, northern Yukon, northwestern and southern Mackenzie, northern Saskatchewan, northern Manitoba, northern Ontario, north-central Quebec, central Labrador, and Newfoundland south to southwesternAlaska (Cold Bay), alongthe Pacificcoast to southernCalifornia, centralNevada, northernArizona, northern (rarely southwestern)New Mexico, southwestern,south-central, and northeastern Texas, northeasternLouisiana (casual), Mississippi (casual), northern Alabama, northern Georgia, southernTennessee, and westernNorth Carolina, generallysporadic or irregular as a breedereast of the Rocky Mountain statesand southof the upperMississippi and Ohio valleys,or alongthe Atlantic coastsouth of North Carolina.Nonbreeding individuals occur in summer in northern Alaska. Winters from northern California, southwestern Arizona, northern Mexico, southern Texas, the Gulf coast, and the Atlantic coast from southernNew Jersey (casually farther north) southalong the Pacific coastof Mexico at least to southernBaja California and Colima, in the interior and along the Gulf-Caribbeancoast of Middle America to westernPanama and on the northerncoast of SouthAmerica, and to southernFlorida (alsoirregularly the Florida Keys), the northernBahamas, Greater Antilles, CaymanIslands, and Swan Islands. Casual or accidentalon Wrangel and St. Lawrence islands,in the Pribilof and Aleutian islands,on the Arctic islands (Seymour and Banks islands), in Keewatin and on Boothia Peninsula),and on ClippertonIsland (sight report), in Bermuda,southwestern Colombia, Greenland, and the British Isles.

Tachycinetaalbilinea (Lawrence).Mangrove Swallow. Petrochelidonalbilinea Lawrence,1863, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N.Y. 8: 2. (on the Atlantic side of the Isthmusof Panama,along the line of PanamaRailroad = Canal Zone.) Habitat.--Mangrove Forest, FreshwaterLakes and Ponds, Rivers, Pastures/Agricultural Lands (Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident from central Sonora, southeasternSan Luis Potosf and southern Tamaulipassouth along both slopesof Middle America (including the Yucatan Peninsula and most islandsnearby) to easternPanama (east on the Caribbeancoast to easternCo16n, and on the Pacific to easternDari6n, includingIsla Coiba). 458 FAMILY HIRUNDINIDAE

Tachycinetaeuchrysea (Gosse). Golden Swallow. Hirundo euchryseaGosse, 1847, Birds Jamaica,p. 68 (footnote).(higher mountainsin the very centreof Jamaica,as in Manchester,and St. Ann's.) Habitat.--Pine Forest, Montane EvergreenForest (0-2000 m). Distribution.--Resident locally on Jamaica(where very rare) and Hispaniola.

Tachycinetathalassina (Swainson).Violet-green Swallow. Hirundo thalassinusSwainson, 1827, Philos. Mag. (n.s.) 1: 366. (Real del Monte, [Hidalgo,] Mexico.) Habitat.--Open coniferous,deciduous, or mixed and woodland,primarily in highlands, but also locally in desertsand prairiesnear suitablenest sites (holes in trees,crevices in canyons);in migrationand winter,may be foundanywhere but favorsmarshes, rivers, and lakes. Distribution.--Breeds from central Alaska, northern Yukon, extreme southwesternMac- kenzie, northern British Columbia, west-central Alberta, extreme southwestern Saskatche- wan, Montana, western North Dakota, western South Dakota, northwestern Nebraska, and western Kansas (once) south to southernAlaska (west to the Alaska Peninsula),southern Baja California,coastal Sonora, in the Mexicanhighlands to Jalisco,Veracruz, and (possibly) Oaxaca, and to western Texas. Wintersfrom centralcoastal and southern(casually northwestern) California, central Ar- izona (casually), southernSonora, Sinaloa, southernChihuahua, southern Coahuila, Que- r6taro,and Puebla south in the interiorof Middle Americato Honduras,casually or irregularly to CostaPica, westernPanama (Chiriquf and westernPanatari province). Casualor accidentalin the AleutianIslands (Shemya, Unalaska), east to Manitoba,western Ontario, Ohio, centralTexas, New Jersey,Zacatecas, Yucatfin, and southto northernCo- lombia; sight reports from Minnesota, Missouri, Nova Scotia, New Hampshire, and Okla- homa.

Tachycinetacyaneoviridis (Bryant). Bahama Swallow. Hirundo cyaneoviridisH. Bryant, 1859, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 7: 111. (Nassau [New Providence, Bahamas].) Habitat.--Pine Forest. Distribution.--Breeds on the northern Bahama Islands (Grand Bahama, Great Abaco, Andros, and New Providence). Winters,at least sparingly,throughout the BahamaIslands and in easternCuba. Migrates irregularlythrough southern Florida and the lower Florida Keys (includingDry Tortugas).

Genus PYGOCHELIDON Baird PygochelidonBaird, 1865, Rev. Amer.Birds 1: 270, 306. Type, by originaldesignation, Hirundo cyanoleuca Vieillot.

Pygochelidoncyanoleuca (Vieillot). Blue-and-white Swallow. Hirundo cyanoleucaVieillot, 1817, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv. 6d.) 14: 509. Based on "GolondrinaTimoneles negros" Azara, Apunt. Hist. Nat. Prix.Parag. 2:508 (no. 303). (Paraguay.) Habitat.--Second-growth Scrub, Pastures/AgriculturalLands (0-3600 m; Tropical to Temperatezones, mostly SubtropicalZone in Middle America). Distribution.--Breeds [patagonicagroup] from centralChile andcentral (possibly north- central)Argentina south to Tierra del Fuego.Resident (disjunctly) in coastalPeru. Winters [patagonicagroup] from northernChile and northernArgentina north regularly to northernSouth America and centralPanama (west to the Canal area), casuallyto Nica- ragua,Guatemala (sight report), and Chiapas. FAMILY HIRUNDINIDAE 459

Resident[cyanoleuca group] in the foothills and highlandsof Costa Rica (northwestto the Cordillerade Guanacaste)and western Panama (Chiriqu/, Veraguas, and western Panamfi province);and in SouthAmerica from Colombia,Venezuela, Trinidad, and the Guianassouth (exceptin centralAmazonia) to northwesternArgentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and southern Brazil. Notes.--Groups: P. cyanoleuca[Blue-and-white Swallow] and P. patagonica(d'Orbigny and Lafresnaye,1837) [PatagonianSwallow]. This speciesis sometimestreated in the genus NotiochelidonBaird, 1865 (Petersin Mayr andGreenway 1960, Meyer de Schauensee1966) or in the SouthAmerican genus Atticora B oie, 1844 (Phillips 1986), but geneticdata support its placementin the genusPygochelidon (Sheldon and Winkler 1993).

Genus NOTIOCHELIDON Baird NotiochelidonBaird, 1865,Rev. Amer.Birds 1: 270, 306. Type,by originaldesignation, Atticora pileata Gould.

Notiochelidonpileata (Gould). Black-cappedSwallow. Atticora pileata Gould, 1858, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 355. (Guatemala.) Habitat.--Pine-Oak Forest,Montane Evergreen Forest, Secondary Forest (1600-3100 m; Subtropicaland Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident in the mountainsof Chiapas,Guatemala, northern El Salvador, and westernHonduras (probably breeding). Notes.--Also known as Coban Swallow. This speciesis sometimestreated in the genus Atticora (Phillips 1986).

Genus NEOCHELIDON Sclater Microchelidon(not Reichenbach,1853) Sclater,1862, Cat. Collect. Amer. Birds, p. 39. Type, by monotypy,Petrochelidon tibialis Cassin. NeochelidonSclater, 1862, Cat. Collect. Amer. Birds, p. [xvi]. New name for Micro- chelidonSclater, preoccupied.

Neochelidon tibialis (Cassin).White-thighed Swallow. Petrochelidon9. tibialis Cassin,1853, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia6: 370. (probably Brazil = Rio de Janeiro,Brazil.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest Edge (0-1200 m; TropicalZone). Distribution.--Resident in Panama (west to Coc16,the Canal area and westernPanamfi province),and in SouthAmerica locally from Colombia,southern Venezuela, and Surinam south, west of the Andes to western Ecuador and east of the Andes to northern Bolivia, Amazonia, and southeastern Brazil.

Genus STELGIDOPTERYX Baird Stelgidopteryx[subgenus] Baird, 1858, in Baird, Cassin,and Lawrence,Rep. Explor. Surv. R. R. Pac. 9: xxxiv, 312. Type, by monotypy,Hirundo serripennisAudubon.

Stelgidopteryxserripennis (Audubon). Northern Rough-winged Swallow. Hirundo serripennisAudubon, 1838, Ornithol. Biogr., 4, p. 593. (Charleston,South Carolina.) Habitat.--Open and partly open situations,especially along or near watercourseswith steepbanks, and roadsidecuts (for its nest burrows;also locally [ridgwayi group] in caves and old buildings);in migrationand winter, foragesprimarily over open countryand wetlands. Distribution.--Breeds [serripennisgroup] from mainland southeasternAlaska, central British Columbia, central Alberta, central Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba, western and 460 FAMILY HIRUNDINIDAE southernOntario, southernQuebec, southwesternNew Brunswick, and southwesternNova Scotia southto southernBaja California, and throughMiddle America (exceptthe Yucatan Peninsula) to Costa Rica, and to southern Texas, the Gulf coast, and south-central and southwestern Florida. Winters[serripennis group] from southernCalifornia, southern Arizona, northern Mexico, southernTexas, southernLouisiana, coastalAlabama, and southernFlorida (casuallynorth to central California and South Carolina) souththrough the breedingrange in Mexico and Central America, and lowlandsto Panama;breeding populations from the lowlandsand central interior of Mexico southwardare generally sedentary.Whether individualsseen in winter monthsin the United Statesare winter residentsor late/early migrantsis unknown. Migrates [serripennisgroup] throughthe northwesternBahama Islands, Cuba, Jamaica, and the Cayman and Swan islands,ranging irregularly (or casually)to southwesternand south-coastalAlaska, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, southernVeracruz, and Tabasco. Resident[ridgwayi group]in the YucatanPeninsula (west to southernVeracruz), Belize, and northern Guatemala. Casualor accidental[serripennis group] in northernAlaska (Barrow) and southern Yukon; sight reportsfrom the Revillagigedo(Socorro), northernBahama, and Virgin islands(St. John, St. Croix). Notes.--Phillips (1986) treatedthe two groupsas distinct species, S. serripennis[Northern Rough-wingedSwallow] and S. ridgwayiNelson, 1901 [Ridgway'sRough-winged Swallow]. Stelgidopteryxserripennis and S. ruficollis were formerly consideredconspecific [Rough- winged Swallow], but sympatricbreeding has beendiscovered in CostaRica (Stiles 1981).

Stelgidopteryxruficollis (Vieillot). SouthernRough-winged Swallow. Hirundo ruffcol!isVieillot, 1817, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv. 6d.) 14: 523. (Brazil.) Habitat.--Second-growthScrub, Pastures/AgriculturalLands, Rivers, Streams;nests in burrows (0-2000 m; Tropical to Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident in the lowlandsfrom easternHonduras (Olancho) souththrough Nicaragua(Caribbean slope), Costa Rica (both slopes,on the Pacificnorthwest to the Gulf of Nicoya) and Panama,and in South America from Colombia,Venezuela, Trinidad, and the Guianas south, west of the Andes to northwestern Peru and east of the Andes to central Argentina. Notes.--See commentsunder S. serripennis.

Genus RIPARIA Forster Riparia T. Forster,1817, Synop. Cat. Br. Birds, p. 17. Type, by monotypy,Riparia europaeaForster = Hirundo riparia Linnaeus.

Riparia riparia (Linnaeus).Bank Swallow. Hirundo riparia Linnaeus,1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 192. (in Europa•collibus arenosis abruptis= Sweden.) Habitat.--Open and partly open situations,near vertical river banksthat providenest- sites(burrows); in migrationand winter, foragesprimarily over wetlandsand fields. Distribution.--Breeds in North America from western and central Alaska, northern Yu- kon, northwestern and south-central Mackenzie, northern Saskatchewan,northern Manitoba, northernOntario, south-centralQuebec, southern Labrador, and southwesternNewfoundland southto southernAlaska (west to the easternAleutians), central (formerly southern)Cali- fornia (but rare west of the coastranges from British Columbiato Oregon),western Nevada, Utah, northern New Mexico, Kansas,northeastern Oklahoma, Arkansas(formerly), Ten- nessee,northern Alabama, central West Virginia, easternVirginia, and (casually)northwestern North Carolina and south-centralSouth Carolina; also disjunctly in central New Mexico, south-centralTexas, northern Tamaulipas, and northern Nuevo Le6n; andin Eurasia from the Hebrides,Orkneys, northern Scandinavia, northern Russia, and Siberia southto the Mediterraneanregion, Palestine, Iran, Afghanistan,northern India, southeasternChina, and Japan. FAMILY HIRUNDINIDAE 461

Winterslargely in South America, but limits of winter range (versusareas where only a transient)not studied.Some winter recordsfor central and easternPanama (casually, locally north to southernCalifornia; numerousDecember sight reports from southernUnited States andwestern Mexico requireconfirmation), but evidentlymainly a transientin northernSouth America (Colombia,Venezuela, the Guianas).Ranges south to northernArgentina and Par- aguay,and northernChile. Also in the Old'World from the Mediterraneanregion, Near East, northernIndia, and easternChina southto tropicaland easternAfrica, Madagascar,Arabia, southernIndia, SoutheastAsia, Borneo, and the Philippines. Migrates in the Americaswidely throughthe southernUnited States,Middle America, the West Indies (rare in the Lesser Antilles), and northern South America (including the NetherlandsAntilles east to Tobagoand Trinidad);and in the Old World throughthe eastern Atlantic islandsin additionto the region betweenbreeding and winteringranges. Casual or accidental in western Aleutian and Commander islands, in northern Alaska (Barrow), on Jenny Lind, Victoria, and Melville islands, and on Clipperton Island (sight reports),Bermuda, and Barbados. Notes.--Known in Old World literature as Sand Martin.

Genus PETROCHELIDON Cabanis PetrochelidonCabanis, 1850, Mus. Heineanum1: 47. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1855), Hirundo rnelanogasterSwainson = Hirundopyrrhonota Vieillot.

Petrochelidonpyrrhonota Vieillot. Cliff Swallow. Hirundo pyrrhonota Vieillot, 1817, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv. 6d.) 14: 519. (Para- guay.) Habitat.--Open country, less frequently partly open situations,most frequently in the vicinity of water; requirescliffs, bridges,dams, buildings, culverts, or occasionallycaves for nest sites;in migrationand winter, widespreadover open countryand wetlands. Distribution.--Breeds from western and central Alaska, northern Yukon, northern Mac- kenzie, central Keewatin, northernManitoba, northernOntario, southernQuebec (including Anticosti Island), New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia south to south- coastalAlaska, northernBaja California, centralOaxaca, Veracruz, the Gulf coast(east to southernAlabama), northernGeorgia, central SouthCarolina, also in the Lake Okeechobee region of southernFlorida (1975-1982). Wintersin South America from Paraguay,and central and southeasternBrazil southto central Argentina,casually north to southernCalifornia. Migrates regularlythrough the southeasternUnited States,northern Middle Americaand westernSouth America north of the winter range,rarely throughthe northwesternBahama Islands,Cuba, the CaymanIslands, and the Virgin Islands. Casual or accidentalon Wrangel Island, and in northernAlaska, the Aleutians, St. Law- renceIsland, northernManitoba, Newfoundland, Clipperton Island (sightreport), St. Kitts (sight report), and Barbados,and in Chile, Tierra del Fuego, southernGreenland, and the British Isles. Notes.--Mayr and Short (1970) consideredP. pyrrhonota and P. fulva to constitutea superspecies,but their breedingdistributions overlap broadly in Mexico.

Petrochelidonfulva Vieillot. Cave Swallow. Hirundofulva Vieillot, 1808, Hist. Nat. Ois. Amen Sept. 1 (1807, livr. 11): 62, pl. 32. (Saint-Domingue= Hispaniola.) Habitat.--Northern TemperateGrassland, Pastures/Agricultural Lands, Second-growth Scrub, Arid Lowland Scrub; nestsin caves, sinkholes,culverts, and beneathbridges (0- 1500 m). Distribution.--Breeds [pelodomagroup] from northernArizona, southeasternNew Mex- ico (CarlsbadCaverns), and Texas (exceptnorthern) south to southernChihuahua, eastern Durango, Zacatecas,San Luis Potosfand westernTamaulipas; and [fulva group] in central Chiapas,the Yucatan Peninsula,southern Florida, and from the Greater Antilles east to 462 FAMILY HIRUNDINIDAE

PuertoRico (including Gonfive, Tortue, and Vieques islands, and [le-h-Vache). Breeding ranges[pelodoma group] in the south-centralUnited Statesare expandingrapidly northward. Winter range of northernpopulations unknown, except there is a sizable and increasing winter populationin southernTexas and northernMexico [pelodomagroup]; breeding populations [fulva group] in southernMexico and the Greater Antilles are essentiallyresident, with vagrantsrecorded regularly in southern(casually northern) Florida, along the eastern Gulf coast,and casuallynorth along the Atlantic coastto Nova Scotia (Seal Island, Sable Island). Casualor accidental[pelodoma group] in southeasternCalifornia, elsewhere in Arizona, southeasternLouisiana, Nebraska, and Baja California; and [fulva group] in Bermuda and the Caymanand Virgin islands.An old specimenrecord from CostaRica hasbeen questioned; sightreports from Panama(eastern Panamfi province) and Ontario. Notes.--The two groups,P. pelodomaBrooke, 1974, Cave Swallow], and P. fulva [Cin- namon-throatedSwallow], may representseparate species (Smith et al. 1988). The nameP. pallida (Nelson, 1902), formerly used for pelodoma, is preoccupied.Petrochelidonfulva and the closely related P. rufocollaris Peale, 1848 [Chestnut-collaredSwallow], of southwestern Ecuador and western Peru, constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990); they have usually been treatedas conspecific(e.g., Petersin Mayr and Greenway 1960, Mayr and Short 1970, A.O.U. 1983). See commentsunder P. pyrrhonota.

Genus HIRUNDO Linnaeus Hirundo Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 191. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1840), Hirundo rustica Linnaeus.

Hirundo rustica Linnaeus. Barn Swallow. Hirundo rusticaLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 191. (in Europa:domibus intra tectum = Sweden.) Habitat.--Open situations,less frequently in partly openhabitats, frequently near water; nestsin shelteredareas in buildings,under bridges,or in caves. Distribution.--Breeds [erythrogastergroup] in North America from south-coastaland southeastern(formerly southwestern)Alaska, southernYukon, central-westernMackenzie, northern Saskatchewan, northern Manitoba, northern Ontario, south-central Quebec, and southernNewfoundland south to extreme northwesternBaja California, Jalisco, Colima, Michoacfin,M6xico, Distfito Federal,southern Nuevo L6on (disjunctlyin Chiapas),the Gulf coast,north-central (casually southern) Florida, and southernNorth Carolina(casually southeastern Georgia), and in northeasternArgentina (Buenos Aires); and [rustica group] in Eurasia from Iceland, the British Isles, Faeroe Islands, Scandinavia, northern Russia, and northernSiberia southto the Mediterraneanregion, northernAfrica, the Near East, Arabia, Iran, the Himalayas,China, Taiwan, and Japan. Winters [erythrogastergroup] in the Americasfrom the Pacific slope of central Mexico and westernPanama (casually north to centralCalifornia, the southwesternUnited States, northernMexico, and southernFlorida), Puerto Rico, and the LesserAntilles souththroughout SouthAmerica to Tierra del Fuego;and [rusticagroup] in the Old World southto tropical Africa, the East Indies, northern Australia, and Micronesia; late fall records until December and early springmigrants complicate delineation of winter range. Migrates [erythrogastergroup] through Middle America,the West Indies, and islandsof the easternAtlantic and westernPacific oceansand along continentalcoasts, as well as throughoutcontinental areas between the breedingand winteringranges; and [rusticagroup] casuallythrough the westernAleutians, Pribilofs, St. LawrenceIsland, and on the coastof mainland Alaska from Barrow to the Yukon Delta. Casual or accidental[erythrogaster group] in the westernHawaiian Islands (also on Ha- waii); north to northern Alaska, to St. Lawrence, Pribilof, Aleutian, Banks, Victoria, Corn- wallis, and Mansel islands, and to northern Mackenzie, southern Keewatin, and southern Labrador;Revillagigedo Islands and Clipperton Island (sight reports),southern Greenland, the Falkland Islands, South Georgia, and Tristan da Cunha. Notes.--Groups:•H. erythrogasterBoddaert, 1783 [Barn Swallow] and H. rustica [Eu- FAMILY PARIDAE 463 ropeanSwallow]. Genetic data suggest that two or morespecies may be involvedand that North Americanand Siberianpopulations may be sistertaxa (Zink et al. 1995). Hirundo rusticamay form a superspecieswith severalOld Worldtaxa (H. lucidaHartlaub, 1858; H. aethiopicaBlanford, 1869; H. angolensisBarboza du Bocage,1868; H. albigularisStrick- land, 1849; H. dumicolaJerdon, 1844; H. tahitica Gmelin, 1789; and H. neoxenaGould, 1843) (Sibley and Monroe 1990).

Genus DELICHON Horsfield and Moore Delichon"Hodgs." Horsfieldand Moore, 1854, Cat. BirdsMus. Hon. E. India Co. 1 (1856): 384. Type,by monotypy,Delichon nipalensis Horsfield and Moore.

Delichon urbica (Linnaeus). Common House-Martin. Hirundourbica Linnaeus, 1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 192. (in Europa= Sweden.) Habitat.--Human settlements,farmland, towns, nesting in colonieson buildings,cliffs, and bridges. Distribution.--Breedswidely through most of Eurasiasouth to northernAfrica, the Him- alayas,and China. Winters south to southern Africa, India, and southeastAsia. Casualin Greenland,Iceland, andthe easternAtlantic islands.Accidental in Alaska (Nome, and St. Paul in the Pribilofs, 6-7 and 12 June 1974; Hall and Cardiff 1978), St. Pierre et Miquelon(26-31 May 1989;1989, Amer. Birds 43: 446) andin Bermuda(Devonshire Parish, 9 August1957; Wingate 1958); additional sight reports for Alaska. Notes.--Known in Old World literature as the House Martin.

Family PARIDAE: Chickadeesand Titmice Notes.--We follow Slikaset al. (1996) for generic-leveltaxonomy and linear sequence of species.Sheldon and Gill (1996)provided molecular evidence for why theParidae may notbe closelyrelated to somefamilies (Aegithalidae, Certhiidae, and Sittidae) placed close to them in traditionalclassifications. See commentsunder Auriparus and Aegithalidae.

Genus POECILE Kaup PoecileKaup, 1829, Skizz. Entw. Nat. Syst.,p. 92. Type,by originaldesignation, Parus palustris Linnaeus.

Poecile carolinensis(Audubon). Carolina Chickadee. Parus carolinensisAudubon, 1834, Ornithol.Biogr. 2: 341. (Charlestonin SouthCar- olina [and] not far from New Orleans -- Charleston,South Carolina.) Habitat.--Deciduous,mixed, and pine woodland,and parksand suburbs. Distribution.--Resident from southernKansas, central Missouri, central Illinois, central Indiana,northern Ohio, southern Pennsylvania, and central New Jerseysouth to centraland southeasternTexas, the Gulf coast,and centralpeninsular Florida. Wanderscasually northward to northernIllinois, southeastern Michigan (formerly), and southern Ontario. Notes.--Seecomments under P. atricapill•s.

Poecileatricapillus (Linnaeus).Black-capped Chickadee. Parusatricapillus Linnaeus, 1766, Syst.Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 341. Basedon "La M6sange a testenoire de Canada"Brisson, Ornithologie 3: 553, pl. 29, fig. 1. (in Canada= QuebecCity, Quebec.) Habitat.--Deciduous or mixed deciduous-coniferouswoodland, riparian woodland(es- peciallycottonwood-willow in westernportion of range),and parks and suburbs. Distribution.--Resident from western and central Alaska, southernYukon, southwestern 464 FAMILY PARIDAE

Mackenzie, northern Saskatchewan, north-central Manitoba, northern Ontario, south-central Quebec (includingAnticosti Island), and Newfoundlandsouth to southernAlaska (west to the AlaskaPeninsula, and the Shumaginand Kodiak islands),northwestern California, southern Oregon,northeastern Nevada, southeasternUtah, centralNew Mexico, southernKansas, southwesternand central Missouri, central Illinois, northern Indiana, northern Ohio, southern Pennsylvania,and northernNew Jersey,and in the Appalachiansat higher and western Virginia to easternTennessee and westernNorth Carolina. Wandersirregularly south in winter to northernArizona, south-centralNew Mexico, Okla- homa, southeasternMissouri, eastern Virginia, and Maryland. Casual in Alaska on Nunivak Island, Wales, and Point Barrow. Notes.--Poecile atricapillus and P. carolinensishybridize on a limited basisin the zone of contactin the midwesternstates (Kansas east to Ohio) (Rising 1968, Braun and Robbins 1986) and in the southernAppalachians (Rising 1968, 1983a;Johnston 1971, Tanner1952), and have beenviewed as conspecific(Braun and Robbins1986, Robbinset al. 1986). Mayr and Short (1970) consideredthe two to representa superspecies.However, P. atricapillus is geneticallycloser to P. sclateri and P. gambelithan to P. carolinensis(Gill et al. 1989). The Old World P. montanusConrad yon Baldenstein,1827 [Willow Tit], may alsobelong in this superspecies(Vaurie and Snow 1957, Vaurie 1959, Desfayes1964, Mayr and Short 1970), but see Gill et al. (1989).

Poecile gambeli (Ridgway). Mountain Chickadee. Parus montanus(not Conrad von Baldenstein, 1827) Gambel, 1843, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia1: 259. (abouta-day's journey [west] from SantaFe, New Mexico.) Parus gambeliRidgway, 1886, A.O.U. Check-listNorth Amer. Birds, ed. 1: 335. New name for Parus montanusGambel, preoccupied. Habitat.--Montane coniferousforest, primarily pine, spruce-fir,and locally pinyon-juniper and desertriparian woodland,also aspen;in nonbreedingseason, also pine-oakassociation,riparian woodland,and suburbs(locally). Distribution.--Resident from northwestern and central British Columbia, west-central Alberta, central Montana south (except for most of the coast ranges) to northern Baja California (Sierra Ju,Srezand Sierra San PedroMfirtir), southernCalifornia, southernNevada, central and southeasternArizona (except mountainsalong the Mexican border), southern New Mexico, and extreme westernTexas (Davis and Guadalupemountains). Recorded in summer(and possiblybreeding) in southeasternAlaska (Warm PassValley) and southern Yukon. Casual(mostly in winter) elsewherein southeasternAlaska, southwesternBritish Colum- bia, Washington,Oregon, and California, and east to southwesternSaskatchewan, southwestern South Dakota, southwestern Kansas, and the Panhandles of northern Texas and western Oklahoma. Notes.--See commentsunder P. atricapillus.

Poecile sclateri (Kleinschmidt).Mexican Chickadee. Parus meridionalis(not Lilljeborg, 1852) Sclater,1857, Proc.Zool. Soc.London (1856), p. 293. (El Jacalein the State of Vera Cruz [or Puebla], SouthernMexico.) Parus sclateri Kleinschmidt, 1897, J. Ornithol. 45: 133. New name for Parus meridionalis Sclater,preoccupied. Habitat.--Pine Forest,Pine-Oak Forest,spruce and fir forest (1500-3900 m; Subtropical and Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident from northeasternSonora, extreme southeasternArizona (Chir- icahua Mountains), southwesternNew Mexico (Animas Mountains, casuallyPeloncillo Mountains),and Chihuahuasouth through mountains of westernand southernMexico to central Oaxaca (west of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec)and westernVeracruz. Also southern Coahuila and west-central Nuevo Leon. Some movement to lower elevations in winter in northernportions of range. Notes.•See commentsunder P. atricapillus. FAMILY PARIDAE 465

Poecile rufescens(Townsend). Chestnut-backed Chickadee. Parus rufescensJ. K. Townsend,1837, J. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia7: 190. (forests of the Columbia River = Fort Vancouver,Washington.) Habitat.--Coniferous andmixed coniferous-deciduousforest, primarily in humidregions; in southernand drier portionsof range,also in pineforest, oak woodland,pine-oak woodland, and locally in riparian woodland. Distribution.--Resident from south-coastaland southeasternAlaska (west to the Prince William Sound region), westernand south-centralBritish Columbia (including the Queen Charlotteand Vancouverislands), northern Idaho, and northwesternMontana souththrough the coastranges to southernCalifornia (San Luis Obispoand SantaBarbara counties), and throughthe interior rangesto centralCalifornia (MariposaCounty). Wanders inland to northern British Columbia. Casual in southern California (Ventura County) and southwesternAlberta. Notes.--See comments under P. cinctus.

