International Journal of Research e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 05 Issue 15 May 2018

Buddhism in and its Culture and Tradition- A General survey Ashwani Kumar Research Scholar, Department of Buddhist Studies, University of Jammu, Jammu.

Introduction: Ladakh is very much different things such as clothes, food, influenced with Tradition and Culture of marriage ceremony etc.

Tibet. Infact, Ladakh is known as the Different author define culture in different western . Lying politically in the state way for example culture: learned and of Jammu and , bordering shared have patterns or model for living; Pakistan and China, Ladakh is an day to day living patterns, these patterns important snow desert region of . The and model, pervade all aspect of human people of Ladakh have been cherished by social interaction. the virtue of generosity, kindness, love, tolerance and compassion from the ancient Culture is the Mankind’s primary adaptive time. It is very renowned place all over the device. Another author says that, “culture world. Thus during the summer season is the collective programme of mind which regardless of the harsh geographical distinguishes the member of one catagories conditions, the place is crowded with of people from other. people from different part of the World If we look at the then we just to have a sign of the long survived will find that the history of Ladakh until Tibetan Buddhist culture and their impact 900, CE, Ladakh was directly under the upon their lifestyle. The majority of the control of the Tibetan Kings. Thus, King people of the Ladakh are the follower of Skyid-Ide- nyi-ma-mgon, a direct the Buddha Dhamma and Islam with a few descendant of the first king of Tibet, Gnya’ Christian populations. –khri btsan-pa ruled over Western Tibet,

As we know the culture is the which consisted of the region of the characteristics of groups of people defined Ladakh, Guge, Purang, and Zangskar. The by everything such as Language, religion regions were divided into three of his sons. lifestyle, etc. different people in different Thus eldest of his son Dpal –gyi-mgon society have different culture but also have (1000-1205) ruled over Ladakh. His some similarities. The culture varies in second sons Bkra- shis-mgon inherited Guge and Purang and the youngest one

Available online: https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 1278 International Journal of Research e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 05 Issue 15 May 2018

ruled over Zangskar. Ladakh has been a everything; God will reward; God can part of the Tibetan empire ever since its forgive all sins; and God is responsible for history is known up to the period of its our lives after Death; God will send us to annexation by the dogra general Zorawar heaven or he will send us to hell. Singh in the years 1834. Thereafter it These are the basic beliefs for all religions resulted in the inclusion of the territory of even today. Ladakh into the Indian state. Thus the major historical event related to the region Different scholars have different views and of Ladakh is associated with the Tibet. opinion about the nature and meaning of the term Religion. It is well known fact that, Buddhism is a world Religion, which arouse in and According to Aldous Huxley, religion is around the ancient kingdom of Magadha among other things, a system of education; now which is situated in Bihar, India and by means of which human beings may is based on teaching of Siddhartha trains themselves, first to make desirable Gautama, who was deemed as “Buddha”. changes in their personality and society Buddhism spread across the country and second, to enlighten consciousness during the lifetime of Buddha. and established more relations between themselves and the universe of which they Before describing the term religion as are the parts. Buddhism it is very important to understand and clear the meaning of term Modern Indian philosopher like Dr.S. religion. About 2600 years ago at the Radhakrishana has said the religion is not initial time of Lord Buddha there were a set of doctrine but that is experience; and already 62 religious in India alone. religious experience is based on the Since all the existing religions during his realisation of the presence of the divine in time could not provide answer to his man. question he decided not to use the The Buddha message as a religion, it is a ingredient or concepts of the existing way of life; “keeping away from all evil religions. deeds, cultivation of life by doing good In India, the basic religious thinking at that deeds and purification of mind from time was and still, “God created mental impurities”. everybody; God is responsible for