Poecile hudsonicus (Forster). Boreal Chickadee. Parus Hudsonicus J. R. Forster, 1772, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London 62: 408, 430. (Severn River [west coastof HudsonBay, Canada].) Habitat.--Boreal coniferous(primarily spruce)and mixed coniferous-deciduouswoodland, rangingrarely to deciduouswoodland. Distribution.--Resident from western and central Alaska, northern Yukon, northwestern and southeasternMackenzie, northern Ontario, northern Quebec, northern Labrador, and Newfoundland south to southernAlaska (west to the Alaska Peninsula),British Columbia (eastof the coastranges), north-central and northeastern Washington, northwestern Montana, southwesternand central Alberta, central Saskatchewan,southern Manitoba, northern Min- nesota,northern Wisconsin, northern Michigan, southern Ontario (south to AlgonquinPark), northernNew York, northernVermont, northernNew Hampshire, New Brunswick, central Maine, and Nova Scotia. Wandersirregularly after the breedingseason north to southwesternKeewatin, and south to southwestern British Columbia, South Dakota, Iowa, northern Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, West Virginia, northernVirginia, Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey. Notes.--Also known as Brown-cappedChickadee. Poecile hudsonicusand P. rufescens are each other's closestrelatives (Gill et al. 1989, Slikas et al. 1996). See also comments under P. cinctus.

Poecile cinctus (Boddaert).Grey-headed Chickadee. Parus cinctusBoddaert, 1783, Table PlanchesEnlum., p. 44. Based on "M6sange de Sib6rie" Daubenton,Planches Enlum., pl. 708, fig. 3. (Sib6rie = Siberia.) Habitat.--Patches of borealconiferous forest, primarily spruce, most commonly in stream basins,also locally in willow and aspenthickets. Distribution.--Resident from northern Alaska east acrossnorthern Yukon (Old Crow) to northwesternMackenzie (Aklavik, Fort Anderson),and southlocally to westernand central Alaska (Nulato, central Alaska Range); and in Eurasia from Scandinavia,northern Russia, and northern Siberia southto northernMongolia, Transbaicalia,northern Amurland, Kam- chatka,and Anadyrland. Notes.--Also known as Siberian Tit or Siberian Chickadee. Poecile cinctus, P. hudsonicus, and P. rufescensmay constitutea superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970, Sibley and Monroe 1990).

Genus BAEOLOPHUS Cabanis

BaeolophusCabanis, 1850, Mus. Heineanum1: 91. Type, by monotypy,Parus bicolor Linnaeus. 466 FAMILY PARIDAE

Baeolophuswollweberi (Bonaparte).Bridled Titmouse. Lophophaneswollweberi Bonaparte, 1850, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 31: 478. (en Mexico Zacatecas = Zacatecas, Zacatecas.) Habitat.--Pine-Oak Forest, Gallery Forest (1200-2700 m; Subtropicaland lower Tem- perate zones). Distribution.--Resident from north-central Sonora, central and southeastern Arizona (northto the Mogollon Plateau),southwestern and south-centralNew Mexico, northwestern and central Chihuahua, northern Durango, Zacatecas,central Nuevo Le6n, and western Tamaulipassouth in the Mexican highlandsto central Oaxaca (west of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec)and westernVeracruz. Some movement to lower elevationsin winter in northern portionsof range. Accidental in central Arizona (Bill Williams Delta). Notes.--Baeolophuswollweberi and the othercrested North Americantitmice represent a differentlineage and are distantlyrelated to other parids(Gill et al. 1989, Sheldonand Gill 1996).

Baeolophusinornatus (Gambel). Oak Titmouse. Parus inornatus Gambel, 1845, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 2: 265. (Upper California = near Monterey, California.) Habitat--Oak and pine-oak woodland,arborescent chaparral, oak-riparian associations. Distribution.---Resident from southwesternOregon south (west of the Sierra Nevada) to southernBaja California (absentfrom most of central Baja California). Notes.--Baeolophusgriseus was formerly consideredconspecific with B. inornatus,with the name Plain Titmouse,but they are geneticallydistinct at a level equivalentto that in other species-pairsin the genus(Gill and Slikas 1992, Cicero 1996), and they differ in voice, morphology,coloration, and ecology (Cicero 1996). Baeolophusinornatus and B. griseus constitutea superspecies.See commentsunder B. wollweberi.

Baeolophusgriseus (Ridgway). JuniperTitmouse. Lophophanesinornatus griseus Ridgway, 1882, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 5: 344. (Middle Provinceof United States= Iron City, Utah.) Parus inornatusridgwayi Richmond, 1902, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 15: 155. New name for Lophophanesinornatus griseus Ridgway, 1882, preoccupiedin Parus. Habitat--Primarily pinyon-juniperwoodland. Distribution.--Resident from southeasternOregon, northeasternNevada, southeastern Idaho, southernWyoming, central Colorado, and extremewestern Oklahoma south (east of the Sierra Nevada) to southeasternCalifornia, central and southeasternArizona, extreme northeasternSonora, southern New Mexico, and extreme western Texas (El Paso to Gua- dalupe Mountains). Notes.--See comments under B. wollweberi.

Baeolophusbicolor (Linnaeus).Tufted Titmouse. Parus bicolor Linnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 340. Based on "The Crested Titmouse" Catesby,Nat. Hist. Carolina 1: 57, pl. 57. (in America septentrionali= South Carolina.) Habitat.--[bicolor group] Forest, woodland,from deciduousand mixed deciduous-coniferouswoodland in the northeastto oak-juniperscrub, mesquite, and riparian woodland in the southwest,also in parks and suburbswhere tall trees present;[atricristatus group] Tropical DeciduousForest, SecondaryForest, Gallery Forest (0-2300 m). Distribution.--Resident [bicolor group] from northeasternNebraska, central and eastern Iowa, southeasternMinnesota, southern Wisconsin, central Michigan, southernOntario, northernOhio, northwesternPennsylvania, central New York, centralVermont, central New Hampshire,and centralMaine southto easternTexas (formerly to San Angelo, SanAntonio, FAMILY AEGITHALIDAE 467 and CorpusChristi areas),the Gulf coast,and southernFlorida, and west to central Kansas and west-centralOklahoma; and [atricristatusgroup] from southwesternOklahoma and western and northernTexas (north to Randall and Armstrong counties,and east to Grimes, Lavaca, and Calhouncounties) south through central Coahuila, Nuevo Le6n, Tamaulipas, and easternSan Luis Potos/to central-easternHidalgo and centralVeracruz, also disjunctly in southernVeracruz (Sierra de los Tuxtlas). Wanders[bicolor group] irregularly northward to SouthDakota, central Minnesota, southern Quebec, Rhode Island, and New Brunswick. Accidental[atricristatus group] in Massachusetts(Weymouth); a sightreport from North Dakota. Notes.--Groups: B. bicolor [Tufted Titmouse] and B. atricristatus Cassin, 1850 [Black- crestedTitmouse]. Although the two groupsare geneticallydistinct (Braun et al. 1984, Avise and Zink 1988, Sheldonet al. 1992), they interbreedfreely in a narrowzone througheast- central Texas (Dixon 1989, 1990). See commentsunder B. wollweberi.

Family REMIZIDAE: PendulineTits and Verdins

Genus AURIPARUS Baird AuriparusBaird, 1864, Rev. Amer.Birds 1: 85. Type,by originaldesignation, Aegithalus fiaviceps Sundevall. Notes.--Auriparus is consideredclose to the Polioptilinaeby Sibley and Monroe (1990), but see Sheldonand Gill (1996) for moleculardata that confirm relationshipsto the Paridae.

Auriparusfiaviceps (Sundevall).Verdin. AegithalusfiavicepsSundevall, 1850, Kongl. Svensk.Vet.-Akad. Forh. 7:129 (note). (e Sitka in Americabor. occid.,vel e California = probablynear Loreto, lat. 26ø N., Baja California.) Habitat.--Arid LowlandScrub, Arid MontaneScrub, Gallery Forest;locally in residential areas of desert towns (0-2375 m). Distribution.--Resident from northeasternBaja California, southeasternCalifornia (north to northeasternLos Angeles,Kern, and Inyo counties),southern Nevada, southwesternUtah, northwesternArizona, southernNew Mexico, southwesternOklahoma (JacksonCounty), and central Texas (east to Callahan, Williamson, and Calhoun counties) south to southern Baja California (includingMagdalena, Margarita, and many Gulf coastalislands), Jalisco, Guanajuato,Quer6taro, Hidalgo, and Tamaulipas. Casual in southwesternCalifornia (northernSan Diego County) and southwesternOkla- homa (JacksonCounty).

Family AEGITHALIDAE: Long-tailedTits and Bushtits Notes.--This family is probablymore closelyrelated to the Sylviidae and relatives(Shel- don and Gill 1996) than to the Remizidae and Paridae,where traditionallyplaced.

GenusPSALTRIPARUS Bonaparte Psaltriparus Bonaparte, 1850, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 31: 478. Type, by monotypy, Psaltriparus personatusBonaparte = Parus rnelanotisHartlaub = Parus rninirnus Townsend. Notes.--Phillips (1986) mergedPsaltriparus into Aegithalos.

Psaltriparus minimus (Townsend).Bushtit. Parus rninirnusJ. K. Townsend,1837, J. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia7: 190. (forests of Columbia River -- probablynear Fort Vancouver,Washington.) Habitat.--Woodland and scrub(especially oak), pinyon-juniper,chaparral, and pine-oak 468 FAMILY SITTIDAE association,wooded suburbs;in winter, also locally in riparian woodland(Subtropical and Temperate zones). Distribution.--Resident [rninirnusgroup] from extremesouthwestern British Columbia (southeasternVancouver Island and lower Fraser River Valley), central Washington,and westernand south-centralOregon south through California (west of the Sierra Nevada) to southernBaja California (absentfrom most of central Baja California); [plurnbeusgroup] from southeasternOregon, southwestern Idaho, northernNevada, north-centralUtah, south- westernWyoming, north-centralColorado, westernOklahoma (Kenton), and centralTexas (east to Bosqueand Travis counties)south to easternCalifornia, central and southeastern Arizona, central Sonora,southern New Mexico, and central Texas; and [rnelanotisgroup] from northeastern Sonora, extreme southwestern New Mexico, and western Texas south throughthe highlandsof Mexico to central Guatemala.Some movement to lower elevations in winter in northernportions of range. Casual [plurnbeusgroup] in central Kansas(Hays). Notes.--Populationsof the rnelanotisgroup were formerly regardedas a species,P. rnelanotis(Hartlaub, 1844) [Black-earedBushtit], distinctfrom the other populationsin the species,P. rninirnus[Common Bushfit]; that the differencein the two groupsis primarily a caseof polymorphismis now well established(Raitt 1967).

Family SITTIDAE: Nuthatches Notes.--See commentsunder Paddae and Troglodytidae.

Subfamily SITTINAE: Nuthatches

Genus SITTA Linnaeus $itta Linnaeus,1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 115. Type, by monotypy,$itta europaea Linnaeus.

Sitta canadensis Linnaeus. Red-breasted Nuthatch. Sitta canadensisLinnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 177. Based on "Le Torchepot de Canada" Brisson,Ornithologie 3: 592, pl. 29, fig. 4. (in Canada.) Itabitat.--Mature coniferous(mostly spruce and fir) and mixed coniferous-deciduous forest;in migrationand winter, also deciduousforest, open woodland,parks, and riparian woodland, but prefers conifers wherever available. Distribution.---Breeds from south-coastaland southeasternAlaska (west to the Kenai Peninsula and Kodiak Island), southernYukon, southwesternMackenzie, northwesternSas- katchewan, central Manitoba, northern Ontario, south-centralQuebec, southernLabrador, and Newfoundlandsouth (mostly in mountains)to southernCalifornia, central and southeastern Arizona, and southern New Mexico, east of the Rockies to northwestern and north- central Nebraska, North Dakota, north-central and eastern Minnesota, northern Illinois, southern Michigan, southernOntario, northernOhio, in the Appalachiansto easternTennessee and westernNorth Carolina, and to southeasternPennsylvania, north-central Maryland, Delaware, southernNew Jersey,and southernNew York (includingLong Island); also on GuadalupeIsland, off Baja California (at least formerly). Isolatedcases of breedinghave been reportedfrom Kansas(Geary and Sedgwickcounties), Oklahoma (Ponce City), Iowa (Des Moines), Missouri (KansasCity), and Indiana (Terre Haute). Wintersthroughout most of the breedingrange except at higher latitudesand elevations, and an irmptive migrantsouth in someyears to northernBaja California, southernArizona, southern New Mexico, southernTexas, the Gulf coast, and central Florida. Casual north to westernand central Alaska and northernManitoba, and to Revillagigedo Islands(Socorro) and Bermuda;accidental in Iceland and the British Isles; sightreports for Sinaloa and Nuevo Le6n. Notes.--Sitta canadensisand the Asiatic S. villosa Verreaux, 1865 [Snowy-browedNut- hatch], appearto constitutea superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970); possiblythey are conspecific.The treatmentby some authors(e.g., Mayr and Short 1970, Sibley and Monroe FAMILY SITTIDAE 469

1990) of S. canadensisand the Old World S. whiteheadiSharpe, 1884 [CorsicanNuthatch], S. ledanti Vieilliard, 1976 [Kabylie Nuthatch],S. kreuperi Pelzeln, 1863 [Krueper'sNut- hatch], and S. yunnanensisOgilvie-Grant, 1900 [Yunnan Nuthatch], as closely related has beenquestioned because of differencesin nestingbehavior and their fragmenteddistribution (Voous 1977).

Sitta carolinensis Latham. White-breasted Nuthatch. Sitta carolinensisLatham, 1790, Index Ornithol. 1: 262. Basedmainly on "Le Torchepot de la Caroline" Brisson,Ornithologie 3: 596. (in America, Jamaica;Europa•a minor -- South Carolina.) Habitat.--Mature deciduous(especially oak) and mixed forest and woodland,riparian woodland,Ponderosa pine woodland,(locally) pinyon-juniperwoodland (upper Subtropical and Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident from southwesternand easternWashington, southern interior and northeastern British Columbia, central Alberta, central and eastern Montana, southern Sas- katchewan(rarely), southernManitoba, south-central Ontario, southernQuebec, New Bruns- wick, PrinceEdward Island, and Nova Scotia southto southernBaja California (absentfrom most of centralBaja California), southernNevada, central and southeasternArizona, in the highlandsof Mexico to central Oaxaca (west of the Isthmusof Tehuantepec),Puebla, and central Veracruz, and to western and east-central Texas, northern Louisiana, central Missis- sippi,central and southeasternAlabama, and northern and central (at leastformerly) Florida; absentin breedingseason from mostof the GreatPlains from southernAlberta souththrough the westernportions of the plains statesto northern and west-centralTexas. Some northern birds may migrate south. Casual in southwestern and central British Columbia and on Vancouver Island, and in the Great Plains region, southernTexas, and southernFlorida. Notes.--Vocal, morphological,and ecologicaldifferences among Pacific coast,interior montane,and easternpopulations merit further investigationwith respectto specieslimits. A few authorsregard S. carolinensisand the Old World S. leucopsisGould, 1850 to be closelyrelated, but see Mayr and Short (1970).

Sitta pygmaea Vigors. Pygmy Nuthatch. Sittapygmaea Vigors, 1839, in Beechey,Zool. Voy. "Blossom," p. 25, pl. 4. (Monterey, [California.]) Habitat.--Yellow pine forestand woodland in interior,Monterey pine woodlandon coast; lessfrequently bristlecone pine and pinyon-juniper. Distribution.--Resident from southerninterior British Columbia, northernIdaho, western Montana, central Wyoming, southwesternSouth Dakota, and northwesternNebraska south to California (southin the coastalranges locally to San Luis ObispoCounty and in interior rangesto the Laguna and New York mountains),northern Baja California (SierraJufirez and Sierra San Pedro Mfirtir), southernNevada, central and southeasternArizona, in the mountains of Mexico to Michoacfin, M6xico, Morelos, Puebla, and west-central Veracruz, and to central New Mexico and extremewestern Texas (Davis and Guadalupemountains); also in southeastern Coahuila and southwestern Nuevo Le6n. Casualto southwesternBritish Columbia(including southern Vancouver Island), western Washington,central Montana, western North Dakota, western South Dakota, central Iowa, eastern Kansas, northern and northeastern Texas, and western Oklahoma. Notes.--Sitta pygrnaeaand S. pusilla are closely related and constitutea superspecies (Sibley and Monroe 1990). Although Norris (1958) found numerousdifferences in the biology of the two taxa, includingvocalizations, Phillips et al. (1964) and Mayr and Short (1970) consideredthem conspecific.

Sitta pusilia Latham. Brown-headedNuthatch. Sittapusilla Latham, 1790,Index Ornithol. 1: 263. Basedlargely on "Le petitTorchepot de la Caroline" Brisson,Ornithologie 3: 598. (in Carolina, Jamaica= South Caro- lina.) 470 FAMILY CERTHIIDAE

Habitat.--Open pine forest and pine-oak woodland. Distribution.--Resident from southeastern Oklahoma, central Arkansas, southern and eastern Tennessee,western North Carolina, south-centraland easternVirginia, southern Maryland, and southernDelaware southto the Houstonarea of Texas,the Gulf coast,and southernFlorida; also in the northern Bahama Islands (Grand Bahama). Casual or accidental north to Missouri (Ink, St. Louis), Wisconsin (Milwaukee), New York (Elmira), and New Jersey(Haddonfield). Notes.--See commentsunder S. pygmaea.

Family CERTHIIDAE: Creepers Notes.--See commentsunder Troglodytidae and Polioptilinae.

SubfamilyCERTHIINAE: NorthernCreepers

Genus CERTHIA Linnaeus

Certhia Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 118. Type, by tautonymy,Certhiafam- iliaris Linnaeus(Certhia, prebinomialspecific name, in synonymy).

Certhia americana Bonaparte.Brown Creeper. Certhia familiaris (not Linnaeus, 1758) Audubon, 1838, Birds Amer. (folio) 4: 419. (North America.) CerthiaAmericana Bonaparte, 1838, Geogr.Comp. List, p. 11. New namefor Certhia familiaris Audubon,preoccupied. Habitat.-•Mature coniferousand deciduousforest, the latter more frequentlyin northern or montanehabitats, locally in lowland situations,and in Middle America primarily in montanepine or pine-oak association;in migrationand winter more widespread,but almost always where tall trees are present(Subtropical and Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breeds from south-centralAlaska, north-central British Columbia (including the QueenCharlotte and Vancouverislands), central Alberta, centralSaskatchewan, centralManitoba, northern Ontario (rarely to SuttonLake), south-centralQuebec (including Anticosti Island), and Newfoundland south to southern California (to mountains of San Diego County), southernNevada, central and southeasternArizona, in the mountainsof Middle Americathrough Mexico to north-centralNicaragua, to extremewestern Texas (Gua- dalupe Mountains;summer report from Davis Mountains),west-central and southeastern Nebraska,southern Iowa, southeasternMissouri, southernIllinois, southernMichigan, southern Ontario, central Ohio, West Virginia, in the Appalachiansto easternTennessee and westernNorth Carolina,and to the lowlandsof Virginia, Maryland, andDelaware. Recorded in summer(and possiblybreeding) north to southernYukon, northernSaskatchewan, and northern Manitoba, and south to north-centralTennessee, western Kentucky, and southwestern Indiana. Wintersfrom southerncoastal Alaska and southernCanada south throughout the mostof the United Statesto southernTexas, the Gulf coast, and northernFlorida (casuallyfarther south), and in the lowlands of the western United States and extreme northern Mexico (casuallyto central Sonoraand central Tamaulipas).Populations on the Queen Charlotte Islands and in the mountains from southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico south to Nicaraguaare largely or entirely resident. A sight report for Baja California. Notes.--Certhia americana was formerly regardedas conspecificwith the EurasianC. familiaris Linnaeus, 1758 (Vaurie 1957a, Greenway in Paynter 1967); however,studies of vocalizationsindicate that they shouldbe treatedas separatespecies and that C. americana, at least the westernNorth American populations,may be more closely related to another Old World species,C. brachydactylaC. L. Brehm, 1820, than to C. familiaris (Thielcke 1962, Baptistaand Johnson1982). FAMILY TROGLODYTIDAE 471

Family TROGLODYTIDAE: Wrens Notes.--See Sibley and Ahlquist(1990) and Sheldonand Gill (1996) for possiblerela- tionshipsof the Troglodytidaeto the Certhiidae,Polioptilinae, and Sittidae.

Genus DONACOBIUS Swainson DonacobiusSwainson, 1832, Zool. Illus. (2)2: text to pl. 72. Type, by monotypy, Donacobiusvociferans Swainson -- Turdus atricapilla Linnaeus. Notes.--Formerly placedin the Mimidae, but studiesindicate that this genusis properly placedin the Troglodytidae(see Wetmore et al. 1984; seealso Miller 1964), probablyclosest to Carnpylorhynchus(Kiltie and Fitzpatrick 1984).

Donacobiusatricapillus (Linnaeus).Black-capped Donacobius. Turdus atricapilla Linnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 295. Based on "Le Merle fi teste [-- tgte] noire du Cap de Bonne Esp6rance"Brisson, Ornithologie 6 (suppl.): 47, pl. 3, fig. 2. (ad Cap. b. spei, error = easternBrazil.) Habitat.--Freshwater Marshes(500-600 m; TropicalZone). Distribution.--Resident in easternPanama (lower Rfo Tuira and aroundE1 Real, in eastern Dari6n) andnorthern Colombia (south to the Rfo Atrato andeast to the SantaMarta lowlands), and in South America east of the Andes from southeasternColombia, Venezuela, and the Guianassouth to centralBolivia, Paraguay,northeastern Argentina, and south-central Brazil. Notes.--Also known as Black-cappedMockingthrush.

GenusCAMPYLORHYNCHUS Spix CarnpylorhynchusSpix, 1824, Avium Spec. Nov. Bras. 1: 77. Type, by subsequent designation(G. R. Gray, 1840), C. variegatus (Gm.) = Opetiorhynchusturdinus Wied. Notes.--For an alternativearrangement, see the phylogenyof Selander(1964: 219).

Campylorhynchusalbobrunneus (Lawrence). White-headedWren. Heleodytesalbo-brunneus Lawrence, 1862, Ibis, p. 10. (line of the PanamaRailroad, near the summitof the Atlantic slope,Isthmus of Panama-- Canal Zone.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest Edge, SecondaryForest (0-1200 m; Trop- ical Zone). Distribution.--Resident locally in Panama(west to westernCo16n in the Caribbeanlow- lands, and to the Canal area on the Pacific slope; one old record from "Veraguas") and western Colombia (west of the Andes). Notes.--Also known as White-headedCactus-Wren. Campylorhynchus albobrunneus is sometimes(e.g., Paynterin Mayr and Greenway 1960, Meyer de Schauensee1966) consideredconspecific with the South American C. turdinus(Wied, 1821), a specieswidely distributedeast of the Andes,but relationshipsare evidentlywith C. zonatus;the basisfor this conclusionis a highly variable,apparently intermediate population of C. albobrunneus in southwesternColombia, which may represent hybridization with C. zonatus(Haffer 1967).

Campylorhynchuszonatus (Lesson).Band-backed Wren. Picolapteszonatus Lesson, 1832, Cent. Zool., p. 210, pl. 70. (la Californie, error -- Orizaba, Veracruz.) Habitat.--Pine-Oak Forest,Montane Evergreen Forest Edge, Tropical Lowland Evergreen ForestEdge, Add Montane Scrub (0-3000 m; Tropical to Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident from northern Veracruz, northern Puebla, northern and south- easternOaxaca, Tabasco, Chiapas, and southernCampeche south along both slopesof Central America (mainly in highlands,absent from Pacific lowlands)to westernPanama (east to 472 FAMILY TROGLODYTIDAE central Bocas del Toro and the Pacific slope of Veraguas);in northern Colombia; and in northwestern Ecuador. Notes.--Also known as Banded Cactus-Wren and Band-backed Cactus-Wren. Selander (1964) consideredC. zonatus,C. rnegalopterus,and two SouthAmerican species, C. nuchalis Cabanis, 1847 [Stripe-backedWren] and C. fasciatus (Swainson,1837) [FasciatedWren], to constitutea superspecies.Sibley and Monroe (1990), however,considered C. zonatus,C. albobrunneus,C. nuchalis, and C. fasciatus to constitutea superspecies,and pointed out that C. zonatusand C. rnegalopteruswere sympatric.See commentsunder C. albobrunneus.

Campylorhynchusmegalopterus Lafresnaye. Gray-barred Wren. Carnpylorhynchusrnegalopterus Lafresnaye, 1845, Rev. Zool. [Paris]8: 339. (Mexique = Mexico.) Habitat.--Pine Forest,Pine-Oak Forest (2000-3200 m; TemperateZone). Distribution.--Resident in the mountainsof Mexico from southernJalisco east through Michoacfin, M6xico, Morelos, and western Puebla to southwestern Veracruz, and thence southeastto Oaxaca (Mount Zempoaltepec). Notes.--Also known as Gray Cactus-Wren.Selander (1964) suggestedthat the subspecies C. rn. nelsonimight be a separatespecies. See commentsunder C. zonatus.

Campylorhynchuschiapensis Salvin and Godman.Giant Wren. Carnpylorhynchuschiapensis Salvin and Godman, 1891, Ibis, p. 609. (Tonala,State of Chiapas,Mexico.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge, Second-growthScrub, Secondary Forest (0-500 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Residentin the Pacific lowlandsof Chapas (Tonalfito Escuintla). Notes.--Also known as Chapas Wren and ChiapasCactus-Wren. Campylorhynchus chia- pensisand the SouthAmerican C. griseus(Swainson, 1837) constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990); they have been frequentlytreated as conspecific(e.g., Paynterin Mayr and Greenway 1960).

Campylorhynchusrufinucha (Lesson).Rufous-naped Wren. Picolaptes rufinuchaLesson, 1838, Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool.) (2) 9: 168. (Vera-Cruz, Mexico.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Gallery Forest,Secondary Forest, Arid Lowland Scrub (0-1500 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident[hurnilis group] in the Pacificlowlands of Mexico from Colima to extremewestern Chiapas; [rufinucha group] in centralVeracruz; and [capistratusgroup] from Chiapassouth in the Pacific lowlandsto northwesternCosta Rica (Guanacaste),and locally in interior valleys on the Gulf-Caribbeandrainage in Guatemala(Motagua Valley) and Honduras(Sula Valley). Notes.--Also known as Rufous-napedCactus-Wren. Groups: C. humilis Sclater, 1856 [Sclater'sWren], C. rufinucha[Rufous-naped Wren], and C. capistratus(Lesson, 1842) [Rufous-backedWren]; hurnilisand capistratusintergrade in the Tonalfiregion of Chiapas (Selander 1964, 1965).

Campylorhynchusgularis Sclater.Spotted Wren Campylorhynchusgularis Sclater,1861, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1860), p. 462. (in Mexico = Bolafios, Jalisco.) Habitat.--Pine-Oak Forest,Tropical Deciduous Forest, Arid Montane Scrub(450-2500 m; upperTropical and Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident on the Pacific slopefrom southeasternSonora and southwestern FAMILY TROGLODYTIDAE 473

Chihuahuasouth to Michoacfinand southeasternM6xico, and on the Gulf slopefrom south- westernTamaulipas to central Hidalgo. Notes.--Also known as SpottedCactus-Wren. Hellmayr (1934), Griscom (1934), van Rossem(1934), and Blake (1953) consideredC. gularis as conspecificwith C. jocosus,but see van Rossem(1938) and Selander(1964).

CampylorhynchusjocosusSclater. Boucard's Wren. Carnpylorhynchusjocosus Sclater, 1859, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 371. (In statu Oaxaca reipubl. Mexicanae ... at Oaxaca = Oaxaca City, Oaxaca; Binford, 1989, Ornithol. Monogr.43, p. 342.) Habitat.--Arid MontaneScrub, locally in Pine-OakForest (1000-2400 m; upperTropical to Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident in the highlandsfrom Guerrero,southern Morelos, and southern Puebla southto central Oaxaca (west of the Isthmusof Tehuantepec). Notes.--Also known as Boucard'sCactus-Wren. Mayr and Short (1970) and Sibley and Monroe (1990) followed Selander(1964) in consideringC. jocosus,C. yucatanicus,and C. brunneicapillusto constitutea superspecies;C. gularis presumablyshould be includedalso (Phillips 1986).