Available online: https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 1279 International Journal of Research e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 05 Issue 15 May 2018

mind and worldly condition we realize the dhamma”. The Buddha was not interested Religious Belief and terminology of the in the development of “Faith” or religion lord Buddha: while introducing his in an absolute sense. He insisted that one doctrine, Lord Buddha used the existing must not accept even his own teachings on religious terms and beliefs thinking that the basis of faith alone. He used to say in his followers and listeners would group on his teachings that, one must gain the familiars ground. knowledge and then develop Some of the term like Karma, understanding through study, discussion Moksha, Nirvana, Niraya, Samsara, Atam meditation and finally contemplation. were common to all religious group his Knowledge is one thing and understanding times. The teaching of the Buddha gave a is another. If there is understanding one very rational and unique meaning and can adjust one’s life according to changing interpretation to those existing religious circumstances based on the knowledge one terms. has.

Buddha Dharma: According to ancient Origin of Buddhism in Ladakh: the interpretation, the word Dharma is law religion of Ladakh is a modified form of given by God. There is an ancient believe Indian Buddhism, to the Tibetan system of that God promised to appears from time to Buddhism. This faith was introduced in time to protect this dhamma by taking Ladakh during the reign of Asoka. In 241 different incarnations. Buddha contradict B.C. numerous missionaries’ teachers were that God has not given any doctrine and dispatched to all the surrounding countries religious laws. to spread the peaceful doctrine of the - Muni. Then Majjhantiko (in According to Buddha, ‘Dharma’ is not an Sanskrit- Sthavira- Mahavanso) was extra ordinary law created by anyone. Our deputed to Kashmir and Gandhara, and the body itself is dharma. Our mind itself surrounding countries of China and Tibet. Dharma; the whole universe is Dharma. The spread of Buddhism in Ladakh was In Buddha’s opinions, “by understanding followed by its introduction to china; the the nature of physical body and nature of people on the Indus Attributed to the

Available online: https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 1280 International Journal of Research e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 05 Issue 15 May 2018

spread of the Buddhism “beyond the restored and has since continued as the rivers” to some sramanas (ascetics) who dominant religion. came with sacred books, 300 years after In Ladakh the great Monastery of the nirvana of the Buddha or in 243 B.C. Yurru, is still called “Yung-drung-” previous to the occupation of the Tibet by or the Monastery of the “Mystic- cross”. khiri- Tsampo, in 250 BC, there is nothing The establishment of this monastery known about the history, that the people attributed to “” a Lama from were of Bon or the pon – religion, which Brigung near Lhasa (Tibet). But the name like Indian Tirthakaras was an aphorism. of Lama Yurru was derived from the According to Mogul Author Sanay Stezen, Lama, because he has suppressed the faith Khiri-Tsampo was an Indian Prince of the of Mystic- cross (Yung- drung) and had Litsobyi (or Lichhavi) race who being established the Lamaic- doctrine of the conquered in war had sought refuge in Buddhism. Tibet, and afterwards he was proclaimed king by the people. Who were called the But Buddhism was prevailing religion of Bebehin Banbo of heaven, Yang-Banbo of Ladakh from the conversion of the people the earth. by Asoka’s Missionaries down to A.D.400 when Fa-Hien visited India. At that time They denoted only different sects; the one Buddhism was flourishing in little part of effecting heavenly aspiration and the other the Ladakh and in other small state in the leaning to the earthly objects. North, i.e. Kotan, Tsung- ling Debachin is most probably Tibetan the (Karakoram). “blissful” which is an equivalent of the The king of Kie-Chha (kha-chan or snow Sanskrit “Sugata” the well gone or blessed land) Ladakh celebrated the great or the epithet of the formers Buddhas. assembly, i.e. in the Gyalpa’s time; the But the followers of the young – Drung – assembled annually at in the pa, or Mystic-Cross were still powerful, month of Tan-po (march) and were parted and in A.D. 899 Buddhism was formerly with presents. Now they assemble at abolished by Lang Tarma and was not in June or July, every year. The Buddhism again introduced for more than seventy in Ladakh was the Indian Buddhism. The years, until A.D. 971. It was finally number of sramanas was about 10,000 all of whom were satisfied with the study of