Campylorhynchusyucatanicus (Hellmayr). YucatanWren. Heleodytesbrunneicapillus yucatanicus Hellmayr, 1934, Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Publ. (Zool. Sen) 13(7): 150. (Rfo Lagartos,Yucatfin, Mexico.) Habitat.--Arid Lowland Scrub,primarily with Opuntia (0-50 m; TropicalZone). Distribution.--Resident alongthe northerncoast of the YucatanPeninsula (Yucatfin). Notes.--Also known as YucatanCactus-Wren. Carnpylorhynchus yucatanicus and C. brun- neicapillushave been treatedas conspecific(Hellmayr 1934). See commentsunder C. jo- COSl•S.

Campylorhynchusbrunneicapillus (Lafresnaye). Cactus Wren. Picolaptesbrunneicapillus Lafresnaye, 1835, Mag. Zool. [Pads]5(2): pl. 47. (Californie, error -- coast region of southernSonora.) Habitat.--Arid Lowland Scrub,Arid Montane Scrub(0-2375 m; Tropicalto Subtropical zones). Distribution.--Resident from southernCalifornia (north to Ventura and Inyo counties), southern Nevada, extreme southwestern Utah, central Arizona, central New Mexico, and centraland southernTexas south to southernBaja California,the Pacificlowlands to north- westernSinaloa (including Isla Tibur6n, off Sonora), in the Mexican highlandsto northern Michoacfin,northern M6xico, and Hidalgo, and to southwestern,central and northeastern Tamaulipas. Casual north to east-centralCalifornia (Mono County). Notes.--Also known as Northern Cactus-Wren.See commentsunder C. jocosus and C. yucatanicus.

Genus SALPINCTES Cabanis SalpinctesCabanis, 1847, Arch. Naturgesch.13: 323. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1855), Troglodytesobsoleta Say. Notes.--See commentsunder Catherpes.

Salpinctesobsoletus (Say). Rock Wren. Troglodytesobsoleta Say, 1823, in Long, Exped. Rocky Mount. 2:4 (note). (Northern part of DouglasCo., Colorado,near junction of Plum Creek with SouthPlatte River.) Habitat.--Primarily in arid or semi-aridareas with exposedrocks, canyons,and cliffs, 474 FAMILY TROGLODYTIDAE usuallywith somebrushy vegetation, also locally aroundman-made concrete or stonestruc- tures and gravel pits (Subtropicaland Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breeds from southernBritish Columbia (includingsouthern Vancouver Island), western Washington,southern Alberta, central Saskatchewan,northern Manitoba (once), westernNorth Dakota, and westernSouth Dakota southmostly east of the coast rangesin Oregonand northern California) to southernBaja California(including most coastal islands,Guadalupe Island, and, formerly, San Benedictoin the RevillagigedoIslands), in the highlandsof Middle America to northwesternCosta Rica (restrictedto Pacific slope volcanicpeaks in E1 Salvador,Nicaragua, and northwestern Costa Rica); andeast locally to western Nebraska, western Kansas, western Oklahoma, central and southern Texas, and southwesternTamaulipas, also oncein northernManitoba (Churchill); possibly also Iowa, and one breedingattempt in northernMinnesota. Winters from northern California, southernNevada, central Utah, northern New Mexico, andnorth-central Texas south through the southernportions of thebreeding range, wandering to lower elevations,casually wintering north to Oregon,Montana, and Wyoming. Casual in summernorth to northeasternBritish Columbia, northwesternMackenzie, north- em Alberta and northernManitoba (Churchill), and in migration and winter west of the coast ranges (from southernBritish Columbia to northern California), and east to eastern Nebraska, eastern Kansas, central Oklahoma, and eastern Texas. Casual or accidental from Minnesota, western and southernOntario, New York, Massachusetts,and Nova Scotia, south to Louisiana,Alabama, western Florida, and Virginia.

Genus CATHERPES Baird CatherpesBaird, 1858, in Baird, Cassinand Lawrence,Rep. Explor. Surv. R. R. Pac. 9: xix, xxxvi, 354, 356. Type,by originaldesignation, Thryothorus mexicanus Swain- son. Notes.--Sometimesmerged with Salpinctes(Paynter in Mayr and Greenway1960), but see Hardy and Delaney (1987). See commentsunder Hylorchilus.

Catherpesmexicanus (Swainson). Canyon Wren. ThryothorusMexicanus Swainson, 1829, Zool. Illus. (2)1(3): pl. 11 and text. (Real del Monte [Hidalgo], Mexico.) Itabitat.--Cliffs, steep-sidedcanyons, rocky outcropsand boulder piles, usually in add regions(Tropical, Subtropical, and locally in Temperatezones). Distribution.--Residentfrom easternWashington, southern interior British Columbia, west-centralIdaho, and Montana(except northeastern) south (mostly east of the Cascades and coastranges in Oregon and California, but includingcoastal areas south of SantaCruz County) to southernBaja California (includingIldefonso and EspfrituSanto islands, and Isla Tibur6n off Sonora),southern Arizona, in the Mexican highlandsto Oaxaca,central Chiapas,and westernVeracruz; and east locally to southwesternSouth Dakota, western Oklahoma, and the Trans-Pecosand Edwards Plateau of Texas (to McLennan and Travis counties).Some dispersalin winter to lowlands. Casualon SantaCruz Island (off southernCalifornia), Los CoronadosIslands (off northern Baja California), and northernTexas. Accidentalin Nebraskaand Kansas.

Genus HYLORCHILUS Nelson HylorchilusNelson, 1897, Auk 14: 71. Type, by originaldesignation, Catherpes sumichrasti Lawrence. Notes.--Sometimesmerged with Catherpes,the presumedsister genus to Hylorchilus (Hardy and Delaney 1987 and referencestherein); see Atkinson et al. (1993). See also comments under Microcerculus.

Hylorchilus surnichrasti (Lawrence). Sumichrast'sWren. Catherpessumichrasti Lawrence, 1871, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia22: 233. (Mato Bejuco, Vera Cruz.) FAMILY TROGLODYTIDAE 475

Habitat.--Rocky, limestoneoutcroppings in TropicalLowland EvergreenForest (75-950 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident locally in the lowlandsof west-centralVeracruz (Motzorongo, Amatlfin, Presidio) and extreme north-central Oaxaca (Temascal). Notes.--When consideredconspecific with H. navai, known as Slender-billedWren. See notes under H. navai.

Hylorchilus navai Crossinand Ely. Nava's Wren. Hylorchilus sumichrastinavai Crossin and Ely, 1973, Condor 75: 137. (26 km. N of Ocozocoautla(elevation 2500 ft.), stateof Chiapas,Mexico.) Habitat.--Limestone outcroppingsin humid evergreenforest (75-800 m; TropicalZone). Distribution.--Resident in southeasternVeracruz (Uxpanapa) and westernChiapas (El Ocote region). Notes.-•Also known as Crossin'sWren. Formerly considereda subspeciesof H. surni- chrastibut considereda separatespecies on the basisof vocaland morphological differences (Atkinson et al. 1993).

Genus THRYOTHORUS Vieillot

Thriothorus[sic] Vieillot, 1816, Analyse,pp. 45, 70 (correctedto Thryothorus).Type, by monotypy,"Troglodyte des roseaux" Vieillot, Ois. Am6r. Sept. = Troglodytes arundinaceusVieillot = Sylvia ludovicianaLatham.

Thryothorusspadix (Bangs).Sooty-headed Wren. Pheugopediusspadix Bangs, 1910, Proc.Biol. Soc.Wash. 23: 74. (Naranjito,Rfo Dagua, Valle, Colombia.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest (400-1800 m; upperTropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident in extreme easternPanama (easternDari6n) and westernColom- bia. Notes.--Thryothorusspadix and T. atrogulariswere formerly considered conspecific (e.g., Hellmayr 1934 and Paynterin Mayr and Greenway 1960), but seeWetmore et al. (1984); they constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990).

Thryothorusatrogularis Salvin. Black-throatedWren. Thryothorusatrogularis Salvin, 1865, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1864), p. 580. (Tuc- urrique, Costa Rica.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest Edge, SecondaryForest (0-1100 m; Trop- ical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident on the Caribbean slope from central Nicaragua (north to Rfo Escondido)south through Costa Rica to extremewestern Panama (western Bocas del Toro). Notes.--See commentsunder T. spadix.

Thryothorusfasciatoventris Lafresnaye. Black-bellied Wren. Thriothorus[sic] fasciato-ventrisLafresnaye, 1845, Rev. Zool. [Paris] 8: 337. ("Bo- gotfi," Colombia.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge, SecondaryForest, Second-growth Scrub (0-1000 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident on the Pacific slope from Costa Rica (northwestto the Gulf of Nicoya) to westernPanama (Chiriqui, one old recordfrom "Veragua"), and on both slopes from central Panama (Canal area) east to northern Colombia. 476 FAMILY TROGLODYTIDAE

Thryothorusnigricapillus Sclater.Bay Wren. Thryothorusnigricapillus Sclater, 1861, Proc. Zool. Soc.London (1860), p. 84. (Nanegal [alt. ca. 4,000 ft.], Pichincha,Ecuador.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge, Second-growthScrub, Secondary Forest(0-1400 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident [castaneusgroup] on the Caribbeanslope of easternNicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama(including Isla Escudode Veraguas,off Bocas del Toro), and on the Pacificslope of Panamafrom Veraguaseast to centralDari6n; and [nigricapillusgroup] in extremeeastern Panama (eastern Dari6n), westernColombia, and westernEcuador. Notes.--Groups:T. castaneusLawrence, 1861 [Bay Wren], and T. nigricapillus[Black- cappedWren]. Thryothorus nigricapillus and T. semibadiusconstitute a superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990); someauthors (e.g., Hellmayr 1934 and Paynterin Mayr and Greenway 1960) considerthem conspecific,but see Slud (1964) and Wetmoreet al. (1984).

Thryothorussemibadius Salvin. RiversideWren. Thryothorussemibadius Salvin, 1870, Proc.Zool. Soc.London, p. 181. (Bugaba,Chi- riquf, Panama.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest Edge (0-1200 m; TropicalZone). Distribution.--Resident in the Pacific lowlands of southwesternCosta Rica (El General- T6rraba region north to Rio Grande de Tarcoles)and extreme westernPanama (western Chiriquf). Notes.--Also known as Salvin's Wren. See commentsunder T. nigricapillus.

Thryothorusleucopogon (Salvadori and Festa).Stripe-throated Wren. Thryophilusleucopogon Salvadori and Festa, 1899, Bull. Mus. Zool. Anat. Comp. Torino 14(357): 6. (Rfo Peripa,Pichincha, Ecuador.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest Edge (0-750 m; TropicalZone). Distribution.--Resident in eastern Panama (from western San Blas to eastern Dari6n), western Colombia, and northwestern Ecuador. Notes.--Thryothorusleucopogon and T. thoracicusconstitute a superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990). Hellmayr (1934) and Paynterin Mayr andGreenway (1960) consideredthem conspecific,but seeWetmore et al. (1984).

Thryothorusthoracicus Salvin. Stripe-breastedWren. Thryothorusthoracicus Salvin, 1865, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1864), p. 580. (Tuc- urrique, Costa Rica.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest Edge, Secondary Forest (0-1000 m; Trop- ical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident on the Caribbeanslope of Nicaragua,Costa Rica (locally also on the Pacific slopeof the Cordillerade Guanacaste),and westernPanama (sight reports eastto Coc16and the Canalarea, also sight reports locally in the Pacificfoothills of Veraguas). Notes.--See commentsunder T. leucopogon.

Thryothorusrutilus Vieillot. Rufous-breastedWren. Thryothorusrutilus Vieillot, 1819, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv.6d.) 34: 55. (1'Am6rique septentrionale= Trinidad.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest Edge, Secondary Forest (0-1700 m; Trop- ical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident on the Pacific slopeof CostaRica (west to the Gulf of Nicoya) andwestern Panama (east to easternPanamfi province, also on the Caribbeanslope of eastern Co16nand the Canal area);and in SouthAmerica in northernand easternColombia, northern Venezuela,Tobago, and Trinidad. FAMILY TROGLODYTIDAE 477

Notes.--Thryothorus rutilus and T. maculipectus,along with the South American T. sclateri, Taczanowski,1879 [Speckle-breastedWren], were formerly (Hellmayr 1934) regarded as conspecific[Speckled Wren]; they constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990). Paynter(in Mayr and Greenway1960) includedsclateri conspecificwith T. rutilus, but consideredT. maculipectusto be a separatespecies, whereas Meyer de Schauensee(1966) consideredsclateri conspecific with T. maculipectus,but consideredT. rutilusto be a separate species.In the absenceof a thoroughanalysis, we follow Wetmoreet al. (1984) and Ridgely and Tudor (1989) in keepingall three as separatespecies.

Thryothorusmaculipectus Lafresnaye. Spot-breasted Wren. Thriothorus[sic] rnaculipectusLafresnaye, 1845, Rev. Zool. [Paris] 8: 338. (Mexique = Veracruz.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge, SecondaryForest, Tropical Decid- uousForest (0-1300 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident from eastern Nuevo Le6n, southeastern San Luis PotosL and centralTamaulipas south in the Gulf-Caribbeanlowlands of Middle America (includingthe Yucatan Peninsulaand Isla Cancun) to northeasternCosta Rica, and on the Pacific slope in southeasternOaxaca, Chiapas, Guatemala, and E1 Salvador. Notes.--See commentsunder T. rutilus and T. felix.

Thryothorusrufalbus Lafresnaye.Rufous-and-white Wren. Thryothorusrufalbus Lafresnaye, 1845, Rev. Zool. [Paris] 8: 337. (Mexique, error = Guatemala.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge, Montane EvergreenForest Edge, TropicalDeciduous Forest, Gallery Forest,Secondary Forest (0-1800 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident on the Pacific slopeof Middle America from southwesternChia- passouth to westernPanama (east to easternPanam• province), locally alsoon theCaribbean slopein Guatemala,Honduras, Costa Rica, and centralPanama (Canal area);and in northern and eastern Colombia, and western and northern Venezuela. Notes.--The ColombianT. nicefori Meyer de Schauensee,1946 [Niceforo'sWren], and T. rufalbusconstitute a superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990); they might be conspecific (Paynterin Mayr and Greenway1960).

Thryothorussinaloa (Baird). Sinaloa Wren. Thryophilussinaloa Baird, 1864, Rev. Amer. Birds 1' 122, 130. (Mazatlttn, Sinaloa, Mexico.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Gallery Forest,Mangrove Forest (0-2100 m; Trop- ical and Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident on the Pacific slopefrom southeasternSonora and southwestern Chihuahuasouth through westernDurango and coastalstates to extreme western Oaxaca (Putla de Guerrero region). Notes.--Also knownas Bar-vented Wren. This speciesand T. rufalbusmay be eachother's closestrelatives (Paynter in Mayr and Greenway 1960)

Thryothoruspleurostictus Sclater. Banded Wren. Thryothoruspleurostictus Sclater, 1860, Ibis, p. 30. (in prov. Verae Pacis,Guatemala = Gual•in,Zacapa, Guatemala.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Arid Lowland Scrub (0-1750 m; Tropical and Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident on the Pacific slope of Middle America from Michoacfin,the 478 FAMILY TROGLODYTIDAE southwesternportion of Mfxico, Morelos, and westernPuebla southto northwesternCosta Rica (Guanacasteregion, locally also on the Pacific slopeof the central plateau).

Thryothorusludovicianus (Latham). Carolina Wren. Sylvia ludoviciana Latham, 1790, Index Ornithol. 2: 548. Based on "Roitelet de la Louisiane" Daubenton,Planches Enlum., pl. 730, fig. 1. (in Louisiana = along the MississippiRiver at New Orleans.) Habitat.--[ludovicianus group]Deciduous woodland, mostly in undergrowthand thickets, and in woodedparks and residentialareas with undergrowth;[albinucha group] Tropical DeciduousForest, Gallery Forest, SecondaryForest (0-2200 m; Tropical and Subtropical zones,and, north of Mexico, TemperateZone). Distribution.--Resident [ludovicianusgroup] from eastern Nebraska, northern Iowa, southernWisconsin, southern Michigan, southernOntario, extreme southwesternQuebec, northernNew York, southernVermont, southernNew Hampshire,and southernMaine south to easternMexico (easternCoahuila, Nuevo Le6n, easternSan Luis Potosiand Tamaulipas), the Gulf coast(including islands off the coastof Mississippiand northwesternFlorida), and southernFlorida (to Key Largo), and west to northeasternColorado, central Kansas, west- centraland southwesternOklahoma, and central Texas; and [albinuchagroup] in southeastern Mexico (Tabascoand the Yucatan Peninsula),northern Guatemala (Petfn), and Belize, and locally in the interior of Guatemala(Sacapulas) and northwesternNicaragua. Disappears [ludovicianusgroup] from northernportions of the breedingrange following severewinters. Wanderscasually [ludovicianus group] west and north to central New Mexico, eastern Colorado,eastern Wyoming, North Dakota, SouthDakota, southernAlberta, southernMan- itoba, Minnesota,northern Michigan, New Brunswick,southeastern Quebec (Magdalen Is- lands), and Nova Scotia(sight reports), and southto Key West, Florida. Notes.--Groups:T. ludovicianus[Carolina Wren] andT. albinucha(Cabot, 1847) [Cabot's Wren]. Phillips (1986) not only treatedalbinucha as a speciesbut also questionedwhether albinucha belongedin the genusThryothorus; however, see Griscom (1932), Lowery and Berrett (1963), and Cardiff and Remsen (1994).

Thryothorusfelix Sclater.Happy Wren. Thryothorusfelix Sclater, 1859, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 371. (In statu Oaxaca, reipubl. Mexicanae . . . Juquila = Santa CatarinaJuquila, Oaxaca; Binford, 1989, Ornithol. Monogr. 43, p. 342-343.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Gallery Forest, SecondaryForest, Arid Lowland Scrub (0-2000 m; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Residenton the Pacificslope from southernSonora, Sinaloa, and western Durango southto Mfxico, Morelos, westernPuebla, and central Oaxaca (east to the Puerto Angel region); also in the Tres Mafias Islands(Mafia Madre and Maria Magdalena). Notes.--Phillips(1986) consideredT. felix possiblyconspecific with T. rnaculipectus.

Thryothorusleucotis Lafresnaye. Buff-breasted Wren. Thryothorusleucotis Lafresnaye, 1845, Rev. Zool. [Pads] 8: 338. (in Colombia aut Mexico = Honda, Rio Magdalena,Tolima, Colombia.) Habitat.--Second-growth Scrub,River-Edge Forest, Mangrove Forest (0-300 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident in easternPanama (west to the Canal area, and includingthe Pearl Islands), and in South America from northernColombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas south, east of the Andes, to central Peru and Amazonian and central Brazil. Notes.--Thryothorus leucotis,T. modestus,and the SouthAmerican T. superciliaris(Law- rence, 1869) [SuperciliatedWren], T. guarayanus(Lafresnaye and d'Orbigny, 1837) [Fawn- breastedWren], and T. longirostrisVieillot, 1818 [Gray Wren], constitutea superspecies (Sibley and Monroe 1990). Specieslimits in this complexare uncertain(see Ridgely and Tudor 1989). FAMILY TROGLODYTIDAE 479

Thryothorus modestusCabanis. Plain Wren. Thryothorusmodestus Cabanis, 1861, J. Ornithol. 8 (1860): 409. (San Jose,Costa Rica.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge, Second- growth Scrub (0-2000 m; Tropical and Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident [modestusgroup] on the Pacific slopeof Middle America from extremesoutheastern Oaxaca (Sierra Madre de Chiapas)south to Costa Rica (locally also on the Caribbeanslope in Chiapas,Guatemala, southern Belize, and Honduras,and in the Mosquitia of northeasternHonduras) and Panama,where occurringon both slopes(except the extremenorthwestern portion) eastto easternCo16n and easternPanamfi province; and [zeledonigroup] on the Caribbeanslope from southeasternNicaragua south to extreme northwestern Panama (western Bocas del Toro). Notes.--Groups: T. modestus[Plain Wren] and T. zeledoni(Ridgway, 1878) [Canebrake Wren]. See comments under T. leucotis.

Genus THRYOMANES Sclater ThryomanesSclater, 1862, Cat. Collect. Amer. Birds, p. 22. Type, by monotypy,Trog- lodytesbewickii Audubon.

Thryomanesbewickii (Audubon).Bewick's Wren. TroglodytesBewickii Audubon, 1827, Birds Amer. (folio) 1: pl. 18 (1831, Ornithol. Biogr. 1: 96). (Five miles from St. Francisville,Louisiana.) Habitat.--Brushy areas, thickets, and scrub in open country, riparian woodland,and chaparral;in easternportion of range,primarily in brushyedges of woodland(Subtropical and Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breeds from southwesternBritish Columbia (includingsoutheastern Van- couverIsland), southeasternWashington, west-central and southernNevada, northern Utah, southernWyoming, extreme western and southernColorado, Kansas, southeastern Nebraska (formerly), southeasternIowa, southernWisconsin, southern Michigan, southernOntario (formerly),northern Ohio, centralPennsylvania, and southeasternNew York (once) south to southernBaja California (includingsome islands off the coastof southernCalifornia south,formerly, to GuadalupeIsland, where extirpatedbetween 1892 and 1906), northern Sonora,in the Mexican highlandsto central Oaxaca, westernPuebla, and west-centralVe- racruz, and to southernTamaulipas, central Texas, northern Arkansas, the northernportions of the Gulf states,central Georgia, and central South Carolina; in recentyears scarcein or extirpatedfrom much of the easternportion of its breedingrange. Wintersfrom the northernlimits of the breedingrange (west of the Rockies),southeastern Colorado, southernKansas, southern Missouri, the lower Ohio Valley, Tennessee,and North Carolina southto the limits of the breedingrange in Mexico, the Gulf coast,and northern Florida. Casualnorth to Idaho (one nestingrecord), Montana, South Dakota, southernMinnesota, central New York, and northernNew England; a sight report for North Dakota. Notes.--See comments under T. sissonii.

Thryomanessissonii (Grayson).Socorro Wren. Thryothorussissonii Grayson, 1868, Calif. Farmer J. Useful Sci. 29: 7. (Isla Socorro, Islas de Revillagigedo,Colima, Mexico.) Troglodytesinsularis Lawrence, 1871, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York 10: 3. (Socorro Island, Mexico.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Arid Lowland Scrub(0-1050 m). Distribution.--Resident on SocorroIsland, in the RevillagigedoIslands, off westernMex- ico. Notes.-- Mayr and Short(1970) consideredThryomanes sissonii and T. bewickiito constitutea superspeciesand suggestedthat they might be conspecific.This speciesmay be betterplaced in Troglodytes,based on voice, behavior,and plumage(Howell and Webb 480 FAMILY TROGLODYTIDAE

1995), but no analysishas been published.Phillips (1986) used the specificname insularis Lawrence and placed the speciesin Troglodytes;see Banks and Browning (1995) for comments on nomenclature.

Genus FERMINIA Barbour FerrniniaBarbour, 1926, Proc.N. Engl. Zool. Club 9: 74. Type, by originaldesignation, Ferrninia cerverai Barbour.

Ferminia cerverai Barbour.Zapata Wren. Ferrninia cerverai Barbour, 1926, Proc. New Engl. Zool. Club 9: 74. (Santo TomSs, Ci6nagade Zapata,Las Villas, Cuba.) Habitat.--Freshwater Marshes. Distribution.--Residentin the Ci6nagade Zapatain the vicinityof SantoTomSs, western Cuba.

Genus TROGLODYTES Vieillot TroglodytesVieillot, 1809, Hist. Nat. Ois. Amer. Sept. 2 (1808, livr. 18): 52. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Baird, 1858), Troglodytesaedon Vieillot. NannusBillberg, 1828, Synop.Faunae Scand. (ed. 2) 1(2): 57, tab. A. Type, by monotypy, Motacilla troglodytesLinnaeus.

Troglodytesaedon Vieillot. House Wren. Troglodytesagdon Vieillot, 1809, Hist. Nat. Ois. Amer. Sept. 2 (1808, livr. 18): 52, pl. 107. (No locality given = New York City.) Habitat.--[aedon group] Thickets and scrubin partly open situations,open woodland (especiallyaspen), farmlands, chaparral, riparian woodland,and aroundhuman habitations; in winter, primarily scrub,weedy and brushy fields; [brunneicollisand musculusgroup] Second-growthScrub, Arid Lowland Scrub, Arid Montane Scrub, Semihumid/HumidMon- tane Scrub; [martinicensisgroup] Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Tropical Deciduous Forest, SecondaryForest, Second-growthScrub; [beani group] Tropical DeciduousForest, Second-growthScrub, Secondary Forest (0-4600 m; Tropicalto Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breeds [aedongroup] from southernand northeasternBritish Columbia (including VancouverIsland), northernAlberta, central Saskatchewan,southern Manitoba, centralOntario, southernQuebec, Maine, and westernNew Brunswick(formerly) southto northern Baja California, southernCalifornia, southernNevada, central and southeastern Arizona, southern New Mexico, western and northern Texas, northwestern Arkansas, southern Tennessee,northern Alabama, northeastern Georgia, western South Carolina, and eastern North Carolina; and [brunneicollisgroup] from northernSonora, southeastern Arizona (Hu- achuca and Santa Rita mountains), central Chihuahua, northern Coahuila, central Nuevo Le6n and southwesternTamaulipas south in the mountainsof Mexico to central Oaxaca (west of the Isthmusof Tehuantepec)and west-centralVeracruz. Winters[aedon group] from centralCalifornia, southernNevada, northern Arizona, southern New Mexico, southernOklahoma, northern Arkansas, the northernportions of the Gulf states,and coastalMaryland (casuallyfarther north) south to southernBaja California, throughoutMexico to Oaxaca and Veracruz, and to the Gulf coast and southernFlorida (includingthe Florida Keys); casuallyin early winter farther north to southernBritish Co- lumbia, Kansas,Ohio, southernOntario, and New York; and [brunneicollisgroup] from northernMexico souththroughout the remainderof the breedingrange. Resident[musculus group] from north-centralOaxaca, southernVeracruz (Sierra de Los Tuxtlas),Tabasco, Chiapas, and the YucatanPeninsula (including Isla Cancun)south through Middle America(scarce or absentfrom arid Pacificlowlands, but presenton Coiba and the Pearl islandsoff Panama),and in virtually all of SouthAmerica from Colombia,Venezuela, Tobago, Trinidad, and the Guianassouth to Tierra del Fuego (also the Falkland Islands); [martinicensisgroup] in the LesserAntilles on Guadeloupe(no recentrecords, possibly FAMILY TROGLODYTIDAE 481 extirpated), Dominica, St. Lucia (surviving in small numbers in the northeasterncoastal lowlands), St. Vincent, and Grenada (vocalizationssuggest Grenada birds may be part of musculusgroup), formerly also on Martinique;and [beani group]on CozumelIsland, off Quintana Roo. Casualor accidental[aedon group] northto northernBritish Columbia, northernManitoba, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland,and to westernCuba (near Havana) and the Bahama Islands (South Bimini, New Providence,Exuma). Notes.--The InternationalCommission for ZoologicalNomenclature has been asked (Bull. Zool. Nomenclature53: 187-190, 1996) to conservethe widely used specificname aedon despitethe fact that T. domesticus(Wilson, 1808) has priority; see Banks and Browning (1995). Specieslimits within this complexare not well understood.Groups: T. aedon[North- em House-Wren], T. brunneicollis Sclater, 1858 [Brown-throated Wren], T. musculusNau- mann, 1823 [Southern House-Wren], T. martinicensis (Sclater, 1866) [Antillean House- Wren], and T. beani Ridgway, 1885 [CozumelWren]. Troglodytesaedon and T. brunneicollis intergradethrough intermediate breeding populations in southernArizona (Marshall 1956, Phillips et al. 1964, Lanyon 1960), but intergradationbetween brunneicollis and rnusculus in an area of close approachin north-centralOaxaca has not been definitely established (Monroe 1968, Binford 1989). Troglodytesbeani appearsto be part of the Antillean T. martinicensiscomplex. Many or all of the distinctiveCaribbean subspecies included within the martinicensisgroup may each warrant speciesstatus. Brumfield and Capparella(1996) suggestedthat the rnusculusgroup and probably the brunneicollisgroup are specifically distinctfrom aedon, but studyof parapatricpopulations is neededto resolvespecies limits in this complex. See commentsunder T. ochraceus.

Troglodytestanneri Townsend.Clarion Wren. Troglodytestanneri C. H. Townsend,1890, Proc.U.S. Natl. Mus. 13: 133. (Isla Claritn, Islas de Revillagigedo,Colima, Mexico.) Itabitat.--Arid Lowland Scrub. Distribution.--Residenton Isla Clari6n,in the RevillagigedoIslands, off westernMexico. Notes.-•Paynterin Mayr and Greenway(1960) treatedthis speciesas a subspeciesof T. aedon.See Howell and Webb (1995) for maintainingthis taxon as a distinctspecies.