Available online: https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 1281 International Journal of Research e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 05 Issue 15 May 2018

the lesser advancement” but later on it got contemporary of the great Buddhist King its advancement from the Tibetan system Asoka dating c, 250 B.C.E and is assumed of Buddhism. In the Indian version there that he must have been expelled from India were three great doctrines of Buddhism” by Asoka as the Licchavai family were the Vinaya, Sutra and the Abhidhamma great oppositionists of Buddhism. but in Tibetan version these wee divide into seven different doctrine. The history of Tibet is tightly joined with

Buddhism. In fact, all the Tibetan The first King of Tibet of Buddhism: chronicles were compiled after the well The recorded history of Tibetan Kings and establishment of in the Tibet itself is available only from the 3rd region. Some of the Chinese scholars have century B.C.E, and is stated that the region written in this regard as follow, “After its was practising the Bon religion. The first struggle with the indigenous Bon Religion, recorded King of Tibet was Nya-khri- po. the Buddhist or rather the Lamaists There are number of assumption about this hierarchy took the seat of the ruler of Tibet king, according to the Mughal author displacing the feudal Lords and chieftains. Sanasang Stezen, the King Nya-khri- tsan- In order to gain prestige, it become a pa was an Indian Prince of the Licchavi fashion to trace everything tit Sakya Muni, race, who, being conquered in War, had the Buddha, or the land of Buddha”. sought refuge in Tibet, where he was Different names of Ladakh: In ancient hospitably received, and afterwards time Ladakh is known by different names proclaimed kings by the people. Csomo de Ladakh in Tibetan La-tages, is most Koros repeat a similar story, with the common name of the country; but it is also addition that Nya-Khri- Tsan- po “being called Mor-yul, or low land or red land, defeated in battle”, fled to Tibet, where he Kha-chan-pa, or snow land, both of which acknowledges as a king by the Bons. names are used by the old Chinese’s The reason behind the entering of the travellers; by Fa-Hian, A.D. 640, who calls Licchavi prince into Tibet and becoming it Ma-lo-pho.the name of Kha-chan –pa or King of Tibet is being describe differently snow land, is also applied to the Lhasa by different Scholars.in this regards, Kingdom of great Tibet. The two central Csoma de Koros says that the prince was a district of Great Tibet are D bus, G Tsang.

Available online: https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 1282 International Journal of Research e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 05 Issue 15 May 2018

Ladakh is inhabited by peculiar races of advancement in a society there are three people who call them self Bot-pa, who main aspects of a rich culture. speaks peculiar Language called Tibetan 1. Preservation of the ancient values and who profess the religion of the based aspects of the good culture. Buddha, under a peculiar hierarchy of 2. Elimination of the obsolete aspects Monk called Lamas. The name of the Tibet of the good culture. For example is entirely unknown to the people as well some such custom or tradition as the Indians, who call them Bhotiyas and which are not suitable for the their country Bhutan. The use of name of society, must be discarded and bot and Bhutan is probably not older than eliminated from preserved culture. the tenth or twelth century when the 3. Inculcation of new values based Buddhist having been expelled from traditions and cultural aspect in Indian the hill country of Which they society. settled naturally acquired the name of the Buddha – than and Bod-tan or Bot . The culture of Ladakh has generally two main striking features, i.e. the

Mongolian culture and the Indo- Aryan Bots of Tibetan Origin: Among the Culture. The Mongolian culture is earlier settler in Ladakh are, Dokpas and dominant since the ancient times Changspa. Generally they were the because of the widespread of the nomads. The Tribes belong to the pure Buddhism in whole of then Ladakh Aryan Blood, Supposed to have been and Tibet and the Buddhist Emperor migrated from Gilgit and had Settled near for most of the historical periods. Dress and around but afterwards they The culture of Ladakh is divided into pushed back to the remote areas of Khaltsi various fields: and regions by the sides of the Indus. 1. Monasteries: Buddhist monasteries were constructed with the help of The Culture of Ladakh: before Buddhist emperors, throughout the describing the culture of Ladakh I would Ladakh. The rich Buddhist culture is like to define culture, which reflects the preserved in the Monastery of Ladakh. deep value based, everlasting traditions Besides these Monasteries have played customs, Rituals and various aspects of the