Troglodytesrufociliatus Sharpe.Rufous-browed Wren. Troglodytesbrunneicollis Subsp. ct. Troglodytesrufociliatus Sharpe, 1882, Cat. Birds Br. Mus. 6 (1881): xii, 262. (Upper ChirostemonForest, alt. 10,000 ft., Volcan de Fuego, [Sacateptquez,]Guatemala.) Itabitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Pine-Oak Forest (1700-3500 m; Subtropicaland Temperate zones). Distribution.--Resident in the mountainsof Chiapas,Guatemala, E1 Salvador,Honduras, and north-centralNicaragua. Notes.--See comments under T. ochraceus.

Troglodytesochraceus Ridgway. OchraceousWren. Troglodytes(?) ochraceusRidgway, 1882, Proc.U.S. Natl. Mus. 4 (1881): 334. (Volcfin Irazd, Cartago, Costa Rica.) Habitat.•Montane Evergreen Forest (750-2500 m, rarely to 3000 m; Subtropicalto Temperate zones). Distribution.--Resident in the mountains of Costa Rica (north to Cordillera de Tilarftn) and Panama(Chiriqui, Veraguas,and easternDari6n; sight reportsfrom Cerro Campanain westernPanamfi province). Notes.•Troglodytes ochraceus,T. rufociliatus,the ColombianT. rnonticolaBangs, 1899 [SantaMarta Wren], the Andean T. solstitialisSclater, 1859 [Mountain Wren], and T. rufulus, Cabanis,1849 [TepuiWren] of the tepuiregion of northernSouth America are closely related and constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990). Paynter in Mayr and Greenway 482 FAMILY TROGLODYTIDAE

(1960) treatedthe first four as conspecificand as forming a superspecieswith T. rufulus. See Stiles and Skutch (1989) for reasonsfor treating T. ochraceusand T. solstitialis as separatespecies. Phillips (1986) considered,probably correctly,that the form in eastern Daritn (festinus)is a subspeciesof T. solstitialis,which he mergedwith ochraceus.

Troglodytestroglodytes (Linnaeus). Winter Wren. Motacilla TroglodytesLinnaeus, 1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1:188. (in Europa= Sweden.) Habitat.---Coniferousforest (especially spruce and fir) and mixed forests,primarily with denseunderstory and near water, and in openareas with low coveralong rocky coasts,cliffs, islandsor high mountainregions, including moors and steppes;in migrationand winter also in deciduousforest and woodlandwith denseundergrowth and tree-falls,dense hedgerows, and brushy fields. Distribution.--Breeds[hiemalis group] in North Americafrom coastalsouthern and southeasternAlaska (includingthe Pribilof Islands,and throughoutmost of the Aleutians), coastaland central British Columbia (includingQueen Charlotteand Vancouverislands), northern Alberta, central Saskatchewan,central Manitoba, northernOntario, central Quebec, extremesouthern Labrador, and Newfoundlandsouth to centralCalifornia (San Luis Obispo County, and the westernslope of the centralSierra Nevada), northeasternOregon, central Idaho, northern Utah, western Montana, southwesternAlberta, southeasternManitoba, north- centraland northeasternMinnesota, southern Wisconsin, central Michigan, southernOntario, northeasternOhio, in the Appalachiansthrough eastern West Virginia, westernMaryland, westernVirginia, easternTennessee, and westernNorth Carolinato northeasternGeorgia, and to northernPennsylvania, northern New Jersey,and southeasternNew York; and [troglodytesgroup] in the Palearcticfrom Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, Shetlands,British Isles, northern Scandinavia, northern Russia, and central Siberia south to northwestern Africa, the Mediterraneanregion, Near East, Iran, northernIndia, centralChina, and Japan.Recorded [hiemalisgroup] in summer(and probablybreeding) in southernYukon, south-centralMac- kenzie, and northern Indiana. Winters[hiemalis group] in North Americafrom southernAlaska (includingthe Pribilof and Aleutian islands), coastal and central British Columbia, southwesternAlberta, western Montana, eastern Colorado, southern Nebraska, southern Minnesota, eastern Iowa, southern Michigan, southernOntario, centralNew York, and Massachusetts(casually farther north to southernQuebec and Newfoundland) southto southernCalifornia, central and southeastern Arizona, southernNew Mexico, Nuevo Leon (casual in Coahuila), southernTexas, the Gulf coast,and central (perhapscasually southern) Florida; and [troglodytesgroup] in the Old World generallythroughout the breedingrange, although the extremenorthern populations usually migrate southward. Accidental[hiemalls group] in northernAlaska (Point Barrow). Notes.--Known in Old World literatureas the Wren. Groups:T. hiemallsVieillot, 1819 [Winter Wren] and T. troglodytes [Northern Wren].

Genus CISTOTHORUS Cabanis

CistothorusCabanis, 1850, Mus. Heineanum1: 77. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1855), Troglodytesstellaris Naumann = Sylvia platensisLatham. TelmatodytesCabanis, 1850, Mus. Heineanum1: 78. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Baird, 1858), Certhia palustris Wilson.

Cistothorusplatensis (Latham). SedgeWren. SylviaplatensisLatham, 1790, Index Ornithol.2.' 548. Basedon "Le Roiteletde Buenos- Ayres" Daubenton,Planches Enlum., pl. 730, fig. 2. (in Bonaria = BuenosAires, Argentina.) Habitat.--Grassy marshes,sedge meadows, wet fields with tall grassand somebushes, locally in North America in dry, cultivatedgrain fields; in winter and migration,also in rice fields;in SouthAmerica in dry grasslands(Tropical to Alpine zones). FAMILY TROGLODYTIDAE 483

Distribution.--Breeds[stellaris group] in NorthAmerica from east-centralAlberta, central Saskatchewan,southern Manitoba, western and southernOntario, extreme southwestern Quebec,central Maine, and southeastern New Brunswick(probably) south to northwestern andeast-central Arkansas, southern Illinois, central Kentucky, west-central West Virginia, and southeasternVirginia, and west to northeasternMontana, eastern South Dakota, eastern Nebraska, eastern Kansas, and northeasternOklahoma. Winters[stellaris group] in NorthAmerica from western Tennessee and Maryland (casually farthernorth) south to southernNew Mexico,western and southern Texas, San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas,the Gulf coastregion, and southernFlorida. Resident[stellaris group] locally in Middle Americain Durango,San Luis Potosi,Mi- choacfin(Lake Pfitzcuaro region), southern Veracruz, Distrito Federal, Chiapas, Guatemala (centralhighlands), northern E1 Salvador, Honduras (Siguatepeque, and the Mosquitia pine savanna),north-central and northeastern Nicaragua, Costa Rica (vicinityof Cartago),and westernPanama (western Chiriquf); [platensis group] in SouthAmerica locally in theAndes from northernColombia south to Argentinaand Chile, and in lowlandsof southernSouth Americain Argentina,Chile, Tierra del Fuego,and the FalklandIslands; and [polyglotms group]in theSanta Marta Mountains, Perijfi Mountains, and the Coastal Range and eastern tepuiregion of Venezuelaand Guyana, and in the easternlowlands locally in northeastern Colombia,southeastern Peru, northern Bolivia, and southeastern Brazil, and locally in Andes in depto.Puno, Peru. The platensis and polyglottus groups intergrade in southeasternBrazil and Paraguay(Traylor 1988). Casual[stellaris group] in California,Montana, southeastern Wyoming, and Colorado. Notes.--Alsoknown as Short-billedMarsh-Wren. Groups: C. stellaris(J. E Naumann, 1823)[Sedge Wren], C. platensis[Western Grass-Wren], and C. polyglottus[Eastern Grass- Wren];see Traylor (1988). Cistothorus platensis and two specieswith restricted ranges in thehigh Andes of Venezuelaand Colombia, C. rneridaeHellmayr, 1907 [Paramo Wren or MeridaWren], and C. apolinariChapman, 1914 [Apolinar's Wren], respectively, constitute a superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970).

Cistothoruspalustris (Wilson). Marsh Wren.

Certhiapalustris Wilson, 1810, Amer. Ornithol. 2: 58, pl. 12, fig. 4. (Bordersof the Schuylkillor Delaware[rivers, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania].) Habitat.--Fresh-waterand brackish marshes in cattails,tule, bulrush, and reeds; in winter andmigration, also in rice fields,low densegrowth bordering wetlands, and salt marsh. Distribution.--Breeds[paludicola group] from southwestern and eastern British Colum- bia, northern Alberta, central Saskatchewan,and north-central Manitoba south to southern California,northeastern Baja California, northwestern Sonora, southwestern Arizona, southern Nevada,southern Utah, northwesternand north-centralNew Mexico, and extremewestern Texas;and [palustrisgroup] from southeasternSaskatchewan, southern Manitoba, western and southernOntario, southwesternQuebec, southernMaine southeasternNew Bruns- wick, andNova Scotiasouth to extremewestern and southernTexas, the Gulf coast(east to theTampa Bay region, formerly farther south along the Gulf coastof peninsularFlorida), andeast-central Florida (St. John'sRiver, formerly to New SmyrnaBeach), generally very localin distributionin the interiorof NorthAmerica; also locally in Mtxico (Rio Toluca). Winters[paludicola group] from the breedingrange south to southernBaja California, southwesternOaxaca, Veracruz, and southern Texas; and [palustrisgroup] from southern New Englandand the southeastern United States (mostly in coastalareas, casually north to SouthDakota, central Illinois, and the GreatLakes region) south to southeasternTexas, the Gulf coast, and southern Florida. Accidental[palustris group] in Greenland. Notes.--Alsoknown as Long-billedMarsh-Wren. The two groupsare distinctvocally andmorphologically, and they may constitute separate species, C. paludicola(Baird, 1864) [WesternMarsh-Wren] and C. palustris [Eastern Marsh-Wren] (D. E. Kroodsmaand Canady 1985, D. E. Kroodsma1988, 1989). 484 FAMILY TROGLODYTIDAE

Genus UROPSILA Sclater and Salvin Uropsila Sclater and Salvin, 1873, Nomencl. Avium Neotrop., pp. 7, 155. Type, by original designation,Troglodytes leucogastra Gould.

Uropsila leucogastra (Gould). White-bellied Wren. Troglodytesleucogastra Gould, 1837, Proc.Zool. Soc. London(1836), p. 89. (Tamau- lipas, Mexico.) Itabitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Secondary Forest, Secondary Forest (0- 500 m; TropicalZone). Distribution.--Resident in the Pacific lowlands from southwestern Jalisco to central Guer- rero (Acapulco);on the Gulf-Caribbeanslope from southeasternSan Luis Potosfand southern Tamaulipassouth through Veracruz, northeastern Puebla, northern Oaxaca, Tabasco, northern Chiapas,and the YucatanPeninsula to northernGuatemala (Pet6n) and Belize; and locally in north-centralHonduras (Coyoles).

Genus THRYORCHILUS Oberholser ThryorchilusOberholser, 1904, Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus. 27: 198. Type, by originaldesignation, Troglodytesbrowni Bangs.

Thryorchilus browni (Bangs). Timberline Wren. Troglodytesbrowni Bangs, 1902, Proc.N. Engl. Zool. Club 3: 53. (Volcfinde ChiriquL alt. 10,000 ft., ChiriquL Panama.) Habitat.--Elfin Forest,Montane Evergreen Forest Edge (2700-3600 m, locally at 2200 m; TemperateZone). Distribution.--Residentin thehigh mountains ofCosta Rica (Cordillera deTalamanca, and on the Irazfi-Turrialba massif in the Cordillera Central) and western Panama (Volcfin Bani in westernChiriqu0. Notes.--The relationshipsof this speciesremain uncertain; it may bestbe includedin the genus Troglodytes(e.g., Paynter in Mayr and Greenway [1960], Wetmore et al. [1984], Phillips [1986]) or have affinitieswith Henicorhina(Sibley and Monroe 1990). Stilesand Skutch (1989) favored the latter becauseof similaritiesin song, behavior, and voice. Also known as Iraztl Wren.

Genus HENICORHINA Sclater and Salvin Heterorhina(not Westwood,1845) Baird, 1864, Rev. Amer. Birds 1: 115. Type, by original designation,Scytalopus prostheleucus Sclater = Cyphorhinusleucosticta Cabanis. HenicorhinaSclater and Salvin, 1868, Proc.Zool. Soc.London, p. 170. New namefor HeterorhinaBaird, preoccupied.

Henicorhina leucosticta (Cabanis). White-breasted Wood-Wren. Cyphorhinusleucosticta Cabanis, 1847, Arch. Naturgesch.13: 206. (Guianaand Mexico -- Guiana.) Itabitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Montane EvergreenForest (0-1850 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident[prostheleuca group] from southeasternSan Luis Potosf, Hidalgo, and northernVeracruz south on the Gulf-Caribbeanslope of Middle America(including the YucatanPeninsula, and locally also on the Pacific slopein southeasternOaxaca, southern Chiapas, and southernGuatemala) to Nicaragua, the Caribbean slope of Costa Rica, and northeasternPanama; [pittieri group] southwesternCosta Rica and Panama(except north- east), to northwesternColombia, including Cauca Valley, southalong Pacific coast to north- westernEcuador; and [leucostictagroup] in SouthAmerica from easternColombia, southern Venezuela, and the Guianas south to northeastern Peru and northern Brazil. FAMILY TROGLODYTIDAE 485

Notes.--Groups:H. prostheleuca(Sclater, 1857] [Sclater'sWood-Wren], H. pittieri Cher- rie, 1893 [Cherrie'sWood-Wren], and H. leucosticta(Cabanis, 1847)[Black-capped Wood- Wren]. The Middle Americangroups may deserverecognition as speciesseparate from South America leucosticta(Winker et al. 1996). Although Hellmayr (1934) provided no rationalefor combiningthe groupsinto a singlespecies, Sibley and Monroe (1990) did not distinguishthe former speciesas groups. Henicorhina leucosticta and H. leucophrysare elevationalrepresentatives of one anotherand may constitutea superspeciesdespite local sympatry(but see Sibley and Monroe 1990).

Henicorhina leucophrys(Tschudi). Gray-breasted Wood-Wren. Troglodytesleucophrys Tschudi, 1844, Arch. Naturgesch.10: 282. (RepublicaPeruana = Peru.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest (600-3000 m; Subtropicaland Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident in the highlandsfrom southwesternJalisco, western Michoacfin, Guerrero,southeastern San Luis Potosf,northeastern Hidalgo, and Puebla souththrough Oaxaca, Chiapas,and Guatemalato E1 Salvadorand Honduras;in Costa Rica and Panama (recordedChiriquf, Veraguas, western Panamfi province, and easternDari6n); andin South America in the Andes of Venezuelaand Colombia, southon the westernslope to northern Ecuador,and on the easternslope to centralBolivia. Notes.--See comments under H. leucosticta.

Genus MICROCERCULUS Sclater

MicrocerculusSclater, 1862, Cat. Collect. Amer. Birds, p. 19. Type, by subsequent designation(Baird, 1864), Turdusbambla Boddaert = Formicatinsbarnbin Boddaert. Notes.-•Possiblymore closelyrelated to Hylorchilus(Hardy and Delaney 1987).

Microcerculusphilomela (Salvin). Nightingale Wren. Cyphorhinusphilomela Salvin, 1861, Proc.Zool. Soc.London, p. 202. (Alta Vera Paz, Guatemala.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest (0-1400 m; Tropical and Subtropical zones). Distribution.--Resident from northernChiapas south through the Gulf-Caribbeanlow- lands of Guatemala,southern Belize, and Hondurasto Nicaraguaand central Costa Rica (just north of Volcfin Turrialba). Notes.--Also known as Dark-throatedNightingale-Wren or NorthernNightingale-Wren. Althoughformerly regarded as conspecificwith M. marginatus,this form is now regarded as a distinct species(Stiles 1983b).

Microcerculusmarginams (Sclater).Scaly-breasted Wren. Heterocnemismarginatus Sclater, 1855, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 37, pl. 6. (Santa F6 di Bogota [Colombia].) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest (0-1700 m; Tropical and Subtropical zones). Distribution.--Resident [luscinia group] from central Costa Rica (south of Volc•n de Turrialba)south through Panama (foothills and Caribbeanslope throughout, in Pacificlow- landswest to easternPanam• province); [taeniatus group] in westernColombia and western Ecuador;and [marginatusgroup] in SouthAmerica east of the Andes from northernVen- ezuela and eastern Colombia south to central Bolivia and Amazonian Brazil. Notes.•Groups: M. luscinia Salvin, 1866 [Whistling Wren], M. taeniatusSalvin, 1881 [ScalyNightingale-Wren], and M. marginatus[Southern Nightingale-Wren]. Vocal differ- encesamong populations merit furtherstudy (Ridgely and Tudor 1989). SeeM. philomela. 486 FAMILY PYCNONOTIDAE

Genus ½YPItORHINUS Cabanis CyphorhinusCabanis, 1844, Arch. Naturgesch. 10: 282. Type,by monotypy,Cyphor- hinus thoracicus Tschudi.

Cyphorhinusphaeocephalus Sclater. Song Wren. Cyphorhinusphteocephalus Sclater, 1860, Proc. Zool. Soc.London, p. 291. (In rep. Equator.Occ. = Esmeraldas,Esmeraldas, Ecuador.) Habitat.--TropicalLowland Evergreen Forest (0-1000 m;Tropical and lower Subtropical zones). Distribution.--Residenton the Caribbean slope of northeasternHonduras (Gracias a Dios) andNicaragua, on both slopes of CostaRica (Caribbean slope throughout, and on the Pacific slopeof Cordillerade Guanacasteand in the Pacificsouthwest) and Panama (Caribbean slopethroughout, Pacific slope west to westernPanamfi province), and in westernColombia and western Ecuador. Notes.--Cyphorhinusphaeocephalus and the South American C. arada(Hermann, 1783) [MusicianWren] constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990). They have been frequentlyconsidered as conspecific, e.g., by Paynterin Mayr andGreenway (1960), who proposedthat the combined species formed a superspecieswith Andean C. thoracicusTschu- di, 1844. See also Ridgely and Tudor (1989).

Family CINCLIDAE: Dippers Notes.•ibley (1970)and Sibley and Ahlquist (1990) found evidence that the Cinclidae aremore closely related to theBombycillidae, Muscicapinae, and Turdinae than is indicated by theirtraditional placement near the Troglodytidae.

Genus CINCLUS Borkhausen

CinclusBorkhausen, 1797, Dtsch.Fauna 1: 300. Type, by monotypy,Cinclus hydro- philusBorkhausen -- Sturnuscinclus Linnaeus.

Cinclus mexicanusSwainson. American Dipper. CinclusMexicanus Swainson, 1827, Philos.Mag. (n.s.) 1: 368. (Mexico = Temascal- tepec,M6xico.) Habitat.--Montane streams,primarily swift-flowingand rocky, less frequentlyalong mountainponds and lakes; in winteroccasionally to rockyseacoasts (Subtropical and Tem- perate zones). Distribution.--Resident from western and northeasternAlaska (SadlerochitSprings), north-centralYukon, west-central Alberta, western Montana, and southwesternSouth Dakota southto the AleutianIslands (Unalaska, Unimak), southernCalifornia, southern Nevada, north-centraland easternArizona, southernNew Mexico, and in the mountainsof northern MiddleAmerica through Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras to north-centralNicaragua; also in the mountainsof CostaRica and westernPanama (Chiriquf and Veraguas). Casualin southernMackenzie, southwesternSaskatchewan, the ChannelIslands (off southern California), southeasternCalifornia (Mojave Desert), westernNebraska, and western Texas. Accidental in northeasternMinnesota (Cook County). Notes.--Also known as North American Dipper.

Family PYCNONOTIDAE: Bulbuls Notes.--Moleculardata (Sheldonand Gill 1996) indicatethat the Pycnonotidaeare more closelyrelated to theTimaliidae, Sylviini, and other groups than is reflectedin traditional classifications. FAMILY REGULIDAE 487

Genus PYCNONOTUS Boie Brachypus(not Meyer, 1814) Swainson,1824, Zool. J. 1: 305. Type, by subsequent designation(Rand and Deignan, 1960), "Le Curouge" Levaillant -- Turduscafer Linnaeus. Pycnonotus"Kuhl" Boie, 1826, Isis von Oken, col. 973. Type, by monotypy,Turdus capensisLinnaeus.

Pycnonotuscafer (Linnaeus).Red-vented Bulbul. Turduscafer Linnaeus,1766, Syst.Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 295. Basedon "Le Merle dup6du Cap de Bonne Esptrance" Brisson,Oruithologie 2: 257, pl. 20, fig. 2. (ad Cap. b. spei, error = Ceylon.) Habitat.--Scrub, brushy areas, secondgrowth, urban residentialareas, and now in the Hawaiian Islandspenetrating into native forest. Distribution.--Resident from Pakistanand the Himalayas south through India to Sri Lanka, central Burma, and western Yunnan. Introducedand establishedin the Hawaiian Islands(Oahu), and in the Fiji, Tonga,Samoa, and Societyislands. Notes.--Two other species,P. leucogenys(J. E. Gray, 1835) [Himalayan Bulbul] and P. aurigaster(Vieillot, 1818) [Sooty-headedBulbul] form zonesof hybridizationwith P. cafer in someareas of sympatry;see Sibley and Monroe (1990), who also consideredP. cafer to form a superspecieswith 10 other speciesof Pycnonotus.

Pycnonotusjocosus (Linnaeus).Red-whiskered Bulbul. LaniusjocosusLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 95. (in China = Canton, Kwang- tung, China.) Habitat.--Suburbs and parks;in native range, forest edge and clearings,second-growth woodland,brushy areas, cultivated lands, villages, and suburbanresidential areas. Distribution.--Resident from India and southern China south to southern Laos and Cam- bodia; also in the Andaman Islands. Introduced and establishedin the Hawaiian Islands (in 1967, on Oahu), Florida (Dade County), Mauritius, Australia (New South Wales), and the Nicobar Islands.

Family REGULIDAE: Kinglets Notes.--Some authorshave treated the genusRegulus as a subfamily of the Sylviidae (Voous 1977, A.O.U. 1957) or of an expandedMuscicapidae (Mayr and Amadon 1951, Morony et al. 1975, A.O.U. 1983), but othershave treated it as a family (Wetmore 1930, 1960, Stepanyan1990). Molecular data supportranking this groupas a family of uncertain affinities (Sibley and Ahlquist 1990, Harshman1994, Sheldonand Gill 1996); we retain it closeto its traditionalplacement in linear sequencespending resolution of its relationships.

Genus REGULUS Cuvier RegulusCuvier, 1800, LemonsAnat. Comp. 1' tableii. Type, by monotypy,"Roitelets" = Motacilla regulus Linnaeus. OrchilusMorris, 1837, in Wood, Naturalist2: 124. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Oberholser,1974), Orchilus cristatusWood = Motacilla regulusLinnaeus. Notes.--Molecular data (Sibley and Ahlquist 1985, Ingold et al. 1988) indicate that R. satrapa and R. calendula are not closely related.

SubgenusREGULUS Cuvier

Regulussatrapa Lichtenstein.Golden-crowned Kinglet. Regulussatrapa Lichtenstein,1823, Verz. Doubl. Zool. Mus. Berlin, p. 35. (Amer. sept. = North America.) 488 FAMILY REGULIDAE

Habitat.--Coniferous forest and woodland(especially spruce, fir, hemlock);in migration and winter, also deciduouswoodland, pine plantations,and parkswith conifersor evergreen oaks. Distribution.--Breeds from southernAlaska (west to the base of the Alaska Peninsula), southernYukon, northern Alberta, northern Saskatchewan,northern Manitoba, northern On- tario, south-centralQuebec (including Anticosti Island), New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland south in the coastal and interior mountains to south- central California (to the San Bernardino and San Jacinto mountains),extreme western and northeasternNevada (absentfrom central region), southernUtah, central and southeastern Arizona, southernNew Mexico, in the highlandsthrough Mexico to western Guatemala, and eastof the Rockiesto centraleastern Alberta, central Saskatchewan (probably), southern Manitoba, northern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin,southern .Michigan, northern Ohio, southern Ontario, New York, in the mountains to eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina, and to southeastemPennsylvania, north-central Maryland, northernNew Jersey, central Massachusetts,and southernMaine; also isolated breeding reported from south- westernSouth Dakota (Black Hills), northernIllinois, and Indiana (Indianapolis). Winters from south-coastalAlaska (Kodiak Island) and southernCanada (British Colum- bia, southernSaskatchewan, southern Manitoba, southernOntario, southernQuebec, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland) south to northern Baja California, through the breeding range to Guatemala(rarely to lowland regionsin Mexico), and to centralTamaulipas, the Gulf coast,and northern(casually central) Florida. Causal in Bermuda. Notes.--Reported hybridizationof R. satrapa and R. calendula (Cockrum 1952, Gray 1958) is erroneous.See Regaluscuvieri in Appendix.

SubgenusCORTHYLIO Cabanis

Corthylio Cabanis, 1853, J. Ornithol. 1: 83. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1874), Motacilla calendulaLinnaeus.

Regulus calendula (Linnaeus).Ruby-crowned Kinglet.

Motacilla CalendulaLinnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 337. Basedon "The Ruby- crownedWren" Edwards,Glean. Nat. Hist. 1: 95, pl. 254, fig. 2. (in Pensylvania= Philadelphia.)

Habitat.--Coniferous forest,mixed coniferous-deciduouswoodland, and muskeg;in migration and winter also deciduousforest, open woodland,riparian woodland,brush, dense second-growth,and wooded suburbsand parks (especiallyin evergreenoaks). Distribution.--Breeds from northwesternand north-centralAlaska, north-centralYukon, northwestern and southern Mackenzie, northern Saskatchewan, northern Manitoba, northern Ontario, northern Quebec, Labrador, and Newfoundland southto southernAlaska (west to the base of the Alaska Peninsula), in the mountains to south-centraland easternCalifornia (San Bernardinoand White mountains),central and southernArizona, southernNew Mexico, east-centralColorado, and southwesternSouth Dakota (Black Hills), and east of the Rockies to central-eastern Alberta, central Saskatchewan,southern Manitoba, northeasternMinnesota, northern Wisconsin,northern Michigan, southernOntario (locally), northern New York, southernQuebec, northern Maine, and Nova Scotia; also resident(at least formerly) on GuadalupeIsland, off Baja California. Winters from southwesternBritish Columbia, Idaho, Utah, northern New Mexico, south- easternNebraska, Kansas, Illinois, southernMichigan, southernOntario, and New Jersey (casually farther north) southto southernBaja California, throughoutmost of Mexico to westernGuatemala, and to southernTexas, the Gulf coast,and southernFlorida (including the Florida Keys), casuallyto westernCuba, BahamaIslands, and Bermuda. Accidental in Greenland, Iceland, and Great Britain. Notes.--See commentsunder R. satrapa. FAMILY SYLVIIDAE 489

Family SYLVIIDAE: Old World Warblers and Gnatcatchers Notes.--Sibleyand Ahlquist (1990) presented data (DNA-DNA hybridization)that suggest thatthe family Muscicapidae,as constituted in A.O.U. (1983) andelsewhere, is polyphyletic, with the Polioptilinaemore closelyrelated to the Troglodytidae,and the Sylviinaemore closely related to the Timaliidae, Pycnonotidae,and Zosteropidae,than they are to the Muscicapidaeand Turdidae.

Subfamily SYLVIINAE: Old World Warblers

Genus CETTIA Bonaparte Cettia Bonaparte,1834, Iconogr.Fauna Ital. 1: text to pl. 29. Type, by original designation,Sylvia cetti Marmora [= Temminck].

Cettia diphone (Kittlitz). JapaneseBush-Warbler. Sylvia diphoneKittlitz, 1830, M6m. Acad. Imp. Sci. St-P6tersbourg1 (1831): 27, pl. 14. (Bonin Islands.) Habitat.--Dense brushand undergrowth,tall grass,and bambooscrub, in the Hawaiian Islandsalso in uppernative forest,particularly on steepslopes. Distribution.--Residentin Sakhalin,the Kuril Islands,Japan, and the Ryukyu, Bonin, and Volcanoislands. Northernmost populations are migratorysouth to the Japaneseislands. Introducedand establishedin the Hawaiian Islands(in 1929, now widespreadon Oahu, recently establishedon Kauai, Molokai, Lanai, and Maui). Notes.--Cettia diphone and C. canturians (Swinhoe, 1860) [ManchurianBush-Warbler or ChineseBush-Warbler], of easternAsia, may be conspecific(Orenstein and Pratt 1983) or may constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990).

GenusLOCUSTELLA Kaup LocustellaKaup, 1829, Skizz. Entw.-Ges.Eur. Thierw., p. 115. Type, by monotypy, Sylvia locustella Latham = Motacilla naevia Boddaert.