Available online: https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 1283 International Journal of Research e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 05 Issue 15 May 2018

a vital role in the cultural and social these land had taken Nepali artisan to integration of the rural Ladakh. the Tibet to work at Samye Monastery. In this poor class or the peasant attendant the we can see different Deities statues are monastery lands and cultivated them available in different Monastery of Ladakh and provided foods grains and other which attract the tourist all over the world product of the daily use like butter, and left the deep impression in the mind of edible oils, fuel and all the day ti day the numerous visitors needs of the Lamas, were fulfilled by

the head of the monasteries for performing rituals in the village on the 2. Types of races in Ladakh: Ladakh ceremonial occasions i.e. marriage was inhabited by four races of men, ceremonies or sometime the religious namely Champa, Ladakhi, Balti and performance on the death of the Dards, the first three races belong to inhabitant families. This traditional Tibetan races. system still exists all over the Ladakh. The first if the three subdivisions of Buddhist Deities and their statues in Tibetans – the Champas- were those Different Monasteries of Ladakh: since who led a nomadic life on the upland long time ago, Nepal had been a site for valleys, places with which, being too renowned Buddhist or Spiritual master to elevated for cultivation to bring a practice meditation and dharma teachings living, were fit only for pastoral uses. for its calm and Naturalistic geographic The, second the Ladakhi , were those setting of Mountain, Himalayas and Tibetan who had settled in the valley, Valleys. Perhaps for that reason, the art of and in the side Valleys, of the Indus, statue making might have flourished in who had formed villages and had this reason since as early as fifth century occupied nearly all the ground fit for 5th i.e. Lichhavi period (300-700 AD) cultivation; and who still retained the .Guru Padamsambhava, Buddhist faith which was held by the the “Second Buddha,”who travelled from Tibetan to the south-east to East. Northwest India through Lahaul Thirdly the Baltis were that branches Spiti, Himachal Pradesh, Ladakh, Tibet, N of the Tibetan races, who at one time epal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Arunchal Prades identical with the Ladakhi, spread the h and firmly established Buddhism in

Available online: https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 1284 International Journal of Research e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 05 Issue 15 May 2018

farther down the Indus valley and then long hair and even male are seen with became converted to the Mohammedan long- parandhas of different colour. Faith. They do not use cow ‘s milk, fowl and 3. Sacrificing or sparing: a child there hens eggs even they refrain from the was a tradition in the Buddhist families use of cow dung unlike the different of Ladakh that each of the families will sects of Buddhist , with yellow dresses send at least one of the offspring, i.e. a called Geluk- pa and one with red son, or a daughter to their respective hat sect is broadly known as Druk –pa. monasteries for conversion into a Monk (Lama) or the nun (chunno). They used to learn Dharma by staying 5. Position of women in Ladakh: A in the Monasteries, and are sent to women had sole authority in household some other monasteries for the matters. She did all the work in advance religious knowledge. This household matters. She did all the practice is still prevalent in Ladakh. work in the house and when it was finished helped in the fields in some 4. Druk-pa’s ( the Purest Aryan) is district she also fetched fuel from another significance of Ladakh jungle Polyandry is very common in culture: In some village of Ladakh, on Ladakh: the most remarkable social the bank of down towards institution of the poorer family is of Khaltse, like Dha, Hanu Garkun, Ladakh was the system of polyandry; etc., they are survivors of the which is still prevails in the far flung purest Aryan Race, known as Drukpas. areas. But this system is strictly They are still for their unique Aryan confined to real brothers. Each family culture. They wear colourful of the brother in ancient time had one clothing’s. Both male and female, wear wife in common. The most usual Necklace, bracelet and ear rings, they number of husbands is two but even wear cap with the variety of flowers. tree are four were not uncommon. This The robes and caps are switched with system was more confined to the coins. Both male and females keeps poorer classes the rich in the eastern part of Ladakh and Tibet generally had

Available online: https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 1285 International Journal of Research e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 05 Issue 15 May 2018

two or three wives according to the circumstances. According to Alexander 8. The Ladakhi Marriage System: Cunninghama “polyandry is the Marriage is much more a female principal cheek to the increase in business but of some peculiarities population and however revolution it when betrothed bridegroom proceeds may be to our feelings. It was most to the bride’s house with a bowl of politic measure for a poor country “Chang” and flowers and relatives which cannot produce sufficient food discuss the wedding days and the spirit for its inhabitant. together. After the bridal day has been fixed; the bridge groom obliged to

send a portion of food and Chang daily 6. Use of Chung (a local barley- beer): to his elect. another important feature of Ladakhi culture is simplicity, innocent and The Marriage party and entertainment social habit of the people. The huge starts with Gur-Gur –Tea (butter Tea) bowl of chang are the chief Attraction and the special variety of “Chang” the of entertainment in most if he village marriage feast namely “Ming—Ton of Ladakh; the feast are generally “served to all participants in the attached with the songs and dances. A Marriage. There is no evil of Dowry in drinking song is appropriately called the marriage which is the richest “Chan-glu liquor song. The singer is feature of Ladakhi culture. generally accompanied by a fiddler or 9. Different races: there are Indo Aryan sometime by a dream called ‘damn in groups which include the man, in local language. Dards, and the Baltis. The Dards of areas and baltis are mostly Muslim. 7. Dance in Ladakh: exhibition of the The mons, Chngspa and Dards of dha- female dance in the traditionally Hanu, Darchiks Garkans are the Ladakhi dress; especially in the Buddhist. Mongolian annexed with occasion of welcome of the VIP‘s or Tibetans lives in Chang- Thang and is the chief guest; and on different known as Changspa, Chang –Thang is occasion of birthday fest called Tsas- the name given collectively to the Ton’.

Available online: https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 1286 International Journal of Research e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 05 Issue 15 May 2018

platens which extend up to or 4390 foreigners united in addition to south east into Tibet. countless local visitors.

10. Phas- phons and Chos- puns: - besides all the above tradition of 12. Five Ladakhi food items that is Ladakh; phasphun is traditional types most favourite in Ladakhi tradition. of relation among the people of Every country or state has its own culture Ladakh; who visit to each other’s and tradition and we observe many house during Festivals like differences on the basis of food, clothes Marriage, or cremation ceremonies, etc. Leh and Ladakh are greatly influenced phas-phuns comes to work without any from Tibetan Culture which makes it notice and work for all related distinct from the rest of the nation nations. formulation without any personal similarly in Ladakh we find its own interest, this relation continues through traditional food which is famous by the generation. Similar in the case with tourist of different parts of the countries. Chos – pun; this relationship is made The local traditional food of the Ladakh is by the monks through the religious mentions are as under. ceremonial lottery system at the end of the festivals in the every monastery. Thukpa: This lip-smacking delicacy 11. Monastery festivals: another feature mainly contains pieces of our or noodles, of Ladakh culture is the Annual in a soup which mostly contains festivals of almost all the monasteries vegetables, but may sometime also have in Ladakh. The festival of hey, hemis, pieces of chicken added to it. This piping Lama Yurru , Basgo-phiyang, hot soup is eaten by our Ladakhi folks , Thikse and - monasteries mainly to cut out the extremely cold are of the much significance. Some of temperatures experienced in Leh and the festivals are organised by certain Ladakh. monasteries after twelve years gap. Chang: This indigenous brew of Ladakh is Like Hemis monastery, where the prepared by fermenting miller with yeast festivals of 1992 was just like that of a in a cylindrical porcelain pot. The Kumbmela of Haridwara; is the preparation is topped with warm water, till festival on 9th ad 1oth of July 1992 –