Locustellaochotensis (Middendorff). Middendorff's Grasshopper-Warbler. Sylvia(Locustella) Ochotensis Middendorff, 1853, Reise Sib. 2(2): 185, pl. 16, fig. 7. (Uds' K6j Ostrog = Idskoe,Khabarovsk, Sea of Okhotsk.) Habitat--Dense grassyand bushy areas. Distribution.--Breedsfrom Kamchatkaand Sakhalinsouth to Japan. Wintersin the Philippinesand Greater SundaIslands. Casualin Alaska, primarily in fall (Nunivak and St. Lawrenceislands, St. Paul in the Pribilofs, and Attu and Buldir in the Aleutians), and in the Commander Islands. Notes.--Also known as Middendorff'sWarbler. L. ochotensis,L. pleskei (Taczanowski, 1889) [Pleske'sWarbler] of Korea and Kyushu,and the easternEurasian L. certhiola(Pallas, 1811) [Pallas'sWarbler] may constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990).

Locustella lanceolata (Temminck). Lanceolated Warbler. Sylvia lanceolataTemminck, 1840, Man. Ornithol (ed. 2) 4: 614. ("Mayence," error = Russia.) Habitat.--Marshes and wet meadows. Distribution.--Breeds from easternRussia to easternSiberia and southto northernChina, Korea, and Japan. Winters in southeastern Asia and the East Indies. Accidentalin Alaska (Attu, in the AleutianIslands, 4 June-15July 1984, at least25 birds; Tobish 1985) and California (FarallonIslands, 11 Sept. 1995; Hickey et al. 1996). 490 FAMILY SYLVIIDAE

Genus ACROCEPHALUS Naumann and Naumann AcrocephalusJ. A. and J. E Nanmann, 1811, Naturgesch.Land-Wasser-Vbgel Dtsch., suppl., pt. 4: 199. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1840), Turdus arundinaceus Linnaeus.

Acrocephalusfamiliaris (Rothschild).Millerbird. TatarefarniliarisRothschild, 1892, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser.6)10: 109. (LaysanIsland, Sandwich Group.) Habitat.--Dense low vegetationand grass. Distribution.-•Resident in the northwesternHawaiian Islands [kingi group] on Nihoa; and [familiaris group] formerly on Laysan,where extirpatedbetween 1913 and 1923. Notes.--Groups: A. kingi Wetmore, 1924 [Nihoa Millerbird] and A. familiaris [Laysan Millerbird].

Genus PHYLLOSCOPUS Boie PhylloscopusBoie, 1826, Isis von Oken, col. 972. Type, by monotypy,Sylvia trochilus Latham = Motacilla trochilus Linna'eus.

Phy!!oscopussibilatrix (Bechstein).Wood Warbler. Motacilla Sibilatrix Bechstein,1792, KurzefassteGemeiniitzige In-Auslandes 1: 544, note. (mountainsof Thuringia.) Habitat.--Forest and woodland. Distribution.--Breeds throughoutmuch of Europeand Russia. Wintersin tropical Africa and Asia Minor, casuallyto the Canary Islands and Madeira. Accidental in Alaska (Shemya Island, in the Aleutians, 9 October 1978; Gibson 1981) and Japan.

Phy!!oscopusfuscatus (Blyth). Dusky Warbler. PhillopneustefuscataBlyth, 1842, J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 11: 113. (Calcutta,India.) Habitat.--Bushes and scrubin hilly or mountainousareas. Distribution.--Breeds from Anadyrlandand the Sea of Okhotsksouth to Mongolia and the easternHimalayas. Winters from India east to Southeast Asia and southern China. Casualin Alaska (Shemyaand Attu in the Aleutians,at seain the Bering Sea, alsotwo sightreports from St. LawrenceIsland). Accidental in California(Farallon Islands, Hayward); a sight report from Baja California.

Phy!!oscopusborealis (Blasius).Arctic Warbler. Phyllopneusteborealis Blasius, 1858, Naumannia 8:313. (ochotzkischenMeere = Sea of Okhotsk.) Habitat.--Dense deciduous(willow, dwarf birch, alder)riparian thickets; in Eurasia,also open coniferousor mixed coniferous-deciduousforest. Distribution.--Breeds in western and central Alaska from the Noatak River and western and central Brooks Range southto southwesternAlaska, the base of the Alaska Peninsula, the AlaskaRange, and Susitna River highlands;and in Eurasiafrom Finland,northern Russia, and northernSiberia southto centralRussia, Mongolia, Amurland,Ussuriland, Japan, and Kamchatka. Recorded in summer north to Barrow, and on St. Lawrence and St. Matthew islands, and east to northernMackenzie (Prince Patrick Island). Wintersfrom SoutheastAsia and southeasternChina southto the East Indies,Philippines, and Moluccas. Migrates througheastern Asia and the CommanderIslands, casually the Aleutians. Accidentalin California(Monterey County, Oceano). A sightreport from Baja California. FAMILY SYLVIIDAE 491

Notes.--Also known as Arctic Willow-Warbler.Specimens representing Asiatic breeding populationshave been taken in migrationin the Aleutians(Attu, Shemya,and Amchitka).

SubfamilyPOLIOPTILINAE: Gnatcatchersand Gnatwrens Notes.--Molecular data (Sheldonand Gill 1996) stronglysuggest that this group is not closelyrelated to the Sylviidae,where traditionally placed, or eventhe Regulidae,but rather that it is closelyrelated to the Certhiidaeand Troglodytidae(as previouslysuggested by Sibley and Ahlquist 1990).

Tribe RAMPHOCAENINI: Gnatwrens Notes.--For relationshipswith Polioptilini, seeRand and Traylot (1953). See comments under Polioptilini and Sylviidae.

Genus MICROBATES Sclater and Salvin Microbates Sclater and Salvin, 1873, Nomencl. Avium Neotrop.: 72, 155. Type, by original designation,Microbates torquatusSclater and Salvin = Rharnphocaenus collaris Pelzeln.

Microbates cinereiventris(Sclater). Tawny-facedGnatwren. Rarnphocaenuscinereiventris Sclater, 1855, Proc.Zool. Soc.London, p. 76, pl. 87. (in rep. Nova• Grenada•,Pasto = Buenaventura,Colombia.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest (0-1200 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropical zones). Distribution.--Resident on the Caribbeanslope of southeasternNicaragua and Costa Rica, on both slopesof Panama(more widespread on the Caribbean),and in SouthAmerica from Colombia south, west of the Andes to southwestern Ecuador and east of the Andes to southeastern Peru. Notes.---Also known as Half-collared Gnatwren.

Genus RAMPHOCAENUS Vieillot RarnphoccenusVieillot, 1819, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv.6d.) 29: 5. Type, by monotypy, Rarnphocaenusrnelanurus Vieillot.

Ramphocaenusmelanurus Vieillot. Long-billedGnatwren. Rarnphoccenusrnelanurus Vieillot, 1819, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv.6d.)29: 6. (Br6sil = Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest Edge, SecondaryForest (0-1500 m; Trop- ical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident [rufiventrisgroup] from northernOaxaca, southernVeracruz, Tabasco,and northernand southeasternChiapas south along both slopesof Middle America (includingthe YucatanPeninsula), and in SouthAmerica in westernColombia, western Ecuador,and northwesternPeru; and [rnelanurusgroup] in South America from northern and easternColombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas south, east of the Andes, to central Bolivia and central and southeastern Brazil. Notes.--Groups:R. rufiventris(Bonaparte, 1838) [Long-billedGnatwren] and R. rnelan- urus [Black-tailed Gnatwren].

Tribe POLIOPTILINI: Gnatcatchers Notes.--For relationshipswith Ramphocaenini,see Rand and Traylor (1953).

Genus POLIOPTILA Sclater Polioptila Sclater,1855, Proc. Zool. Soc. London,p. 11. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Baird, 1864), Motacilla caerulea Linnaeus. 492 FAMILY SYLVIIDAE

Polioptila caerulea (Linnaeus).Blue-gray Gnatcatcher. Motacilla cceruleaLinnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 337. Basedon the "Little Blue-greyFlycatcher" Edwards, Glean. Nat. Hist. 2: 194, pl. 302. (in Pensylvania = Philadelphia.) Habitat.--Deciduous forest, oak woodland, pine-oak woodland, riparian woodland, brushy washes,pinyon-juniper woodland, scrub, and chaparral;in winter, primarily dense second-growth,dense brush, woodland (especially riparian), and acaciascrub (Tropical to lower Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breeds from southernOregon, southern Idaho (casually),Montana (Pryor Mountains), southwesternWyoming, Colorado (except northeastern),eastern Nebraska, southeasternSouth Dakota, centralMinnesota, central Wisconsin, central Michigan, southern Ontario, southwesternQuebec, New York, central Vermont, southernNew Hampshire,and southernMaine southto southernBaja California, locally throughoutmost of Mexico (including the YucatanPeninsula and CozumelIsland) to southernChiapas, Belize, and (probably) western Guatemala, and to southeasternTexas, the Gulf coast, southernFlorida, and the Bahama Islands (south to Grand Turk). Winters from central California, southern Nevada, western and central Arizona, west- centralColorado (rarely), centralTexas, the southernportions of the Gulf states,and on the Atlantic coastfrom southernVirginia souththroughout Mexico to Guatemalaand Honduras, and to the Bahamas,the western Greater Antilles (Cuba, the Isle of Pines), and Cayman Islands.Casual in winter (early winter only?) north to northernCalifornia, southernUtah, northernTexas, and along the Atlantic Coast to New England. Casual north to southwesternBritish Columbia, southernAlberta, Montana, southernMan- itoba, New Brunswick,Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia; a sightreport for southern Saskatchewan.

Polioptila lembeyei(Gundlach). Cuban Gnatcatcher. Culicivora lembeyeiGundlach, 1858, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N.Y. 6: 273. (Easternpart of Cuba.) Habitat.--Arid Lowland Scrub (0-200 m). Distribution.--Resident in Cuba (centraland easternCamagtiey and Las Villas provinces east to the Guant•namoregion, also on Cayo Coco and probably Cayo Romano, off Ca- magtiey).

Polioptila californica Brewster.California Gnatcatcher. Polioptila californica Brewster,1881, Bull. Nuttall Ornithol. Club 6: 103. (Riverside, San Bernardino [= Riverside] Co., California.) Habitat.---Coastal sage scrub(in California), thorn forest, desertbrush, and scrub. Distribution.--Resident from southwesternCalifornia (north to Los Angeles County, formerlyto VenturaCounty) and northwestern Baja Californiasouth locally to southernBaja California (includingSanta Margarita and EspfrituSanto islands). Notes.--For discussionof the recognitionof this speciesas distinctfrom P. melanura, see Atwood (1988).

Polioptila melanura Lawrence.Black-tailed Gnatcatcher. Polioptila melanura Lawrence, 1857, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N.Y. 6: 168. (Texas, Cal- ifornia = Rio Grande Valley, Texas.) Habitat.--Arid LowlandScrub, Arid MontaneScrub (0-2100 m; Tropicaland Subtropical zones). Distributiøn'--Residentfrom northeastern(and possiblyeast-central) Baja California, southeasternCalifornia (north to southernInyo County), southernNevada, southwestern Utah, western and central Arizona, southwesternColorado (possibly), southwestern(rarely central)New Mexico, andwestern and southernTexas (Rio GrandeValley) southto southern FAMILY SYLVIIDAE 493

Sonora(including Isla Tibur6n), southernDurango, Jalisco,Guanajuato, San Luis Potos/ and Tamaulipas. A sight report for westernTexas. Notes.--Also known as PlumbeousGnatcatcher. See P. californica.

Polioptila nigricepsBaird. Black-cappedGnatcatcher. Polioptila nigricepsBaird, 1864, Rev. Amen Birds 1: 69. (Mazatlfin, Sinaloa,Mexico.) Habitat.--Gallery Forest,Tropical DeciduousForest, Arid Lowland Scrub (0-1200 m; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Breedsfrom extremesouthern Arizona (Nogalesarea, Santa Rita Moun- tains, at least irregularly or formerly), southernSonora, and southwesternChihuahua south throughSinaloa, westernDurango, Nayarit, and Jaliscoto Colima. Wintersthroughout breeding range except for Arizona. Notes.--Althoughsometimes considered conspecific with P. albiloris(Paynter in Mayr and Paynter 1964), P. nigricepsdiffers in morphologyand vocalizations,and showsno approachto albiloris in the region of geographicproximity in westernMexico.

Polioptila albiloris Sclater and Salvin. White-lored Gnatcatcher. Polioptilaalbiloris Sclaterand Salvin, 1860, Proc.Zool. Soc.London, p. 298. (In rep. Guatimalensiin valle fl. Motagua= MotaguaValley, Zacapa,Guatemala.) Habitat.--TropicalDeciduous Forest, Arid LowlandScrub, Arid MontaneScrub, Gallery Forest(0-1900 m; Tropical and Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Residentin the Pacificlowlands and arid interior valleysfrom southern Michoacfin,northern Guerrero, Oaxaca, western Puebla, and Chiapas south through Central Americato northwesternCosta Rica (southto the Gulf of Nicoya region);also disjunctly on the YucatanPeninsula (questionably recorded also from Cozumel Island). Notes.--Althoughclosely related to P. plumbea,P. albilorisdiffers in appearance,voice, and habitat, and it occurssympatrically with plumbea at severallocations. See comments under P. nigriceps.

Polioptilaplumbea (Gmelin). TropicalGnatcatcher. Todusplumbeus Gmelin, 1788, Syst.Nat. 1(1): 444. Basedon the "PlumbeousTody" Latham, Gen. Synop. Birds 1(2): 661. (in Surinamo = Surinam.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Tropical Lowland Evergreen Forest Edge, Gallery Forest,Secondary Forest, Arid Lowland Scrub,Arid MontaneScrub (0-1500 m; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident[bilineata group] on the Gulf-Caribbeanslope of southernVe- racruz,northern Oaxaca (Isthmusof Tehuantepec),Campeche, Quintana Roo, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras,and Nicaragua, on both slopesof Costa Rica (uncommonin the dry northwest)and Panama(including Isla Coiba, alsosight reports from the Pearl Islands),and in SouthAmerica, west of the Andes,from Colombiato centralPeru; [plurnbeagroup] in SouthAmerica from central and easternColombia, Venezuela(also Margarita Island), and the Guianas south, east of the Andes, to eastern Peru and Amazonian and eastern Brazil; and [maior group]in northernPeru (upperMarafi6n valley). Notes.--Groups:P. bilineata (Bonaparte,1850) [White-browedGnatcatcher], P. plumbea [TropicalGnatcatcher], and P. major Hellmayr, 1900 [MaranonGnatcatcher]; see Ridgely and Tudor (1989). The relationshipof P. plumbea to the southwesternSouth American P. lactea Sharpe, 1885, is uncertain.See commentsunder P. albiloris.

Polioptila schistaceigulaHartert. Slate-throatedGnatcatcher. Polioptila schistaceigulaHartert, 1898, Bull. Br. Ornithol. Club 7: 30. (Cachabi [= Cachavi], 500 ft., [Esmeraldas,]North Ecuador.) 494 FAMILY MUSCICAPIDAE

Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest (0-1000 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Residentfrom easternPanama (recorded in easternPanam;• province above Madden Lake, and in easternDari6n on cerrosQuia and Pirre) souththrough northern and western Colombia (also in Cundinamarcaeast of the Andes) to northwesternEcuador. Notes.--The relationshipof P. schistaceigulawith the northeasternSouth American P. guianensisTodd, 1920, is uncertain;Paynter in Mayr and Paynter (1964) suggestedthat they might be conspecific.

Family MUSCICAPIDAE: Old World Flycatchers Notes.--See commentsunder Sylviidae.

Genus FICEDULA Brisson

Ficedula Brisson,1760, Ornithologie3: 369. Type, by tautonymy,Ficedula Brisson= Ficedula hypoleucaPallas. Notes.--Formerly mergedin Muscicapa,but see Vaurie (1953).

Ficedula narcissina (Temminck).Narcissus Flycatcher. Muscicapanarcissina Temminck, 1835, PlanchesColor., livr. 97, pl. 577, fig. 1. (Japan.) Habitat.--Mountain forest, generallynear water. Distribution.--Breeds in southeasternSiberia (Ussuriland), Sakhalin, the southernKuril Islands, Japan, and the Ryukyu Islands. Wintersin southeasternAsia, the GreaterSunda Islands, and Philippines. Accidentalin Alaska (Attu, in the Aleutian Islands,20-21 May 1989, specimen;Gibson and Kessel 1992).

Ficedula mugimaki (Temminck).Mugimaki Flycatcher. MuscicapaMugimaki Temminck, 1835, PlanchesColor., livr. 97, p. 577, fig. 2. (Japan.) Habitat.--Coniferous forest. Distribution.--Breeds in southeastern Siberia and northeastern China. Winters in southeastern Asia and Indonesia. Accidental in the Aleutian Islands (Shemya, 24 May 1985, photographs;1985, Amer. Birds 39: 339).

Ficedula parva (Bechstein).Red-breasted Flycatcher. Muscicapaparva Bechstein,1792, KurzefassteGemeiniitzige In-Auslandes 1: 531, note. (Thiiringerwalde= Germany.) Habitat.--Undergrowth of mixed deciduous-coniferouswoodland. Distribution.--Breeds from central Europe, Russia, and Siberia southto northernIran, the northernHimalayas, northern Mongolia, Anadyrland,and Kamchatka. Wintersin India and Sri Lanka, migratingthrough western Asia and China. Casualin Alaska in the westernAleutians (Attu, Shemya) and St. LawrenceIsland. Notes.--Also known as Red-throatedFlycatcher. Includes the Himalayanform, sometimes regardedas a distinctspecies, F. subrubra(Hartert and Steinbacher 1934, Sibley and Monroe 1990).

Genus MUSCICAPA Brisson

MuscicapaBrisson, 1760, Ornithologie1: 32. Type, by tautonymy,Muscicapa Brisson = Motacilla striata Pallas.

Notes.--See comments under Ficedula. FAMILY TURDIDAE 495

Muscicapa sibirica Gmelin. SiberianFlycatcher. Muscicapasibirica Gmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 936. Basedon the "Dun Fly-catcher" Pennant,Arct. Zool. 2: 390, and Latham, Gen. Synop. Birds 2(1): 351. (Circa lacum Baical, et in orientali Sibiria ad Camtschatcamusque = near Lake Baikal.) Habitat.--Open forest of mountainsand taiga. Distribution.--Breeds from central and easternSiberia southto the Himalayas, northern China, Japan,Kamchatka, and the Kuril Islands. Winterssouth to northernIndia, southeasternAsia, Indonesia,and the Philippines. Casualin the westernAleutians (Attu, Shemya,Buldir). Accidentalin Bermuda(Sandy's Parish, 29 September1980; Wingate 1983). Notes.•Also known as Sooty Flycatcher,a name now generallyrestricted to the African M. infuscata(Cassin, 1855) [= Artornyiasfuliginosa J. & E. Verreaux, 1855].

Muscicapa griseisticta(Swinhoe). Gray-spottedFlycatcher. Hernichelidongriseisticta Swinhoe, 1861, Ibis, p. 330. (Amoy and Takoo, eastern China.) Habitat.--Open forest of the taiga (breeding);wooded areasand scrub(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from eastern Siberia and Kamchatka south to eastern Manchuria, Ussuriland, Sakhalin, and the Kuril Islands. Wintersfrom easternChina, Taiwan, and the Philippinessouth to Sulawesi,New Guinea, and islandsof this generalregion. Migrates through northern China, Japan, and the Ryukyu Islands, casually as far north and east as the CommanderIslands and westernAleutians (Attu, Agattu, Shemya, Buldir, Amchitka).

Muscicapa dauurica Pallas. Asian Brown Flycatcher. Muscicapa Grisola vat. Dauurica Pallas, 1811, Zoogr.Rosso-Asiat. 1:461. (Onon River, Dauria, Siberia.) Muscicapa latirostris Raffles, 1822, Trans. Linn. Soc. London 13(2): 312. (Sumatra.) Habitat.--Forest and woodland. Distribution.--Breeds [dauuricagroup] in easternAsia from southernand easternSiberia southto northernIndia, northernChina, andJapan, and winters in southeasternAsia, Sumatra, Borneo,the LesserSunda Islands (Sumba), and Philippines; and resident[williarnsoni group] in Southeast Asia. Accidental[dauurica group] in the AleutianIslands (Attu, 25 May 1985, specimen;Gibson and Kessel 1992). Notes.--Also known as Brown Flycatcheror Gray-breastedFlycatcher. Groups: M. dauurica [Asian Brown Flycatcher]and M. williarnsoniDeignan, 1957 [Brown-streakedFlycatch- er]. For use of M. dauuricainstead of M. latirostris, seeWatson in Mayr and Cottrell (1986) and Banks and Browning (1995).

Family TURDIDAE: Thrushes Notes.--See commentsunder Sylviidae.

Genus LUSCINIA Forster Luscinia T. Forster, 1817, Synop. Cat. Br. Birds, p. 14. Type, by monotypy, Sylvia luscinia Forster = Luscinia rnegarhynchosBrehm. Notes.--Luscinia is sometimesmerged with the Old World genusErithacus Cuvier, 1800.

Luscinia calliope (Pallas). SiberianRubythroat. Motacilla Calliope Pallas, 1776, Reise Versch. Prov. Russ. Reichs 3: 697. (a Jenisea usquead Lenam = betweenthe Yenisei and Lena rivers.) 496 FAMILY TURDIDAE

Habitat.--Thickets, bogs,and regeneratingburns in mixed or coniferousopen forest and taiga, subalpinescrub; in winter, scruband second-growth. Distribution.--Breeds from Siberia(the Urals eastto Anadyrlandand Kamchatka)south to Mongolia, Transbaicalia,Amurland, Sakhalin, Japan, and the Kuril Islands. Wintersfrom India, SoutheastAsia, and southernChina southto Malaya, the Philippines, and Taiwan. Migrates througheastern China, Korea, Japan,the Ryukyu and Commanderislands and westernAleutians (rare but regularin the Near Islands,casually east to Amchitka),casually east to the Pribilofs (St. Paul) and north to St. Lawrence Island. Accidentalin southernOntario (Homby). Casual in westernEurope.

Luscinia svecica (Linnaeus). Bluethroat. Motacilla svecicaLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 187. (in Europa•alpinis = Swedenand Lapland.) Habitat.--Low densethickets (willow and dwarf birch) in tundra,especially near water; in Eurasia, a variety of brushy habitats;in winter, marshes,swamp edges,reedbeds, and brush near water. Distribution.--Breeds from northern Scandinavia, northern Russia, northern Siberia, and western and northern Alaska (from the Seward Peninsula north and east to the northern foothillsof the easternBrooks Range) southto westernand centralEurope, Iran, Turkestan, the northern Himalayas, and Manchuria. Winters in northern Africa (from Morocco east to northeasternAfrica), the Near East, India, and Southeast Asia. Migrates through western Alaska (St. Lawrence Island, and casually on the mainland southto St. Michael), the British Isles, westernand southernEurope, and southwesternand eastern Asia. Casual in the western Aleutians (Attu) and Yukon.

Luscinia cyane (Pallas). Siberian Blue Robin. Motacilla CyanePallas, 1776, ReiseVersch. Prov. Russ. Reichs 3: 697. (Dauria,between the Onon and the Argus [southeasternTransbaicalia].) Habitat.---Coniferousor mixed forest (spruce,fir, birch, aspen)with densecanopy and sparseundergrowth; in winter,tropical forest and secondgrowth. Distribution.--Breeds in eastern Asia from southern Siberia south to northeastern China and Japan,and wintersin southeasternAsia, Indonesia,and the Philippines. Accidentalin the Aleutian Islands (Attu, 21 May 1985; Gibson and Kessel 1992).

Genus TARSIGER Hodgson TarsigerHodgson, 1845, Proc. Zool. Soc.London, p. 28. Type, by monotypy,Tarsiger chrysaeusHodgson. Notes.--This genusis sometimesmerged with Erithacus (e.g., Morony et al. 1975).

Tarsiger cyanurus (Pallas). Red-flanked Bluetail. Motacilla CyanurusPallas, 1773, Reise Versch.Prov. Russ. Reichs 2: 709. (Yenisei.) Habitat.--Taiga, moist coniferousand mixed forest; in winter, forest undergrowthand secondgrowth. Distribution.--Breeds in from Siberiasouth to northernChina, Japan, and the Commander Islands, and winters in southeastern Asia. Casualin springin Alaska in the westernAleutians (Attu) and Pribilofs (St. Paul); a sight report from Hooper Bay. Accidentalin California (Farallon Islands). Notes.--Also known as Orange-flankedBush-Robin. FAMILY TURDIDAE 497

GenusCOPS¾CHUS Wagler CopsychusWagler, 1827, Syst. Avium 1 (noteto genusGracula): 306. Type,by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1840), Gracula saularisLinnaeus.

Copsychusmalabaricus (Scopoli). White-rumped Shama. Muscicapa(rnalabarica) Scopoli, 1786, Del. Flor. Faun.Insubr., fasc. 2, p. 96. (Mah6, Malabar.) Habitat.--Forest and secondgrowth. Distribution.--Resident from India, SoutheastAsia, and southwesternChina southto Sri Lanka, the Andaman and Greater Sunda islands, and Hainan. Introducedand establishedin the HawaiianIslands (in 1931, now on Kauai and Oahu). Notes.--Also known as Shama Thrush.

Genus OENANTHE Vieillot OenantheVieillot, 1816, Analyse,p. 43. Type, by monotypy,"Motteux" Buffon = Turdus leucurus Gmelin.

Oenanthe oenanthe (Linnaeus).Northern Wheatear. Motacilla OenantheLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 186. (in Europa•apricis lapidosis= Sweden.) Habitat.--Dry, rockytundra; in Eurasia,a varietyof opencountry, tundra, steppe, and desert;in migrationand winter, fields and meadowswith rocks,debris, fences, or other low perches. Distribution.--Breeds[oenanthe group] in NorthAmerica from northern Alaska, northern Yukon,and northwestern Mackenzie south to westernand south-coastal Alaska (to the Kenai Peninsula) and southern Yukon, and from central Ellesmere Island south to the Boothia Peninsula(possibly), southeastern Keewatin, White Island, easternand southernBaffin Is- land, Coats Island, northernQuebec, and Labrador;and in the Palearcticfrom Greenland, Jan Mayen, Iceland,the BritishIsles, northernScandinavia, northern Russia (including NovayaZemlya), and northernSiberia south to the northernMediterranean region, Asia Minor, the northwesternHimalayas, Turkestan, Mongolia, and Manchuria. Winters[oenanthe group] from northernAfrica, Arabia, India, Mongolia,and northern China southto southernAfrica (at least casually),and rarely to easternChina and the Philippines. Resident[seebohmi group] in northernAfrica in Moroccoand northern Algeria. Migrates[oenanthe group] regularly through western Alaska and islandsin the Bering Sea, casuallythe Pribilofs and Aleutians. Casualor accidental[oenanthe group] along the Pacific coast in Alaska(Middleton Island, Juneau),southern British Columbia,Oregon (Malheur), and northernand centralCalifornia; in southernAlberta and Arizona (Marana); and in northeasternNorth America from Ontario, New York, southern Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland south to Illinois, Indiana,Ohio, New Jersey,Pennsylvania, Maryland, and North Carolina;and in Arkansas(Lake Millwood), Louisiana, Alabama (Fort Morgan, Montgomery), Florida (south to Collier County),Yucat•n, Quintana Roo, Bermuda,Cuba (Santiago de Cuba),Barbados, and the NetherlandsAntilles; sightreports for northeasternand southernManitoba, Min- nesota,the BahamaIslands, and PuertoRico. A reportfor Coloradois erroneous. Notes.--Also knownas the Wheatear.Groups: O. oenanthe[Northern Wheatear] and O. seebohrni(Dixon, 1882) [Black-throatedWheatear].

Genus SAXICOLA Bechstein SaxicolaBechstein, 1802, Ornithol.Taschenb. Dtsch. 1: 216. Type, by subsequent designation(Swainson, 1827), Motacilla rubicolaLinnaeus = Motacilla torquata Linnaeus. 498 FAMILY TURDIDAE

Saxicola torquata (Linnaeus).Stonechat. Motacillatorquata Linnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 328. (Capeof GoodHope.) Habitat.--Opencountry with scatteredbushes and rocks, open scrub, brushy hillsides, marsh edges,and meadows. Distribution.--Breeds[torquata group] in Europeand Africa eastto the BlackSea and Iran, and [maura group]in northernand centralAsia. Winters[torguata group] in mostof breedingrange, and [maura group] to southernAsia and northeastern Africa. Casual[rnaura group] in Alaska(St. LawrenceIsland, Galena, Middleton Island). Ac- cidentalin New Brunswick(Grand Manan Island). Notes.--Groups:S. torquata[Common Stonechat] and S. rnaura(Pallas) 1773 [Siberian Stonechat].