Available online: https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 1287 International Journal of Research e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 05 Issue 15 May 2018

the miller loses its strength. The liquid 14. Ancient wood crafts and thus obtained is called Chang. fascinating architecture work in the monasteries and palaces of Ladakh Butter Tea: This signature tea of Ladakh is add to the richness of Ladakh mainly prepared by adding and stirring Culture. butter and salt to boiling milk

Skyu: A traditional dish of Ladakh, this 15. Display: performance of Lamas in food preparation is made of kneaded the Monasteries – annual festivals thumb sized wheat our dough. Cooked which take place in winter take the mainly with water, it is served with meat shape of dance and dharma in the or vegetables. Gompa court yards. Lamas wear colourful garment and starting Khambir: The traditional bread of Ladakh frightful mask. They perform of is known as Khambir. Shaped like a pan, mines various spirits. Performs this bread is served mostly with the various aspects of religious traditional butter tea. progress i.e. the progress of the individual’s soul and its purification or the victory of good 13. Mural Painting and Scrolls: old over evils. mural Paintings and old scrolls in

the monastery called “” 16. Oracles and Astrologers: the are other important features of people of Ladakh believe in the Ladakh Culture. Mural painting influence of God and spirit on the and Thangkas are the richly material world. The Lamas are presented token of Ladakh Culture, most mediators between the human some of Murals and Thangkas are and the spirit world. The most rarely found in the world, and are famous Mark- oracles are of presented once in years on the ‘Matho Gompa. This is chosen by a occasion of monastery festivals or traditional procedure. some important festivals which take place once in 12 years. Conclusion:

Available online: https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 1288 International Journal of Research e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 05 Issue 15 May 2018

The culture of Ladakh left great [2]. https://www.ukessays.com/essays/c impression on the mind of people from all ultural-studies/culture-and-its- over the world. Economy and society has importance-essay.php,date-1-10- been shaped by many factors - the fact that 2016.time 4.35pm Ladakh neighbours Tibet in the east, in the [3]. Cunningham Alexander, Ladakh- north by the Xiniang province of China, in physical Statistical and historical, the northwest by Pakistan, in the west by Varanasi: Pilgrims Publishing, 2005, p. Kashmir and in the south by the Lahaul 335. and Spiti valleys of Himachal Pradesh, [4]. En. Wikipedia.org/wiki/history-of also Central Asia further field. Along the Buddhism in India, dated-29-10-16, time- long established trade routes through 2pm.40 p.m. Tibet, Central Asia, Kashmir and the [5]. Vidhya sagar Sharma, Ladakh and plains of northern India, came not only Himalaya, Anmol publication, first with goods but also ideas. Despite its harsh edition 2001, pp.No.74-75. terrain and remoteness from urban centres, [6]. Chandra B Sakya, Buddhist Deities Ladakh has long been a location where and Masters, Adarsh book New Delhi, people, commerce and cultures intermixed 2009, pp. xv. and its art forms therefore reflect [7]. Cunningham, Alexander, Ladakh influences from many other places. Many –physical Statistical and Historical, people from different countries come to Varanasi: pilgrim publishing pp.18-19. visit in this place and feel very happy to [8]. Dr. Ashok Jerath, Mystic land of visit here and enjoy the unique beauty of moon, Ladakh, publisher ALFA, ( this area. In this way I have an attempt to Association of litterateurs, Folklorists touch the basic cultural values of this place Edition –(2008) firs, pp. 81. and present a picture of Ladakh in a brief survey. [9]. Vidhya sagar Sharma, Ladakh and Himalaya, Anmol Publication, pp.75-78. References and Endnotes: [10]. http://www.rinpoche.com/stories/la

[1]. Shakspo Nawang Tsering, A dakh.htm, date-1-10-2016, time, 5p.m. cultural history of Ladakh, Leh: Centre for research of Ladakh, 2010, pp.6-7.

Available online: https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 1289