Genus SIALIA Swainson Sialia Swainson,1827, Philos. Mag. (n.s.) 1: 369. Type,by monotypy,Sialia azurea Swainson -- Motacilla sialis Linnaeus.

Sialia sialis (Linnaeus).Eastern Bluebird. MotacillaSialis Linnaeus, 1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 187. Basedmainly on "The Blew Bird" Catesby,Nat. Hist. Carolina 1: 47, pl. 47. (in Bermudis& America calidiore = South Carolina.) Habitat.--Opendeciduous, mixed, and pine woodland, and agricultural areas with scat- tered trees(Tropical to Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breedsfrom southernSaskatchewan, southern (casually northwestern) Manitoba,central Ontario, south-central Quebec, New Brunswick,Prince Edward Island, and southwesternNova Scotiasouth through central and easternNorth America and the highlandsof Mexico,Guatemala, E1 Salvador, and Honduras to north-centralNicaragua (also in thelowland pine savanna of northeasternHonduras and northern Nicaragua), to southern Tamaulipas,southern Texas, the Gulf coast,and southernFlorida, and west to easternMon- tana,eastern Wyoming, northeastern Colorado, western Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas (except theHigh Plains and Trans-Pecos), and southeastern and (casually) southwestern New Mexico; also in southeasternArizona (Nogalesand Patagoniaeast to Huachucaand Chiricahua mountains), and in Bermuda. Wintersfrom the middleportions of the easternUnited States(casually north to the northernstates, southern Ontario, southern Quebec, and New England) south throughout the breedingrange west to southeasternArizona, and casually to thelowlands of easternMexico (Veracruz,Yucatfin, Quintana Roo) andwestern Cuba; most populations from the Gulf states southward are resident. Casualnorth to southeasternUtah, southernAlberta, north-central and southern Quebec (includingAnticosti Island), and Prince Edward Island; a sightreport for theVirgin Islands (St. John).

Sialia mexicana Swainson. Western Bluebird. Sialia Mexicana Swainson,1832, in Swainsonand Richardson,Fauna Bor.-Amer.2 (1831): 202. (table land of Mexico.) Habitat.--Openpine, deciduous and mixed woodland, savanna, and riparian woodland; in winter,more widespread, including pinyon-juniper woodland, desert washes, and agriculturalfields (Subtropical and Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breedsfrom southern British Columbia (including southeastern Vancouver Island),southern Alberta, central-western Saskatchewan, western Montana, and north-central Coloradosouth through the mountains to northernBaja California (Sierra Jufirez and Sierra SanPedro Mfirtir), western and southern Nevada, southern Utah, western and (rarely) south- easternArizona, and northeastern Sonora (absent from centralIdaho south to easternNevada, centralUtah, western Colorado, and northern New Mexico),in the highlandsof Mexicoto FAMILY TURDIDAE 499

Michoac•n, M6xico, Morelos, Puebla, and west-central Veracruz, and east to southwestern Tamaulipas,Nuevo Le6n, western(Trans-Pecos) Texas, and central New Mexico. Wintersfrom southernOregon and westernMontana south throughout the breedingrange (includingto lowland areas),to islandsoff California (SantaCatalina and San Clemente,at least casually)and Baja California (TodosSantos), and to southeasternCalifornia, and east to central Texas. Casual in Oklahoma (Kenton); sight reportsfrom North Dakota and Kansas.

Sialia currucoides (Bechstein). Mountain Bluebird. Motacilla s. Sylvia Currucoides(Borkhausen MS) Bechstein,1798, in Latham, Allg. Uebers.V6gel 3(2): 546, pl. 121. (Virginien = westernAmerica.) Habitat.---Coniferouswoodland, aspen woodland, subalpine meadows, sagebrush, and montane grasslandwith scatteredtrees, and pinyon-juniper woodland; in migration and winter, also grasslands,open brushy areas, and agriculturallands. Distribution.--Breeds from east-centralAlaska (Delta, Eagle, Chisana),southern Yukon, north-centralAlberta, northwestern(once) and central Saskatchewan,northern Manitoba, and northwesternMinnesota southin the mountains(eastern slopes of coastranges, and in the Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains) to south-centraland easternCalifornia (to San Bernardinoand New York mountains),central and southeasternNevada, northernand eastern Arizona, and southern New Mexico, and east to northeastern North Dakota, western South Dakota, westernNebraska, and centralOklahoma (Cleveland County). Recordedin summer (and possiblybreeding) in southernMackenzie. Wintersfrom southernBritish Columbia (rarely) and westernMontana southto northern Baja California (including islands off California and Baja California south to Guadalupe Island), Sinaloa,Michoac5n, Guanajuato, Nuevo Le6n, and southernTexas, and east,at least casually,to westernNebraska, eastern Kansas, western Oklahoma, and central Texas. Casual in western, northern and south-coastalAlaska (Nunivak Island, Point Barrow, Middleton Island) and northernManitoba (Churchill); eastfrom Minnesota,Ontario, southern Quebec, New York, Vermont, Massachusetts,New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia south to Iowa, Arkansas,Kentucky, Indiana, Pennsylvania,and Maryland; and in the Gulf region from central coastalTexas to Louisiana and Mississippi.

Genus MYADESTES Swainson MyadestesSwainson, 1838, Flycatchers,Ornithol. 10, in Jardine,Naturalists' Libr. 21: 132. Type, by monotypy,Myidestes [sic] genibarbisSwainson. Phaeornis Sclater, 1859, Ibis, p. 327. Type, by monotypy, Taeniopteraobscura = Muscicapa obscura Gmelin. Notes.--For the merger of Phaeornis into Myadestes,see Pratt (1982).

Myadestestownsendi (Audubon). Townsend's Solitaire. Ptilogony's[sic] TownsendiAudubon, 1838, Birds Amer. (folio) 4: pl. 419, fig. 2 (1839, Ornithol. Biogr. 5: 206). (Columbia River -- Astoria, Oregon.) Habitat.--Open montaneand subalpineconiferous woodland, burns, especiallywhere exposedslopes and dirt banksprovide nest sites;in winter,primarily pinyon-juniperwoodland, also chaparral,desert, and riparian woodland(especially where juniper present). Distribution.--Breeds from east-central, south-coastal and southeasternAlaska, north- central Yukon, and west-central and southwesternMackenzie, southern Alberta, and southwestern Saskatchewan, south to south-central California (to Santa Rosa and San Jacinto mountains),northwestern and east-centralArizona, and southernNew Mexico to Durango, Jalisco, and Zacatecas; also in southwestern South Dakota, and northwestern Nebraska. Winters from southernBritish Columbia (casually north to Alaska), southernAlberta, Montana, and centralNorth Dakota southto northernBaja California, Sonora,the southern limits of the breeding range in Mexico, and east to western Missouri, westernOklahoma, western Texas, Nuevo Le6n, and Coahuila. 500 FAMILY TURDIDAE

Casualon GuadalupeIsland (off Baja California), in centralTexas and Arkansas,and east to southernManitoba, Minnesota,Iowa, Wisconsin,Illinois, Michigan, Ontario, Ohio, Que- bec, New York, New Jersey,and New Brunswickto Newfoundland,Nova Scotia,and New England; sight reportsfor Indiana and Pennsylvania.

Myadestesoccidentalis Stejneger. Brown-backed Solitaire. Myadestesobscurus Lafresnaye, 1839, Rev. Zool. [Paris] 2: 98. (Mexico = probably Veracruz.)Preoccupied by Muscicapaobscura Gmelin [= Myadestesobscurus (Gme- lin)]. Myadestesobscurus var. occidentalisStejneger, 1882, Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus. 4: 371. (Tonila, Jalisco.) Habitat.--Pine-Oak Forest,Montane Evergreen Forest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenFor- est (900-3050 m; SubtropicalZone). Distribution.--Resident from southeasternSonora, southernChihuahua, Sinaloa, Duran- go, Nayarit (includingthe TresMafias Islands),Jalisco, Guanajuato, San Luis Potosi,central Nuevo Le6n, and southernTamaulipas south through the mountainsof Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and E1 Salvadorto central Honduras(east to the ComayaguaValley). Notes.--The merger of Phaeornisinto Myadestesforced the changein the name of this speciesfrom M. obscurusLafresnaye to M. occidentalisbecause M. obscurus(Gmelin) has priority (Pratt 1982).

Myadesteselisabeth (Lembeye). Cuban Solitaire. Muscicapaelisabeth Lembeye, 1850, Aves Isla Cuba, p. 39, pl. 5, fig. 3. (Cuba.) Habitat.--Pine Forest,Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest (0-2000 m). Distribution.--Resident in the mountainsof westernCuba (Pinar del Rio province)and easternCuba (Oriente province),and (formerly) on the Isle of Pines(vicinity of Ci6naga de Lanier, now extirpated).

Myadestesgenibarbis Swainson.Rufous-throated Solitaire. Myidestes[sic] genibarbisSwainson, 1838, Flycatchers,Ornithol. 10, in Jardine,Nat- uralists'Libr. 21: 134, pl. 13. (Africa or India, error -- Martinique.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Montane Evergreen Forest (0-1800 m). Distribution.--Resident [genibarbisgroup] on Jamaicaand Hispaniola, and in the Lesser Antilles (Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia); and [sibilans group] in the southernLesser Antilles (St. Vincent). Notes.--Groups: M. genibarbis [Rufous-throatedSolitaire] and M. sibilans Lawrence, 1878 [St. Vincent Solitaire].

Myadestesmelanops Salvin. Black-facedSolitaire. Myiadestesmelanops Salvin, 1865, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1864), p. 580, pl. 36. (Tucurrique,Costa Rica.) Habitat.--Montane Evergreen Forest (750-2800 m) (upper Tropical and Subtropical zones). Distribution.--Resident in the mountainsof CostaRica (morecommonly on the Caribbean slope) and westernPanama (east on both slopesto Veraguas;sight reportsfrom western Coc16). Wintersalso to lower elevations(regularly to 450 m, and occasionallyto 100 m) in Costa Rica. Notes.--Myadestes melanops,M. coloratus, and the Andean M. ralloides (d'Orbigny, 1840) [Andean Solitaire] constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990); they were treatedas conspecificby Ripley in Mayr and Paynter (1964). FAMILY TURDIDAE 501

Myadestescoloratus Nelson. Varied Solitaire. Myadestescoloratus Nelson, 1912, Smithson.Misc. Collect. 60(3): 23. (Mount Pirri, at 5,000 feet altitude, near head of Rio Limon, easternPanama.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest (800-2200 m; upper Tropical and Subtropical zones). Distribution.--Resident in extreme easternPanama (Cerro Tacarcuna,Cerro Pirre, Altos de Nique, and Cerro Qufa, in easternDari6n) and extreme northwesternColombia. Notes.--See commentsunder M. rnelanops.

Myadestesunicolor Sclater.Slate-colored Solitaire. Myiadestesunicolor Sclater, 1857, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1856), p. 299. (Cordova [= C6rdoba] in the State of Vera Cruz, SouthernMexico.) Itabitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Pine-Oak Forest (900-1500 m; upperTropical and Subtropicalzones, reaching lower Tropical Zone in winter). Distribution.--Resident (somewinter downslopemovement) in the mountainsfrom south- easternSan Luis Potosf,Hidalgo, Puebla, northernand southeasternOaxaca, and Veracruz souththrough Chiapas,Guatemala, northern E1 Salvador,and Hondurasto north-central Nicaragua.

Myadestesmyadestinus (Stejneger). Kamao. Phaeornisrnyadestina Stejneger, 1887, Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus. 10: 90. (Kauai Island, Hawaiian Archipelago.) Habitat.--Forest. Distribution.--Resident (possiblyextinct; not seensince Hurricane Iniki in 1992) in the Hawaiian Islands on Kauai. Notes.-•This and the following three specieswere formerly (e.g., Ripley in Mayr and Paynter1964) recognizedas a singlespecies (Phaeornis obscurus, [Hawaiian Thrush]), but differencesin vocalizationsand morphologyamong the living forms indicatethat three or four speciesexisted in the complex;they collectivelyconstitute a superspecies(Pratt 1982).

?Myadesteswoahensis (Bloxam). Amaui. Turduswoahensis Bloxam in Wilson and Evans, 1899, Aves Hawaiienses,introd., p. xiii. (Oahu.) Habitat.--Forest. Distribution.--EXTINCT Formerly residentin the Hawaiian Islandson Oahu. Notes.--Pratt (1982) consideredthis form, for whichthe specimenswere thenthought to have beenlost, to be of uncertainvalidity. Olson (1996) has recentlylocated the two spec- imenson which the type descriptionwas almostcertainly based and regardsthem as representing,at best,a subspeciesof M. lanaiensis.He alsoshowed why the traditionalcitation, "Phaeornisoahensis Wilson and Evans, 1899..." shouldbe replacedas indicatedabove. See commentsunder M. rnyadestinus.

Myadesteslanaiensis (Wilson). Olomao. Phaeornislanaiensis Wilson, 1891, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6)7: 460. (Lanai.) Habitat.--Forest. Distribution.--Resident (possiblyextinct) in the Hawaiian Islandson Molokai (not seen sincemid-1980s) and (formerly) Lanai. Notes.--See commentsunder M. myadestinusand M. woahensis.

Myadestesobscurus (Gmelin). Omao. Muscicapaobscura Gmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 945. Based on the "Dusky Fly- catcher" Latham, Gert. Synop. Birds 2(1): 344. (in insulis Sandwich = island of Hawaii.) 502 FAMILY TURDIDAE

Habitat.--Forest, usually dense, native koa/ohia forest, more common at higher elevations, where also found disjunctlyin subalpine or alpine scrub. Distribution.--Resident in the Hawaiian Islands on Hawaii. Notes.--See commentsunder M. myadestinus.

Myadestespalmeri Rothschild.Puaiohi. Phaeornispalmeri Rothschild,1893, Avifauna Laysan, p. 67. (Halemanu,Kauai.) Habitat.--Ravines in dense ohia forest. Distribution.--Resident in the Hawaiian Islands on Kauai, where surviving in small numbersin the Alakai Swampregion. Notes.l-Also known as Small Kauai Thrush.

Genus CATHARUS Bonaparte CatharusBonaparte, 1850, Consp.Gen. Avium 1(2): 278. Type, by monotypy,Turdus immaculatusBonaparte = Turdusaurantiirostris Hartlaub. Notes.--See commentsunder Hylocichla.

Catharus gracilirostris Salvin. Black-billed Nightingale-Thrush. Catharusgracilirostris Salvin, 1865, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1864), p. 580. (Volc•n de Cartago,Costa Rica.) Habitat.-- MontaneEvergreen Forest, Elfin Forest,Second-growth Scrub (1800-3500 m; upper Subtropicaland Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident in the mountainsof Costa Rica (Cordillera Central and Cordillera de Talamanca)and extreme westernPanama (ChiriquD.

Catharus aurantiirostris (Hartlaub). Orange-billedNightingale-Thrush. Turdusaurantiirostris Hartlaub, 1850, Rev. Mag. Zool. (2)1: 158. (Venezuela= Ca- racas.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest Edge, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge, SecondaryForest, Pine-Oak Forest, Tropical Deciduous Forest (400-2300 m; upperTropical and Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident [aurantiirostrisgroup] from Sinaloa, southwesternChihuahua, Durango, Nayarit, Jalisco,Guanajuato, southeastern San Luis Potos/and southwesternTa- maulipassouth through Middle America(except the YucatanPeninsula and Belize) to central CostaRica (Pacificslope south to nearPanama border), and in northernColombia, northern Venezuela,and Trinidad; and [griseicepsgroup] in southwesternCosta Rica, westernPanama (Chiriqui, Veraguas,western Coc16, and Azuero Peninsula),and westernColombia. Rangesin winter mostly to lower elevations. Notes.--Groups:C. aurantiirostris[Orange-billed Nightingale-Thrush] and C. griseiceps Salvin, 1866 [Gray-headedNightingale-Thrush].

Catharusfuscater (Lafresnaye).Slaty-backed Nightingale-Thrush. MyioturdusfuscaterLafresnaye, 1845, Rev. Zool. [Paris] 8: 341. (BogotS,Colombia.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest (800-2300 m; SubtropicalZone). Distribution.--Resident [hellmayri group] in the mountainsof CostaRica (primarily on the Caribbeanslope) and western Panama(Chiriqu/, Bocas del Toro, and Veraguas);and [fuscatergroup] in easternPanama (eastern Panam5 province, eastern Dari6n), and in the Andes of SouthAmerica from northernColombia and northwesternVenezuela south locally on the westernslope (evidently absentfrom much of Colombia)to southwesternEcuador and on the easternslope to northernBolivia. Notes.--Groups: C. hellmayri Berlepsch,1902 [Black-backedNightingale-Thrush] and C. fuscater [Slaty-backedNightingale-Thrush]. FAMILY TURDIDAE 503

Catharus occidentalisSclater. Russet Nightingale-Thrush. Catharusoccidentalis Sclater, 1859, Proc.Zool. Soc.London, p. 323. (WesternMexico, Oaxaca, Totontepec= Totontepec,Oaxaca.) Habitat.--Pine-Oak Forest,Montane EvergreenForest (1500-3700 m; Subtropicaland lower Temperatezones). Distribution.--Residentfrom westernChihuahua, eastern Sinaloa, Durango, Nayarit, Mi- choac•n,Guanajuato, eastern Coahuila, southern Nuevo Le6n, southwesternTamaulipas, and eastern San Luis Potosf south to west-central Veracruz and central Oaxaca (east to Mount Zempoaltepecand the Rfo Molino areas). Notes.--See commentsunder C. frantzii. The northwesternMexican populationswere formerly (A.O.U. 1983) recognizedas a group, C. olivascensNelson, 1899.

Catharusfrantzii Cabanis.Ruddy-capped Nightingale-Thrush. Catharus Frantzii Cabanis, 1861, J. Ornithol. 8 (1860): 323. (Volcfin de Iraz6, Costa Rica.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Pine-Oak Forest (1200-3100 m; Subtropicaland lower Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident in the mountains from western Jalisco, Michoac•n, southeastern San Luis Potosfand Hidalgo souththrough Middle America (exceptthe YucatanPeninsula and Belize) to westernPanama (western Chiriqu0. Notes.--Formerly regardedas a race of C. occidentalis(e.g., Ripley in Mayr andPaynter 1964), but the two speciesare quitedistinct and widely sympatricin centralMexico (Rowley and Orr 1964).

Catharus mexicanus (Bonaparte).Black-headed Nightingale-Thrush. Malacocychla rnexicanaBonaparte, 1856, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 43: 998. (Jalapa, Veracruz, Mexico.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest (600-1800 m; Tropical and Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Residentin Tamaulipas,Hidalgo, Veracruz,Mrxico, Puebla,northern and southeasternOaxaca, Chiapas, eastern Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua (north-central highlands, and locally in Caribbeanlowlands), Costa Rica, and westernPanama (east to Vera- guas).

Catharus dryas (Gould). SpottedNightingale-Thrush. Malacocichla dryas Gould, 1855, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1854), p. 285, pl. 75. (Guatemala.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest (700-2300 m; upper Tropical and Subtropical zones). Distribution.--Resident in the mountainsof southeasternOaxaca (Sierra Madre de Chia- pas), Chiapas,Guatemala, E1 Salvador,and Honduras(east to the Tegucigalparegion); and in South America in the Western Andes of Ecuador and in the Eastern Andes from north- westernVenezuela and northernColombia southto northernArgentina.

Catharusfuscescens (Stephens). Veery. TurdusFuscescens Stephens, 1817, in Shaw'sGen. Zool. 10(1): 182. (Pensylvania.) Habitat.--Poplar, aspen,or swampyforest, especiallyin more open areaswith shrubby understory,also in secondgrowth, willow or alderthickets near water; in migration,primarily deciduousforest and woodlandwith denseundergrowth. Distribution.--Breeds from southerninterior (rarely southwestern)British Columbia, central Alberta, central Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba, central Ontario, south-central Quebec(including Magdalen and possiblyalso Anticostiislands), New Brunswick,Prince 504 FAMILY TURDIDAE

Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and southwesternNewfoundland south to central Oregon, northeastern Nevada, northern Utah, south-central Colorado, northeastern South Dakota, Iowa, centralIllinois, north-centralIndiana, and centralOhio, in the mountainsthrough West Virginia, westernand central Maryland, easternKentucky, western and central Virginia, easternTennessee, and westernNorth Carolina to northwesternGeorgia, and in the Atlantic region to easternPennsylvania, central New Jersey,the Maryland Piedmont,and the District of Columbia;also in east-centralArizona (rarely in Springervillearea) and (probably)northern New Mexico. Wintersin south-centralBrazil (Par& Mato Grosso)and perhapssoutheastern Brazil. One Decemberspecimen from Louisiana,an early Januaryrecord (photograph) from Connecticut, and a Decembersight record for Ontario; otherwise,no documentedwinter recordsfor Northern Hemisphere. Migrates primarily throughthe southeasternUnited Stateswest to the Rocky Mountains, easternNew Mexico, and centraland southernTexas, and througheastern Mexico (recorded Veracruz,Chiapas, Yucatfin, Cayos Arcas off Campeche,and Cozumel Island off Quintana Roo), northernGuatemala (Tikal), northernHonduras (Bay Islands),Costa Rica (Caribbean lowlandsand San Jos6, mainly in fall), Panama(rare but regular in fall in Caribbeanlowlands, casuallyon Pacific slope),islands of the westernCaribbean Sea (Providencia,San Andr6s), Cuba, the CaymanIslands, Jamaica, the Bahamas,Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and northern Brazil. Casual or accidentalin extreme southeasternAlaska (Hyder), California, Arizona (elsewhere), easternPeru, centralBolivia, Chile, the British Isles, and Sweden;a sightreport for the Virgin Islands(St. John) and St. Kitts. Notes.--Catharusfuscescens and the following four specieswere formerly includedin the genusHylocichla (e.g., Hellmayr 1934, A.O.U. 1957).

Catharus minimus (Lafresnaye).Gray-cheeked Thrush. Turdusrninirnus Lafresnaye, 1848, Rev. Zool. [Paris] 11, p. 5. (ad Bogotam,in Nova- Granada = Bogotfi,Colombia.) Habitat.--Stunted borealconiferous forest (primarily spruce), tall scrubin taiga,willow- alder scrub in tundra; in migration and winter, a variety of wooded habitats, primarily broadleaf forest and woodland. Distribution.--Breeds from northeasternSiberia (Chukotski Peninsula and Anadyrland), northernAlaska, northernYukon, northernMackenzie, southernKeewatin, northernQuebec, Labrador, and Newfoundland south to southernAlaska (west to the Alaska Peninsula and Kodiak Island,possibly also on St. LawrenceIsland in the Bering Sea), northwesternBritish Columbia, southernMackenzie, northern Alberta (probably), northeasternSaskatchewan, northernManitoba, extreme northern Ontario, central Quebec, Newfoundland, and St. Pierre and Miquelon. Wintersrarely in Panama,primarily on the Caribbeanslope, and in SouthAmerica east of the Andes in Colombia, Venezuela,Trinidad, Guyana, and northwesternBrazil. Limits of winter distributionin SouthAmerica poorly known. Casualin CostaRica. One December specimenrecord for Ontario; other winter reportsfrom North America are unsubstantiated. Migrates primarily through easternNorth America west to easternMontana, the Great Plains and central Texas (casually to Wyoming and easternColorado), the Bahamas,and Greater Antilles, less frequentlythrough the Swan Islandsand southernCentral America (Costa Rica and Panama, most commonly in fall), and rarely through southernMexico (recordedTabasco, Chiapas, Campeche, and Cozumel Island off QuintanaRoo), Guatemala (Pet6n), Belize (including Half Moon Cay), and northernHonduras (including the Bay Islands). Casual or accidentalin southernBritish Columbia, Oregon, California (primarily the Farallon Islands), Arizona (Chiricahua Mountains), New Mexico (Clayton), northeastern Keewatin, ClippertonIsland (sight reports),Martinique, Guadeloupe, eastern Peru, Green- land, the British Isles, and continentalEurope (somerecords may pertain to C. bicknelli); sight reportsfor the Aleutian Islands (Shemya)and Washington. Notes.--See commentsunder C. fuscescensand C. bicknelli. FAMILY TURDIDAE 505

Catharus bicknelli (Ridgway). Bicknell's Thrush. Hylocichlaaliciae bicknelliRidgway, 1882, Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus. 4, p. 377. (near the summitof Slide Mountain, Ulster County, New York.) Habitat.--Stunted deciduousand coniferous forest, often near mountain-tops; in migration and winter, a variety of woodedhabitats, primarily broadleafforest and woodland. Distribution.--Breeds (at least formerly) in southernQuebec (including the Magdalen Islands), the Maritime Provinces, eastern New York (Catskill and Adirondack mountains), westernMassachusetts, central and northernVermont, New Hampshire,and centralMaine. Wintersin Cuba, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico, probably elsewherein the mountainsof the Greater Antilles. Migrates throughthe easternUnited Stateseast of the Appalachians;recorded from southern New England southto South Carolina, the BahamaIslands, and Bermuda. Notes.--Ouellet (1993) showedthat C. bicknelli is best treated as a speciesdistinct from C. rninirnus,differing in vocalizations,morphology, breeding habitat, migration routes, and winter range. See commentsunder C. fuscescens.

Catharus ustulatus (Nuttall). Swainson'sThrush. Turdus ustulatusNuttall, 1840, Man. Ornithol. U.S. Can. (ed. 2) 1: vi, 400, 830. (forests of the Oregon -- Fort Vancouver,Washington.) Habitat.--Dense scrub,coniferous woodland (especially spruce) and aspen-poplarforest with dense undergrowth,second growth, and willow or alder thickets; in migration and winter, a variety of woodedhabitats, primarily broadleafforest and woodland. Distribution.--Breeds [swainsonigroup] from westernand centralAlaska, centralYukon and westernMackenzie south to southwesternand south-coastalAlaska (west to the base of the Alaska Peninsula), east-central California, central Nevada, central Arizona, northern New Mexico, and east to central Montana, southwesternSouth Dakota, easternWyoming, extreme northwestern Nebraska, and from southern Mackenzie, northern Saskatchewan, north-central Manitoba, northern Ontario, central Quebec, southern Labrador, and New- foundland south to southwestern and central Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba, northern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin,northern Michigan, southernOntario, southernQuebec, southernNew York, northernPennsylvania, and Massachusetts, also in easternWest Virginia, westernVirginia (Mount Rogers),and (formerly) westernMaryland; and [ustulatusgroup] humid coastalregion from southeasternAlaska southto southernCalifornia, and inland to central Washington,central Oregon, and easternCalifornia. Winters [ustulatusgroup] mostly from Nayarit and southernTamaulipas (casually from California, southernTexas, and the Gulf coast) souththrough Middle America to Panama; and [swainsonigroup] primarily in South America east to Guyana and westernBrazil, and southto northwesternArgentina. Migrates [swainsonigroup] throughsouthern Canada, the United States(less commonly in southwesternportion) and Middle America (rare in Baja California and northwestern Mexico), lessfrequently through the Bahamas,western Cuba, the Isle of Pines,Hispaniola, Jamaica,the Caymanand Swanislands, and Isla Providencia(in the westernCaribbean Sea). Casual or accidental[swainsoni group] on Meighen Island (Franklin District), in the RevillagigedoIslands (Socorro Island; sight report), and in Bermuda,Iceland, the British Isles,continental Europe, and the Ukraine. Notes.--Groups: C. swainsoni(Tschudi, 1845) [Olive-backedThrush] and C. ustulatus [Russet-backedThrush]. See commentsunder C. fuscescens.

Catharus guttams (Pallas). Hermit Thrush. Muscicapaguttata Pallas, 1811, Zoogr.Rosso-Asiat. 1: 465. (in insulisAmericae vicinis praesertimKadiak -- Kodiak Island, Alaska.) Habitat.--Open coniferousand mixed coniferous-deciduousforest and forest edge, and dry sandyand sparsejack-pine, lessfrequently in deciduousforest and thickets;in migration and winter, also chaparral,riparian woodland,arid pine-oak association,tall desert-scrub, and suburbswith extensiveshrub layer. 506 FAMILY TURDIDAE

Distribution.--Breeds from western and central Alaska, southern Yukon, southern Mac- kenzie, northern Saskatchewan,northern Manitoba, northern Ontario, central Quebec, southern Labrador, and Newfoundland south to southern Alaska (west to the Alaska Peninsula, and Shumaginand Kodiak islands),in the mountainsto south-centraland easternCalifornia (to Santa Rosa and Clark mountains), southernNevada, central and southeasternArizona, southern New Mexico, and extreme western Texas, and east of the Rockies to southwestern and central Alberta, central Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba, north-central and northeastern Minnesota,central Wisconsin, central Michigan, southern Ontario, southeastern Ohio, central Pennsylvania,eastern West Virginia, westernVirginia (Mount Rogers),western Maryland, easternTennessee, western North Carolina, southernNew Jersey,and southernNew York (includingLong Island); also isolatedbreeding in the Black Hills of southwesternSouth Dakota. Winters from southwesternBritish Columbia, the northern United States,southern Ontario, and New England(casually or irregularlyin the northernportions of the breedingrange) southto southernBaja California (includingislands), through Mexico (mostlyin the interior, not recorded Yucatan Peninsula) to Guatemala and E1 Salvador, and to southernTexas, the Gulf coast, southernFlorida, and the northern Bahamas (south to New Providence and Cat Island). Casual or accidentalon SouthamptonIsland (The Post) and Bermuda,and in Iceland, the British Isles, Sweden,Germany, and Luxembourg. Notes.--See commentsunder C. fuscescens.

Genus HYLOCICHLA Baird

HylocichlaBaird, 1864, Rev. Amer. Birds 1: 12. Type, by originaldesignation, Turdus rnustelinus Gmelin.

Notes.--Hylocichla was formerly consideredcloser to Turdusthan to Catharus(Dilger 1956, Bourns 1967), but recent studies (Hendrickson and Yow 1973, Avise et al. 1980, Winker and Rappole 1988) show that it is closer to Catharus. Whether the distinctive morphologyof Hylocichla (Gibsonet al. 1976) warrantsrecognition as a genusis controversial; seeWinker and Rappole(1988) for reasonsfor mergingHylocichla into Catharus.

Hylocichla mustelina (Gmelin). Wood Thrush. Turdusmustelinus Gmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 817. Basedon the "Tawny Thrush" Latham, Gen. Synop. Birds 2(1): 29. (in Noveboraco= New York.) Habitat.--Deciduousforest and woodland, locally in densesecond-growth, mixed woodland, and parks and suburbswith denseshrub layer; in migration and winter, a variety of wooded habitats,primarily broadleafforest and woodland. Distribution.--Breeds from southeasternNorth Dakota, central and eastern Minnesota, northernWisconsin, northern Michigan, southernOntario, southwesternQuebec, northern Vermont,central New Hampshire,southwestern Maine, southernNew Brunswick,and western Nova Scotia south to east-central Texas, the Gulf coast, and northern Florida, and west to eastern South Dakota, central Nebraska, central Kansas, and eastern Oklahoma; casual breedingto southernManitoba, southwestern North Dakota, and centralSouth Dakota. Wintersfrom southernLouisiana (casual) and southern (rarely eastern) Texas south through easternMexico (includingthe YucatanPeninsula and islands) and Middle America(primarily Caribbeanslope, but recordedin E1Salvador and rarely on thePacific slope from southeastern Oaxaca southward)to Panama(most commonin Bocasdel Toro and Chiriqu0 and northwestern Colombia (Choc6). Migrates casuallythrough Cuba, the BahamaIslands (New Providence,Grand Bahama, Cay Lobos), and the Cayman Islands. Casualin westernNorth America from Oregon,Utah, Montana,Saskatchewan, and Man- itoba southto California, Arizona, and New Mexico, also in PrinceEdward Island; a sight report for Idaho. Accidentalin Bermudaand PuertoRico, and in Curaqao,Guyana, Iceland, the British Isles, and the Azores. FAMILY TURDIDAE 507

Genus TURDUS Linnaeus Turdus Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 168. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1840), Turdusviscivorus Linnaeus. Mimocichla [subgenus]Sclater, 1859, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 336. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Baird, 1864), Turdusrubripes Temminck = Turdusplumbeus Linnaeus. Notes.--See commentsunder Hylocichla.

Turdus merula Linnaeus. Eurasian Blackbird. TurdusMerula Linnaeus,1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 170. (in Europa•sylvis = Sweden.) Itabitat--Woodland, forest, scrub,and gardens. Distribution.--Resident (or partly migratory) [merula group] virtually throughoutthe Palearctic;and [simillimusgroup] in India and SoutheastAsia. Accidental [merula group] in Quebec (specimen,Outremont, island of Montreal, 23 No- vember 1970; McNeil and Cyr 1971). The origin of this individual has been questioned (DeB enedictis 1991). Introducedand established[merula group] in Australia and New Zealand, and on asso- ciated islands. Notes.--Also known as EuropeanBlackbird and, in Old World literature,the Blackbird. Groups:T. merula [EurasianBlackbird] and T. simillimusJerdon, 1839 [Nilgiri Blackbird].

Turdus obscurusGmelin. Eyebrowed Thrush. Turdus obscurusGmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 816. Based on the "Dark Thrush" Latham, Gen. Synop. Birds 2(1): 31. (in Sibiriae silvis, ultra lacum Baical = Lake Baikal.) Habitat.---Dense coniferousand mixed woodland,usually near water; in migration and winter, also deciduous woodland, farmland, and scrub. Distribution.--Breeds from northernSiberia and Kamchatkasouth to northernMongolia, Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, and Japan (Honshu). Winters from India, SoutheastAsia, southeasternChina, and Taiwan south to the Andaman Islands, Java, Borneo, the Philippines,and Palau Islands. Migrates throughMongolia, Manchuria, easternChina, Korea, Japan,and the Ryukyu Islands,to the westernAleutians (Near Islands),and casuallyeast and north to the Pribilofs and Alaska mainland (Wales, Barrow). Casual in westernEurope. Notes.--Also known as Eye-browedThrush.

Turdus naumanni Temminck.Dusky Thrush. Turdus naumanni Temminck, 1820, Man. Ornithol. (ed. 2) 1: 170. (en Si16sieet en Autriche...en Hongrie, etc., error = Siberia.) Habitat.--Open coniferousand mixed forest,forest edge, taiga, and deciduousscrub; in migration and winter, fields, farmland, and open woodland. Distribution.--Breeds [eunomusgroup] from northernSiberia east to Kamchatka;and [naumannigroup] from southernSiberia east to Lake Baikal, northernManchuria, Amurland, and the Sea of Okhotsk. Winters [eunomusgroup] from Japan and the Ryukyu Islands southto southernChina and Taiwan, rarely west to SoutheastAsia and India; and [naumannigroup] from southern Manchuria, northern China, and Korea south to eastern China, rarely to Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands. Casual [eunornusgroup] in Alaska (westernAleutians, St. Lawrence Island, Barrow), British Columbia (Langley), the British Isles, western Europe and the CommanderIslands. Accidental[eunornus group] in southeasternAlaska (Petersburg);and [naumannigroup] in Great Britain; a sight report from the central Aleutians (Adak). 508 FAMILY TURDIDAE

Notes.--Groups: T. eunomusTemminck, 1831 [Dusky Thrush], and T. naumanni[Nau- mann's Thrush].

Turduspilaris Linnaeus.Fieldfare. Turduspilaris Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 168. (in Europa = Sweden.) Habitat.--Coniferous and mixed woodlandedge (birch, pine, spruce),brushy and rocky slopes,and birch, alder,or willow thickets;in migrationand winter,primarily opencountry and agriculturalareas bordering wooded areas. Distribution.--Breeds from southernGreenland, Scandinavia, northern Russia, and northern Siberia south to central Europe, central Russia, southern Siberia, and Lake Baikal, occasionallyin the Faeroe Islands. Winters from Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, British Isles, southernScandinavia, and central Europe southto the Mediterraneanregion, Asia Minor, Iran, Turkestan,and northwestern India, casuallyto the easternAtlantic islandsand northernAfrica. Casual or accidental in Alaska (Point Barrow, St. Lawrence Island), Keewatin (Foxe Basin), Franklin District (Jens Munk Island), Ontario (Long Point, Toronto), Quebec (Ri- gaud), Newfoundland,New Brunswick (Caraquet),Massachusetts (Concord), Connecticut (Stamford), and Minnesota (Cook County); sight reportsfor Nova Scotia, New York, and Delaware.

Turdus iliacus Linnaeus.Redwing. Turdus iliacus Linnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 292. (in Europa = Sweden.) Habitat.--Coniferous and mixed forest and woodland (birch, spruce,pine), taiga, and damp thickets;in winter, moist agriculturalfields, pastures,and lawns mixed with wooded areasand open woodland. Distribution.--Breeds from Iceland acrossnorthern Eurasia to central Siberia, and winters southto the British Isles, continentalEurope, and the Mediterraneanregion, in migration casually to Greenland. Casualin Newfoundlandat St. Anthony(25 June-11July 1950, photograph;Montevecchi et al. 1981) and Sable Island (25 November-23December 1989, photograph;1990, Amen Birds 44: 223, 231); a report with photographs(since lost) from New York (JamaicaBay, Long Island, 1959); a sight report from Newfoundland (St. John's). Notes.--Turdus iliacus is sometimes known as T. musicus Linnaeus, 1758, but the latter name has been suppressedby the InternationalCommission on ZoologicalNomenclature.

Turdus nigrescens.Cabanis. Sooty Robin. Turdus nigrescensCabanis, 1861, J. Ornithol. 8 (1860): 324. (Volcfin de Irazfi, Costa Rica.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest Edge, Semihumid/HumidMontane Scrub,Second- growth Scrub (2150-3500 m; Subtropicaland Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident in the mountainsof Costa Rica (cordillerasCentral and de Tal- amanca)and extreme westernPanama (western Chiriqu0. Notes.--Also known as Sooty Thrush.Ridgely and Tudor (1989) and Sibley and Monroe (1990) used "Thrush" insteadof "Robin" for this speciesand severalother New World speciesof Turdus.Because "Robin" is appliedto many speciesoutside the genusTurdus, including speciesoutside the Turdidae,we favor retaininglong-established English names.

Turdus infuscatus(Lafresnaye). Black Robin. Merula infuscataLafresnaye, 1844, Rev. Zool. [Paris] 7: 41. (du Mexique = Mexico.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Pine-Oak Forest (900-3100 m; Subtropicaland Temperate zones). Distribution.--Resident in the mountainsfrom Guerrero,M6xico, Hidalgo, easternSan FAMILY TURDIDAE 509

Luis Potosf and southwesternTamaulipas south through Veracruz, Oaxaca, Chiapas,Gua- temala, and E1 Salvador to central Honduras. Notes.--Also known as Black Thrush. Turdus infuscatusand the South American T. serranus Tschudi, 1844 [Glossy-blackThrush], constitutea superspecies.See comments under T. nigrescens.

Turdusplebejus Cabanis.Mountain Robin. Turdusplebejus Cabanis, 1861, J. Ornithol. 8 (1860): 323. (Costa Rica.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Pine-Oak Forest, SecondaryForest (900-3500 m; Subtropicaland lower Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident in the mountainsfrom southeasternOaxaca and Chiapassouth through Guatemala, E1 Salvador,Honduras, north-centralNicaragua, and Costa Rica to westernPanama (Chiriquf and Bocasdel Toro). Some down-slopemovement during peak of wet seasonin CostaRica and probablyelsewhere. Notes.--Also known as Mountain Thrush and American Mountain Thrush. See comments under T. nigrescens.

Turdusfumigatus Lichtenstein.Cocoa Thrush. TurdusfumigatusLichtenstein, 1823, Verz. Doubl. Zool. Mus. Berlin, p. 38. (Brazil = Rio Espirito Santo.) Habitat.--Gallery Forest,Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest (0-1400 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident [personusgroup] in the LesserAntilles (St. Vincent and Gre- nada); [hauxwelli group] Amazonia from southeasternColombia and southernVenezuela southto centralBolivia and westernBrazil; and [fumigatusgroup] in SouthAmerica from northern Venezuela, Trinidad, and the Guianas south to Amazonian and eastern Brazil. Notes.--Groups: T. personus(Barbour, 1911) [Lesser Antillean Thrush], T. hauxwelli Lawrence, 1869 [Hauxwell's Thrush],and T. fumigatus[Cocoa Thrush].Species limits in this group are uncertain;see summariesin Snow (1985) and Ridgely and Tudor (1989). Turdusfumigatusis sometimes(e.g., Ripley in Mayr andPaynter 1964, Meyer de Schauensee 1966, 1970) consideredconspecific with T. obsoletus,but the two differ in voice and habitat; the two speciesappear to constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990).

Turdus obsoletus Lawrence. Pale-vented Thrush. Turdusobsoletus Lawrence, 1862, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N.Y. 7: 470. (Atlantic side of the Isthmusof Panama,along the line of the PanamaRailroad = Canal Zone.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Tropical Lowland Evergreen Forest, Secondary Forest (500-2900 m; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.•Resident from central Costa Rica (Caribbeanslope of Cordillera Central and Cordillera de Talamanca)south through Panama (locally in foothills east to the Canal area, and in eastern Dari6n) and western Colombia to western Ecuador. Notes.--See commentsunder T. fumigatus.

Turdus grayi Bonaparte.Clay-colored Robin. TurdusGrayi Bonaparte,1838, Proc. Zool. Soc. London(1837), p. 118. (Guatamala = San Jose,Dept. Escuintla,Guatemala; Dickerman, 1981, Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Club 101: 285-289.) Habitat.•Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest Edge, Tropical Deciduous Forest, Second- ary Forest(0-2500 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.•Resident on Pacificslope from southeasternOaxaca south, and on Gulf- Caribbeanslope from centralNuevo Le6n, Hidalgo, and San Luis Potosfsouth, along both slopesof Middle America to northernColombia. Breedscasually in the Rio GrandeValley of Texas. 510 FAMILY TURDIDAE

Wintersrarely north to southernTexas (lower Rio Grande Valley) Casual in south-central and coastal Texas. Introducedelsewhere in Mexico (e.g., Acapulco,Guerrero). Notes.--Also known as Clay-colored Thrush, Gray's Thrush, and Garden Thrush. See commentsunder T. nigrescens.

Turdus nudigenis Lafresnaye.Bare-eyed Robin.

Turdusnudigenis Lafresnaye, 1848, Rev. Zool. [Paris] 11: 4. (Caracas[Venezuela].)

Habitat.--Open forestand woodland,second growth, plantations, and gardens(Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident [nudigenisgroup] in the LesserAntilles (Martinique,St. Lucia, St. Vincent, the Grenadines, and Grenada), and in South America from eastern Colombia, Venezuela(including Margarita and Patosislands), Tobago, Trinidad, and the Guianassouth, eastof the Andes,to northernBrazil; and [maculirostrisgroup] western Ecuador and extreme northwestern Peru. An attemptedintroduction on Barbadoswas unsuccessful. Notes.--Also known as Bare-eyed Thrush, American Bare-eyed Thrush, Naked-eyed Thrush,and Yellow-eyed Thrush. The Englishname of T. nudigeniswas changed from Bare- eyed Thrush of the A.O.U. (1983) to Bare-eyedRobin (A.O.U. 1985) to avoid confusion with the African species,T. tephronotus,also called Bare-eyed Thrush. Groups: T. nudigenis [Bare-eyedRobin] and T. maculirostrisBefiepsch and Taczanowski, 1883 [EcuadorianRob- in]; the latter was treatedas a speciesby Ridgely and Tudor (1989) and Sibley and Monroe (1990). See commentsunder T. grayi.

Turdusjatnaicensis Gmelin. White-eyedThrush.

TurdusjamaicensisGmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 809. Basedon the "JamaicaThrush" Latham, Gen. Synop. Birds 2(1): 20. (in Jamaica.)

I-Iabitat.--Montane Evergreen Forest, Tropical Lowland Evergreen Forest, Secondary Forest (0-1800 m). Distribution.--Resident on Jamaica.

Turdus assitnilis Cabanis. White-throated Robin.

Turdusassimilis Cabanis, 1850, Mus. Heineanum1: 4. (Xalapa = Jalapa,Veracruz.)

Itabitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Tropical De- ciduousForest (0-3100 m; Tropical and Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident [assirnilisgroup] from southeasternSonora, southwestern Chi- huahua,Sinaloa, westernDurango, Nayarit, Jalisco,Michoac•n, M•xico, Hidalgo, south- easternSan Luis Potosfand southern Tamaulipas south along both slopes of MiddleAmerica (absentfrom the Yucatan Peninsula)to central Panama (east to western Panamfiprovince, including Isla Coiba); and [daguae group] in eastern Panama (easternDarien), western Colombia, and western Ecuador. Winters[presumably personatus group] to Canal area of Panama. Accidental[assirnilis group] in southernTexas (18-25 Feb. 1990,Cameron County; photos, Lasley and Krzywonski 1991, DeBenedictis1992). Notes.--Also known as White-throated Thrush. Groups: T. assimilis [White-throated Thrush] and T. daguae Berlepsch, 1897 [Dagua Thrush]. Turdus assimilisand the South AmericanT. albico!!isVieillot, 1818 [White-neckedThrush], constitute a superspecies(Sib- ley and Monroe 1990). Many authors(e.g., Wetmore 1957, Wetmore et al. 1984, Ripley in Mayr and Paynter 1964) considerthem conspecific,but seeMonroe (1968) and Ridgely and Tudor (1989). See commentsunder T. nigrescens. FAMILY TURDIDAE 51 1

Turdus rufopalliatus Lafresnaye.Rufous-backed Robin. Turdus rufo-palliatus Lafresnaye, 1840, Rev. Zool. [Paris] 3: 259. (al Monterey en Californie, error -- Acapulco, Guerrero.) Habitat.--[rufopalliatus group] Tropical DeciduousForest, Gallery Forest (0-2500 m; Tropical and Subtropicalzones); [graysonigroup] Tropical DeciduousForest. Distribution.--Resident [rufopalliatusgroup] from southernSonora south through Sin- aloa, westernDurango, Nayarit, Jalisco,Colima, Michoacfin,M6xico, Distrito Federal,Mo- relos, and Guerreroto westernPuebla and Oaxaca(east to the Isthmusof Tehuantepec);and [graysonigroup] in the TresMafias Islandsand, probably, coastal Nayarit (SanBlas region). Casual[rufopalliatus group] north to southernCalifornia (north to Orangeand Inyo counties), southern Arizona (north to Phoenix area), southwesternNew Mexico, and western Texas (Langtry, Falcon Dam). Notes.-•Also known as Rufous-backedThrush. Phillips (1981) suggestedthat the two groupsrepresent distinct species, T. rufopalliatus[Rufous-backed Robin] and T. graysoni (Ridgway, 1882) [Grayson'sRobin], with the latter resident(rather than a casualvagrant) in coastalNayafit and thus sympatricwith the former.See commentsunder T. nigrescens.

Turdus rufftorquesHartlaub. Rufous-collared Robin. Turdus (Merula) rufftorquesHartlaub, 1844, Rev. Zool. [Paris] 7: 214. (Guatemala.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Pine-Oak Forest, Secondary Forest (1500-3300 m; Subtropicaland lower Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident in the mountainsof Chiapas,Guatemala, E1 Salvador,and (possibly as a vagrantonly) westernand centralHonduras (east to Cerro Uyuca). Notes.--Turdus rufftorquesand T. rnigratoriusappear to constitutea superspecies.

Turdus migratorius Linnaeus. American Robin. Turdusrnigratorius Linnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 292. Basedmainly on "The Fieldfare of Carolina" Catesby,Nat. Hist. Carolina 1: 29, pl. 29. (in America septentrionali = South Carolina.) Habitat.-•Coniferous and deciduouswoodland and edge, parks and suburbswith lawns; in winter, in a variety of habitatswith at least sometrees, primarily where fruiting treesand shrubsare present(Subtropical and Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breeds [rnigratoriusgroup] from westernand northernAlaska, northern Yukon, northern Mackenzie, southern Keewatin, northern Manitoba, northern Ontario, north- em Quebec, Labrador, and Newfoundland south to southern Alaska (west to the Alaska Peninsulaand Kodiak Island), southernCalifornia (rarely southeasterndesert regions), north- em Baja California, southernNevada, central and southeasternArizona, northernSonora, in the mountainsof Mexico to central Oaxaca (west of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec)and west-centralVeracruz, and to central and southernTexas, the Gulf coast, and (casually) central Florida. Winters [migratoriusgroup] from southernAlaska (casually)and southernmostCanada and northernUnited Statessouth to southernBaja California (casuallyto GuadalupeIsland), throughoutMexico (rarely to the YucatanPeninsula, and Cozumel and Holbox islands)to Guatemala, and to southern Texas, the Gulf coast, southern Florida, Bermuda, and (at least irregularly) westernCuba, casuallyto the northernBahama Islands (south to San Salvador). Resident[confinis group] in the mountainsof southernBaja California (Cape San Lucas district). Casualor accidental[migratorius group] in the Pribilofs (St. Paul), Aleutians(Amchitka), Greenland,Iceland, the British Isles, and continentalEurope; sight reportsfrom Jamaica, Dominican Republic,Mona Island, and Puerto Rico. Notes.--Formerly known in American literature as the Robin. Groups:T. migratorius [American Robin] and T. confinisBaird, 1864 [San Lucas Robin]. See commentsunder T. rufftorques. 512 FAMILY TURDIDAE

Turdus swalesi (Wetmore). La Selle Thrush. Haplocichlaswalesi Wetmore, 1927, Proc.Biol. Soc.Wash. 40: 55. (Massif de la Selle, 6,000 ft., Haiti.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest (1400-2100 m). Distribution.--Resident in the mountainsof Hispaniola.

Turdus aurantius Gmelin. White-chinned Thrush. Turdusaurantius Gmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 832. Basedlargely on "Le Merle de la Jamaique"Blisson, Ornithologie2: 277. (in Jamaicaemontibus silvosis = Ja- maica.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Secondary Forest (0-1800 m). Distribution.--Resident on Jamaica.

?Turdus ravidus (Cory). Grand Cayman Thrush. Mimocichla ravida Cory, 1886, Auk 3: 499. (Island of Grand Cayman, West Indies.) Habitat .--Woodland. Distribution.--EXTINCT. Formerly residenton Grand Cayman,in the Cayman Islands. Last recordedin 1938 in the easternpart of the island; severalrecent thoroughsearches have had negativeresults. Notes.--Turdus ravidusand T. plumbeusare sometimesplaced in the genusMimocichla; the two speciesappear to constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990).

Turdusplumbeus Linnaeus.Red-legged Thrush. Turdusplumbeus Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 169. Basedon "The Red-leg'd Thrush" Catesby, Nat. Hist. Carolina 1: 30, pl. 30. (in America = Andros and Eleuthera islands, Bahamas.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Tropical Lowland Evergreen Forest, Montane Ev- ergreenForest, SecondaryForest (0-1200 m). Distribution.--Resident [plumbeusgroup] in the northernBahama Islands (south to An- dros and Cat Island), Cuba (and nearby cays), the Isle of Pines, Cayman Islands (Cayman Brac, with reportsfrom GrandCayman based on an escapedindividual), and (formerly)the Swan Islands (in the westernCaribbean Sea); and [ardosiaceusgroup] in Hispaniola(including Gonfive, Tortue, and Saona islands), Puerto Rico, and Dominica (in the Lesser Antilles). Notes.--Groups:T. ardosiaceusVieillot, 1823 [EasternRed-legged Thrush], and T. plumbeus [WesternRed-legged Thrush]. See commentsunder T. ravidus.

GenusCICHLHERMINIA Bonaparte CichlherminiaBonaparte, 1854, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 38: 2. Type, by subsequent designation(G. R. Gray, 1855), Turduslherminieri Lafresnaye.

Cichlherminia lherminieri (Lafresnaye).Forest Thrush. TurdusL'Herminieri Lafresnaye,1844, Rev. Zool. [Paris] 7: 167. (Guadeloupe.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Secondary Forest (0-1000 m). Distributiøn'--Resident in the LesserAntilles (Montserrat,Guadeloupe, Dominica, and St. Lucia).

GenusIXOREUS Bonaparte Ixoreus Bonaparte,1854, C. R. Acad. Sci. Palls 38:3 (note). Type, by original designation, Turdusnaevius Gmelin. FAMILY TIMALIIDAE 513

HesperocichlaBaird, 1864, Rev. Amer. Birds 1: 12. Type, by monotypy,Turdus naevius Gmelin. Notes.--This genusand Ridgwayiaare sometimesmerged in the Old World genusZooth- eta Vigors, 1832 (e.g., Ripley in Mayr and Paynter1964).

Ixoreus naevius (Gmelin). Varied Thrush. Turdusnaevius Gmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 817. Based on the "SpottedThrush" Latham, Gen. Synop. Birds 2(1): 27. (in sinu Americae Natca = Nootka Sound, Vancouver Island, British Columbia.) Habitat.--Humid coastal and interior montane coniferous forest, deciduous forest with denseunderstory (especially alder); in migrationand winter,also openwoodland and chaparral, but favors shady,cool areas. Distribution.--Breeds from western and northern Alaska, northern Yukon, and northwesternand westernMackenzie south through central and southernAlaska (west to the base of the AlaskaPeninsula and Kodiak Island),British Columbia(including the QueenCharlotte and Vancouverislands), west-centralAlberta, northwesternMontana, northernIdaho, Wash- ington,and Oregon(except southeastern portion) to extremenorthwestern California (Del Norte and Humboldt counties),casually to west-centralCalifornia (San Mateo and Santa Cruz counties). Wintersfrom southernAlaska (coastallywest to Kodiak Island), coastaland southern British Columbia,northern Idaho, and westernMontana (rarely) souththrough Washington, Oregon,Utah, and California to northernBaja California and Arizona. Casualwidely in easternNorth America from southernAlberta, southernSaskatchewan, Manitoba, central Ontario, southwesternQuebec, Maine, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia south to New Mexico, Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Kansas, Ne- braska,Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania,West Virginia, Tennessee,Alabama, and in Atlantic coastalstates from New Jerseysouth to southernFlorida; also on Guadalupe Island, off southernBaja California. Accidentalin Great Britain.

Genus RIDGWAYIA Stejneger RidgwayiaStejneger, 1883, Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus. 5 (1882): 460. Type, by original designation,Turdus pinicola Sclater. Notes.--See comments under Ixoreus.

Ridgwayiapinicola (Sclater). Aztec Thrush. Turduspinicola Sclater, 1859, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 334. (Pine-forestsof the tablelandabove Jalapa,[Veracruz,] SouthernMexico.) Habitat.--Pine-Oak Forest,Pine Forest(1850-3100 m; Subtropicaland Temperate zones). Distribution.--Resident in the mountains from southern Chihuahua and west-central Coa- huila souththrough Sinaloa, Durango, Nayarit, Jalisco,Michoacfin, Guerrero, the Distrito Federal, Hidalgo, and Puebla to west-centralVeracruz and central Oaxaca (west of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec). Casualin southeasternArizona and westernTexas (Chisos Mountains); sight reports for southeasternTexas (Port Aransas) and easternSan Luis Potosf (near E1 Naranjo).

Family TIMALIIDAE: Babblers Notes.--DNA-DNA hybridizationdata (Sibley and Ahlquist 1990) suggestthat the Ti- maliidae are more closely related to the Sylviidae than is indicated by their traditional placementnext to the Turdidae.See commentsunder Sylviidae.

Genus GARRULAX Lesson Garrulax Lesson,1831, Trait60mithol., livr. 8, p. 647. Type, by subsequentdesignation

(Ripley, 1961), Garrulax rufifronsLesson. _ 514 FAMILY TIMALIIDAE

Garrulax pectoralis (Gould). GreaterNecklaced Laughingthrush. IanthocinclapectoralisGould, 1836, Proc.Zool. Soc.London (1835), p. 186. (in Nepalin = Nepal.) Habitat.--Lowland humid forestof monkeypod,hau, and kukui; in native range,forest and dense second-growth. Distribution.--Resident from the Himalayan region of southwesternChina and Nepal southeast to northern Burma, northern Thailand, northern Laos, and southeastern China (including Hainan). Introducedand establishedin the HawaiianIslands (possibly as early as 1920, on Kauai). Notes.--Also known as Black-gorgetedLaughingthrush.

Garrulax canorus (Linnaeus). Hwamei. Turdus Canorus Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 169. Based on "The Brown Indian Thrush" Edwards,Nat. Hist. Birds 4: 184, pl. 184, and Albin, Nat. Hist. Birds 3: 18, pl. 19. (in Benghala,China = Amoy, Fukien, China.) Habitat.--Forest and scrub; in Hawaii, also wooded suburbs. Distribution.--Resident from central to southeasternChina (includingTaiwan and Hai- nan). Introducedand establishedin the Hawaiian Islands (in 1900), where common on Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii, and uncommon or local on Oahu and Molokai. Notes.--Also known as MelodiousLaughingthrush, Spectacled Laughingthrush, Hwamei Laughingthrush,Chinese Thrush, or Hwa-mei.

Genus LEIOTHRIX Swainson Leiothrix Swainson, 1832, in Swainson and Richardson, Fauna Bor.-Amer. 2 (1831): 233, 490. Type, by original designation,Parus furcatus Temm[inck]. P1. Col. = Sylvia lutea Scopoli.

Leiothrix lutea (Scopoli). Red-billed Leiothrix. Sylvia (lutea) Scopoli, 1786, Del. Flor. Faun. Insubr.,fasc. 2, p. 96. (China = mountains of Anhwei, China.) Habitat.--Forest and dense secondgrowth. Distribution.--Resident in the Himalayasfrom Nepal and northernIndia eastto northern Burma and central China. Introduced and establishedin the Hawaiian Islands (in 1918, now common on Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii, formerly commonbut now rare on Kauai and Oahu). Notes.--Also known as Pekin Nightingale,Pekin Robin, or JapaneseHillrobin.

Genus CHAMAEA Gambel ChamceaGambel, 1847, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia3: 154. Type, by original designation,Parus fasciatus Gambel. Notes.--This genuswas formerly placedin the monotypicfamily Chamaeidae;see Sibley and Ahlquist (1982b) for placementin the Timaliidae.

Chamaeafasciata (Gambel). Wrentit. Parus fasciatus Gambel, 1845, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia2: 265. (California = Monterey.) Habitat.--Chaparral, coastalsage scrub, and brushy areas, primarily in lowlands;locally in suburbswith denseshrub layer. Distribution.--Resident in coastal regions from northwesternOregon south to north- westernBaja California (southto lat. 30øN.), and in interiorregions of northernand central California. FAMILY MIMIDAE 515

Family ZOSTEROPIDAE: White-eyes Notes.--DNA-DNA hybridizationdata (Sibley and Ahlquist 1990) suggestthat the Zos- teropidaeare more closely related to Sylviinae, Timaliidae, and Pycnonotidaethan is in- dicatedby their traditionalplacement near the Nectariniidaeand Meliphagidae(the latter placednext to the Laniidaein our arrangement).

GenusZOSTEROPS Vigors and Horsfield ZosteropsVigors and Horsfield, 1826, Trans. Linn. Soc. London 15: 234. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Lesson, 1828), Motacilla maderaspatanaLinnaeus.

Zosteropsjaponicus Temminckand Schlegel.Japanese White-eye. Zosteropsjaponicus Temminck and Schlegel, 1847, in Siebold,Fauna Jpn., Aves, p. 57, pl. 22. (Japon-- Decima, Nagasaki,Japan.) Habitat.--Forest, secondgrowth, and scrub,from sealevel to the upperlimit of forest, also cultivatedlands and gardens. Distribution.--Resident from easternChina, Taiwan, and Japansouth to northernIndo- china,southern China, Hainan, the northern Philippines, and the Ryukyu and Volcano islands. Introducedand established in the HawaiianIslands (in 1929, now widespreadand common on the main islands from Kauai eastward). Notes.--Also known as ChineseWhite-eye.- Zosterops japonicus is sometimesregarded as conspecificwith Z. palpebrosus(Temminck, 1824), of India and SoutheastAsia, but the two speciesoverlap in southernChina.

Family MIMIDAE: Mockingbirdsand Thrashers Notes.--Morphological(Beecher 1953b) and biochemical(Stallcup 1961, Sibley and Ahlquist 1980, 1984, 1985, 1990) data supporta closerelationship between the Mimidae and Sturnidae,contrary to the traditionalplacement of the Mimidae near Turdidaeor Trog- lodytidae.

Genus DUMETELLA Wood Durnetella S. D. W.=C. T. Wood, 1837, Analyst 5: 206. Type, by monotypy, Turdus felivox Vieillot = Muscicapa carolinensisLinnaeus. Lucar Coues, 1875, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia27: 349. Type, by monotypy, Muscicapa carolinensisLinnaeus. Notes.--See commentsunder Melanoptila.

Dumetella carolinensis(Linnaeus). Gray Catbird. Muscicapa carolinensisLinnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 328. Based mainly on "The Cat-Bird" Catesby,Nat. Hist. Carolina 1: 66, pl. 66. (in Carolina = Virginia.) Habitat.--Thickets, dense brushy areas, undergrowthof forest edge, hedgerows,and suburbswith dense shrublayer. Distribution.--Breeds from southernBritish Columbia (except Vancouver Island), central Alberta, central Saskatchewan,southern Manitoba, south-centralOntario, southernQuebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland south to central New Mexico (locally), north-centraland easternTexas, the Gulf states,and northernFlorida (casuallyfarther south), and west to easternWashington, northeastern Oregon, southern Idaho, north-central Utah, and central and northeastern Arizona; also in Bermuda. Wintersfrom north-centraland eastern Texas, southern Arkansas (rare), the centralportions of the Gulf states,central Georgia, and in the Atlantic coastallowlands from southernNew England(casually north to Montana, SouthDakota, the northernUnited Statesfrom Min- nesotaeastward, southern Ontario, and Quebec;many recordsto Decemberonly) southalong the Gulf-Caribbeanslope of Middle America(also on the Pacificslope of southernOaxaca, 516 FAMILY MIMIDAE and casually in the interior of Guatemala, Honduras, and Costa Rica) to central Panama (east to the Canal area), and in Bermuda, the Bahamas, Greater Antilles (Cuba, the Isle of Pines,rarely Jamaica,Hispaniola, and TortueIsland), the Cayman Islands,Puerto Rico, and islandsin the westernCaribbean Sea (San Andr6s, Providencia). Casual in east-central and southeasternAlaska, northeastern British Columbia, northern Manitoba, northeasternOntario, California, Nevada,Arizona, the LesserAntilles (Anguilla), and northernColombia; a sight report from southernBaja California. Accidentalin James Bay (North Twin Island), the British Isles, and Germany. Notes.--Also known as Common Catbird, Northern Catbird, and the Catbird.

Genus MELANOPTILA Sclater Melanoptila Sclater,1858, Proc. Zool. Soc.London (1857), p. 275. Type, by monotypy, Melanoptila glabrirostris Sclater. Notes.--This genusis sometimesmerged in Dumetella (e.g., Paynter 1955).

Melanoptila glabrirostris Sclater.Black Catbird. Melanoptila glabrirostris Sclater, 1858, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1857), p. 275. (In rep. Honduras,prope urbem Omoa = Omoa, Honduras.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge, Second- ary Forest, Second-growthScrub (Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident in the YucatanPeninsula (including Cozumel and Mujeres islands,and Cayo Culebra),northern Guatemala (Pet6n), Belize, and (questionably)extreme northernHonduras (Omoa). Accidental in southernTexas (Brownsville).

Genus MIMUS Boie Mimus Boie, 1826, Isis yon Oken, col. 972. Type, by monotypy,Turdus polyglottos Linnaeus.

Mintus polyglottos(Linnaeus). Northern Mockingbird. Turduspolyglottos Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 169. Based mainly on "The Mock-Bird" Catesby,Nat. Hist. Carolina 1: 27, pl. 27. (in Virginia.) Habitat.--A variety of open and partly open situationsfrom areasof scatteredbrush or treesto forestedge and semi-desert(absent from forestinterior), especiallyin scrub,thickets, gardens,towns, and aroundcultivated areas; in many areas,virtually restrictedto the vicinity of humanhabitations during breedingseason (Tropical to Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breeds regularlyfrom northernCalifornia, northwesternNevada, northern Utah, southeasternWyoming, southwesternSouth Dakota, easternNebraska, southern Iowa, central Illinois, southernMichigan, northernOhio, extremesouthern Ontario, centralPenn- sylvania,New York, and New England,sporadically or locally north to southwesternBritish Columbia, Washington,southern Idaho, southernAlberta, southernSaskatchewan, southern Manitoba, centraland northeasternMinnesota, southern Wisconsin, northern Michigan, central Ontario,southern Quebec, New Brunswick,Nova Scotia,and (casually)Newfoundland, southto southernBaja California (including many offshoreislands), through Mexico (includingthe TresMafias Islands,and on SocorroIsland in the Revillagigedos,where possibly introduced)to Oaxaca(west of the Isthmusof Tehuantepec)and Veracruz, and to southeastern Texas, the Gulf coast, southernFlorida (includingthe Florida Keys), the BahamaIslands, and GreaterAntilles (east to Anegadain the Virgin Islands,and recently on Little Cayman in the Cayman Islands). Wintersprimarily from northernCalifornia, southernNevada, southwestern Utah, Arizona, southernNew Mexico, southeasternColorado, Kansas, southeasternIowa, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania,southern New York, and southernMaine throughremainder of breeding range.Small numberswinter sporadicallyfarther north through remainder of breedingrange; northernlimits of winter distributionhave expandedin recentdecades. The suggestionby FAMILY MIMIDAE 517

Phillips (1986) that northernmostrecords pertain to escapesfrom captivity is highly questionable. Introduced and establishedin the Hawaiian Islands (main islands from Kauai eastward, wanderingcasually west to FrenchFrigate Shoals), and in Bermuda;an introducedpopulation in Barbados,in the Lesser Antilles, has become extirpated. Casual north to southern and east-central Alaska, northern British Columbia, southwestern Keewatin, northern Manitoba, northern Ontario, and Prince Edward Island. Accidental on Isla Isabel off Nayarit, GuadalupeIsland, Clarion Island, and in the British Isles. Notes.--Also known as the Mockingbird and Common Mockingbird. Mimus polyglottos andM. gilvushybridize, occasionally but not freely,in Oaxacaand Veracruz (Wetmore 1943, Davis and Miller in Mayr and Greenway 1960). Therefore, we follow most recent authors (e.g., Binford 1989, Sibley and Monroe 1990) in treating the two as separatespecies that form a superspecies(cf. Phillips 1962, 1986).

Mimus gilvus (Vieillot). Tropical Mockingbird. Turdusgilvus Vieillot, 1808, Hist. Nat. Ois. Amer. Sept. 2 (livr. 12) 15: pl. 68 bis. (la Guiane et les contr6esles plus chaudesde l'Am6rique septentrionale-- FrenchGui- ana.) Habitat.--Arid Lowland Scrub, Arid Montane Scrub, Second-growthScrub, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge (0-2600 m; Tropical and Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident [gilvusgroup] locally from easternOaxaca (Isthmusof Tehuan- tepec) and extreme southernVeracruz south along both slopesof Middle America (including the YucatanPeninsula and adjacentislands of Mujeres, Holbox, and Cozumel) to Honduras, and in the southernLesser Antilles (from Guadeloupe,D6sirade, and Antigua southward), and in SouthAmerica from northernColombia, Venezuela (including islands from the Neth- erlandsAntilles eastto Tobagoand Trinidad) and the Guianassouth to northernAmazonian Brazil and along the coast to southeasternBrazil; and [rnagnirostrisgroup] on Isla San Andr6s, in the western Caribbean Sea. Introducedand established[gilvus group] in central Panama (Canal area and adjacent regionsof Co16nand Panam• provinces);introductions on Barbadosand Nevis, in the Lesser Antilles, have failed. Notes.--Groups:M. gilvus [TropicalMockingbird] and M. rnagnirostrisCory, 1887 [St. Andrew Mockingbird]. See commentsunder M. polyglottos.

Mimus gundlachii Cabanis.Bahama Mockingbird. Mirnus Gundlachii Cabanis, 1855, J. Ornithol. 3: 470. (Cuba.) Habitat.--Arid Lowland Scrub, Second-growthScrub, Tropical DeciduousForest Edge, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge. Distribution.--Resident in the Bahama Islands, on cays off the northerncoast of Cuba (Cayo Tio Pepeeast to Cayo Coco), and alongthe arid coastof southernJamaica (Hellshire Hills and Portland Point). Occursregularly and apparentlywith increasingfrequency in southernFlorida (including the Florida Keys).

Genus OREOSCOPTES Baird OreoscoptesBaird, 1858, in Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence, Rep. Explor. Surv. R. R. Pac. 9: xix, xxxv, 346. Type, by monotypy,Orpheus rnontanus Townsend.

Oreoscoptesmontanus (Townsend).Sage Thrasher. Orpheusrnontanus C. K. Townsend,1837, J. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia7:192. (Plains of the Rocky Mountains= SandyCreek, lat. 42ø N., long. 109ø 30' W., Wyoming.) Habitat.--Sagebrush plains or slopes;in migrationand winter, also arid scrub,grassland with scatteredbushes, open pinyon-juniperwoodland, primarily in arid or semi-aridsitua- tions. FAMILY MIMIDAE

Distribution.--Breeds from extreme south-centralBritish Columbia, central Idaho, southwestern,and south-centralMontana (also locally in southeasternAlberta and southwestern Saskatchewan),northern and southeasternWyoming, Colorado, and southwesternSouth Dakota (rare) souththrough eastern Washington and easternOregon to east-centralCalifornia (Inyo County, formerly to Ventura and San Bernardinocounties), southern Nevada, north- easternArizona, west-centraland northernNew Mexico, northernTexas (possibly), western Oklahoma(possibly), and (casually)southwestern Kansas. Wintersfrom eastof the Sierrasin southernCalifornia (rarely), southernNevada, northern Arizona, central New Mexico, central Texas, and southwestern Oklahoma south to southern Baja California, northern Sonora,Chihuahua, Durango, Guanajuato,northern Nuevo Le6n, northernTamaulipas, and southernTexas. Casual in southwesternCalifornia and Colorado. Migrates throughmuch of Great Basin and western Great Plains, including areasaway from breedinglocalities, and northernMexico, casuallynorth to Alberta and northernMon- tana, and east to southern Manitoba, the Dakotas, western Nebraska, western Kansas, and in the Gulf regionfrom easternTexas and northeastern Arkansas east to northwesternFlorida (recordedeast to Gilchrist County). Casualto southwesternBritish Columbia, western Washington, western Oregon, and coastal California (includingChannel Islands), eastacross southern Manitoba and the GreatLakes region (western and southern Ontario, Minnesota, Wisconsin, northern Illinois, Michigan) to the Atlantic coastalregion (recordedfrom Massachusettssouth to North Carolina). Ac- cidental on GuadalupeIsland.

GenusMIMODES Ridgway MirnodesRidgway, 1882, Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus. 5: 45. Type, by monotypy,Harpor- hynchusgraysoni Lawrence.

Mimodes graysoni (Lawrence). SocorroMockingbird. Harporhynchusgraysoni (Baird MS) Lawrence,1871, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N.Y. 10: 1. (Socorro Island, Mexico.) Habitat.--Arid Lowland Scrub (0-700 m) Distribution.--Residenton SocorroIsland, in the RevillagigedoIslands, off westernMex- ico. Notes.--Also known as Socorro Thrasher.

Genus TOXOSTOMA Wagler ToxostornaWaglet, 1831, Isis von Oken,col. 528. Type, by monotypy,Toxostorna vetula Waglet = Orpheuscurvirostre Swainson.

Toxostomarufum (Linnaeus). Brown Thrasher. Turdusrufus Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 169. Basedon the "Fox-coloured Thrush" Catesby,Nat. Hist. Carolina 1: 28, pl. 28. (in America septentrionali& meridionali = South Carolina.) Habitat.--Thickets and bushy areasin deciduousor mixed forest clearingsand forest edge, shrubbyareas, and suburbswith extensiveshrubs. Distribution.--Breeds from east-central Alberta, central Saskatchewan, southernMani- toba, centralOntario, southwesternQuebec, Vermont, New Hampshire,southem Maine, and southernNew Brunswicksouth to east-centralTexas (south to NuecesCounty), the Gulf coast, and southernFlorida (including the Florida Keys), and west to westernMontana, easternWyoming, and easternColorado. Winters in southeastern Arizona, central and southern New Mexico, and from western and northern Texas, eastern Oklahoma, southern Missouri, western Tennessee,central Ken- tucky, North Carolina, and southernMaryland (casuallynorth to southernOntario, and the northern United Statesfrom Montana eastward)south to southernTexas, the Gulf coast,and southern Florida. FAMILY MIMIDAE 519

Casual from northern and east-central Alaska, southern British Columbia, northern Man- itoba, Washington,Idaho, and Utah southto southernCalifornia, northern Sonora,Sinaloa, Nayarit, and Tamaulipas,and to Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland,the Bahama Islands (Grand Bahama, Harbour Island), and westernCuba. Accidental in southern HudsonBay, Bermuda,Curaqao, the British Isles, and Germany. Notes.--Toxostomarufum, T. longirostre,and T. guttatumconstitute a superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970).

Toxostoma!ongirostre (Lafresnaye). Long-billed Thrasher. Orpheuslongirostris Lafresnaye, 1838, Rev. Zool.[Paris] 1: 55. (du Mexique et de la Californie = Mexico.) Habitat.--Riparian Thickets,Arid Lowland Scrub,Tropical Deciduous Forest Edge (0- 1550 m; SubtropicalZone). Distribution.--Residentfrom primarilyin Gulf lowlandsin northeasternCoahuila, northern Nuevo Le6n, and southernTexas (north to the Midland and San Antonio areas) south to easternSan Luis Potos/, northern Quer6taro,northeastern Hidalgo, northeasternPuebla, and central Veracruz. Casualin southeasternCoahuila. Accidental in Colorado(Jefferson County and Barr) and southeastern Veracruz. Notes.--See commentsunder T. rufum.

Toxostomaguttatum (Ridgway). Cozumel Thrasher. Harporhynchusguttatus Ridgway, 1885, Proc.Biol. Soc.Wash. 3: 21. (CozumelIsland, Yucatan.) Habitat.--Arid Lowland Scrub,Tropical Deciduous Forest Edge (TropicalZone). Distribution.--Resident on Cozumel Island, off Quintana Roo. Notes.--See commentsunder T. rufum.

Toxostomacinereum (X•intusde Vesey). Gray Thrasher. Harporhynchuscinereus Xfintus de Vesey, 1860, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia11 (1859): 298. (Cape St. Lucas, Lower California.) Habitat.--Arid Lowland Scrub (Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Residentin Baja Californiafrom lat. 31ø7' N. (on the Pacificcoast) and AnimasBay (on the eastcoast) south to Cape San Lucas. Notes.--Also known as San Lucas Thrasher.Toxostoma cinereum and T. bendirei appear to constitutea superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970).

Toxostoma bendirei (Coues). Bendire's Thrasher. Harporhynchus Benditel Coues, 1873, Amer. Nat. 7:330 (footnote). (Tucson, Ariz[ona].) Habitat.--Desert, primarilyin areaswith tall openvegetation, cholla cactus, Joshua trees, and yucca,and adjacentjuniper woodland,locally in agriculturalareas with adjacentscrub and arid grasslandwith scatteredbushes and yuccas. Distribution.--Breeds from southeasternCalifornia (primarily northeasternand south- central San BernardinoCounty), southernNevada, southernUtah, south-centralColorado (Saguacheand Costilla counties),and westernand central New Mexico (east to Sandoval and Socorro counties) south to central Sonora. Winters from southernArizona, and extreme southwesternNew Mexico souththrough Sonora to northern Sinaloa. Casualto coastalsouthern California (includingChannel Islands), primarily in fall (when rare but regular), north to central California (to the Farallon Islands, and Marin and Sac- ramento counties) and north-central Utah, east-centraland southwesternColorado, and south- 520 FAMILY MIMIDAE ern Sinaloa.Accidental in Alberta (Jasper);sight reports for Saskatchewanand northeastern Baja California. Notes.--See comments under T. cinereurn.

Toxostomaoce!!atum (Sclater). Ocellated Thrasher. Harporhynchusocellatus Sclater, 1862, Proc.Zool. Soc. London,p. 18, pl. iii. (In Mex. merid., prov. Oaxaca... at Oaxaca = OaxacaCity, Oaxaca;Binford, 1989, Ornithol. Monogr. 43, p. 344.) Habitat.•Arid Montane Scrub, Pine-Oak Forest (1500-3000 m; Subtropicaland Tem- perate zones). Distribution.--Resident in the interior of central Mexico from northeasternGuanajuato and west-centralHidalgo souththrough M6xico, Puebla,and west-centralVeracruz to central Oaxaca (east to SantiagoMatatl•in area). Notes.--Toxostornaoce!laturn and T. curvirostreappear to constitutea superspecies(Sib- ley and Monroe 1990).

Toxostomacurvirostre (Swainson). Curve-billed Thrasher. Orpheuscurvirostris Swainson, 1827, Philos.Mag. (n.s.) 1: 369. (Table land, Mexico.) Habitat.-- Arid Lowland Scrub,Arid MontaneScrub; primarily in areaswith relatively densevegetation, but locally in desertgrassland with scatteredcactus; also in suburbsof deserttowns (0-3300 m; upperTropical and Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident from northwestern Arizona, central and northeastern New Mex- ico, southeasternColorado, western Oklahoma, extreme southwestern Kansas, and western and central Texas (east to Travis and Refugio counties)south to northwesternNayarit (in- cludingSan Estebanand Tibur6n islandsoff Sonora),through the Mexican Plateauto central Oaxaca (east to San Pedro Totolapanarea) and Veracruz, and to central Tamaulipas. Wanderscasually west to southeasternCalifornia, and eastto SouthDakota, southwestern Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, central Kansas, central Oklahoma, eastern Texas, and south- westernLouisiana; also southwestern Wisconsin (Buffalo County,present four years).Casual in Idaho and westernFlorida (SantaRosa County and St. GeorgeIsland); a sightreport for southwestern Saskatchewan. Notes.--See comments under T. ocellaturn.

Toxostomaredivivum (Gambel). California Thrasher. Harpes rediviva Gambel, 1845, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia2: 264. (nearMon- terey, in Upper California.) Habitat.--Lowland andcoastal chaparral, riparian woodland thickets, and locally in suburbs with extensive shrubs. Distribution.--Resident in California north to Humboldt and Shasta counties (west of the Cascades-SierraNevada and the deserts),and in northwesternBaja California (southto lat. 30ø N.). Casualin southwesternOregon (Medford, O'Brien). Notes.--Toxostornaredivivurn and T. crissaleappear to constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990).

Toxostomacrissale Henry. CrissalThrasher. Toxostomacrissale Henry, 1858, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia10: 117. (Fort Thorn [Dofia Ana County, New Mexico]. Habitat.--Riparian Thickets,Arid MontaneScrub, Arid Lowland Scrub (0-2400 m). Distribution.--Resident from southeasternCalifornia (north to southernInyo County), southernNevada, southwesternUtah, northwestern and central Arizona, central New Mexico, and westernTexas southto northeasternBaja California, central Sonora,and centralChi- huahua, and locally south in the Mexican Plateau to central Mexico (recordedCoahuila, FAMILY MIMIDAE 521

Zacatecas,San Luis Potosi, and Hidalgo). Some nonbreedingdispersal slightly north of breedingrange in Arizona and Utah. Notes.--The long-usedspecific name dotsale has been suppressed by the International Commissionon ZoologicalNomenclature (I.C.Z.N. 1983) in favor of crissale,which was originallyintended by Henry (seeHubbard 1976). See commentsunder T. redivivurn.

Toxostoma !econtei Lawrence. Le Conte's Thrasher.

ToxostornaLe ConteiLawrence, 1851, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N.Y. 5: 121. (California near thejunction of the Gila andColorado Rivers = Fort Yuma,California.) Phillips (1986) consideredthe type locality to be the Gila River, Arizona, but we continue to follow Grinnell (1932). Habitat.--Relatively barren,open desertscrub, particularly saltbush and creosotebush associationswith dry, sandywashes. Distribution.--Resident [lecontei group] in southernCalifornia (the Carrizo Plain of easternSan Luis ObispoCounty, and the San JoaquinValley desertfrom FresnoCounty south to Kern County); and from easternCalifornia (east of the Sierra Nevada north to southernMono and Inyo counties),southern Nevada, southwestern Utah, and westernand south-centralArizona southto northeasternBaja California and westernSonora; and [ar- enicolagroup] in west-centralBaja California(Pacific coast from lat. 29ø N. southto lat. 26ø N.). Casual[lecontei group] in northwesternArizona. Notes.--Groups:T. lecontei[Le Conte'sThrasher] and T. arenicola (Anthony, 1897) [Rosalia Thrasher]; see Zink et al. (1997).

GenusRAMPHOCINCLUS Lafresnaye RarnphocinclusLafresnaye, 1843, Rev. Zool. [Pads]6: 66. Type,by originaldesignation, Turdusbrachyurus Vieillot.

Ramphocinclusbrachyurus (Vieillot). White-breastedThrasher. Turdusbrachyurus Vieillot, 1818, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv. 6d.) 20: 255. (Marti- nique.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest (0-300 m). Distribution.--Resident on Martinique and St. Lucia, in the LesserAntilles.

GenusMELANOTIS Bonaparte MelanotisBonaparte, 1850, Consp. Gen. Avium 1(2): 276. Type, by monotypy,Turdus melanotisTemminck -- Orpheuscaerulescens Swainson.

Melanotis caerulescens(Swainson). Blue Mockingbird. Orpheusccerulescens Swainson, 1827, Philos.Mag. (n.s.) 1: 369. (Tableland, Mexico.) Habitat.mMontaneEvergreen Forest Edge, Pine-Oak Forest, Tropical Deciduous Forest, SecondaryForest (0-3200 m; upper Tropicalto lower Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident from central Sonora,southwestern Chihuahua, western Durango, Sinaloa,Nayarit (includingthe TresMarias Islands),Jalisco, Guanajuato, eastern San Luis Potos/,and southern Tamaulipas south to centralOaxaca (west of theIsthmus of Tehuantepec) and centralVeracruz. Some nonbreeding dispersal into adjacentlowlands. Casualin southernArizona (Patagonia,Cave Creek Canyon;photographs published in Amer. Birds 46: 332, 1992, and in DeBenedictis 1996), southernNuevo Le6n, and (questionably) westernChiapas (Ocozocoautla). Notes.--Melanotiscaerulescens and M. hypoleucusconstitute a superspecies(Sibley and 522 FAMILY MIMIDAE

Monroe 1990); Hellmayr (1934) treatedthem as conspecific,but see Davis and Miller in Mayr and Greenway(1960).

Melanotis hypoleucusHartlaub. Blue-and-white Mockingbird. Melanotishypoleucus Hartlaub, 1852, Rev. Mag. Zool. (2)4: 460. (Guatemala.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest Edge, Pine-Oak Forest, SecondaryForest (900- 3000 m; Subtropicaland lower Temperatezones). Distribution.--Residentin the mountainsof Chiapas,Guatemala, E1 Salvador, and western Honduras(east to the Tegucigalparegion). Notes.fSee comments under M. caerulescens.

Genus MARGAROPS Sclater Cichalopia(not Bonaparte,1854) Bonaparte,1857, Rev. Mag. Zool. (2)9: 205. Type, by originaldesignation, Turdus densirostris Vieillot = Turdusfuscatus Vieillot. Margarops Sclater,1859, Proc. Zool. Soc. London,p. 335. New name for Cichalopia Bonaparte, 1857, preoccupied. Allenia Cory, 1891, Auk 8: 42. Type, by originaldesignation, Turdus montanus Laf- resnaye= Muscicapafusca Mtiller.

Margaropsfuscus (Mtiller). Scaly-breastedThrasher. Muscicapafusca P. L. S. Miiller, 1776, Natursyst.,Suppl., p. 170. (Martinique.) Habitat.--Arid Lowland Scrub,Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Tropical Deciduous Forest,Secondary Forest (0-900 m). Distribution.---Resident in the Lesser Antilles (St. Martin, Saba, St. Eustatius,and Bar- buda southto Grenadaand Barbados,possibly extirpated on Barbuda and Grenada). Casual in the Grenadines. Notes.--Often treatedin the monotypicgenus Allenia (e.g., Davis and Miller in Mayr and Greenway 1960).

Margaropsfuscatus (Vieillot). Pearly-eyedThrasher. TurdusfuscatusVieillot, 1808, Hist. Nat. Ois. Amen Sept. 2 (1807): 1, pl. 57 bis. (les grandelies Antilleset particuli•rementh Porto-Riccoet h Saint-Domingue= Puerto Rico.) Habitat.--Arid Lowland Scrub,Tropical Lowland Evergreen Forest, Tropical Deciduous Forest, SecondaryForest (0-900 m). Distribution.--Resident in the southernBahama Islands (north to Eleuthera),Hispaniola (questionablyon the mainland,but found on Beata Island), PuertoRico (includingMona, Desecheo,Vieques, Culebra, and Culebritaislands), the Virgin Islands,and Lesser Antilles (south to St. Lucia); and on islands north of Venezuela from Bonaire east to Los Hermanos. Accidental(possibly formerly resident)on Barbados.

Genus CINCLOCERTHIA Gray Stenorhynchus(not Lamarck, 1819) Gould, 1836, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1835), p. 186. Type, by monotypy,Stenorhynchus ruficauda Gould. CinclocerthiaG. R. Gray, 1840, List GeneraBirds, p. 17. New namefor Stenorhynchus Gould, preoccupied.

Cinclocerthia ruficauda (Gould). Brown Trembler. Stenorhynchusruficauda Gould, 1836, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1835), p. 186. (No locality given = Dominica.) Habitat.fTropical Lowland EvergreenForest, TropicalDeciduous Forest, Secondary Forest (0-900 m).