THE PUBLICATION of the NEW ZEALAND ANTARCTIC SOCIETY V Ol 29, No. 1, 2 0 11
THE PUBLICATION OF THE NEW ZEALAND ANTARCTIC SOCIETY Vol 29, No. 1, 2011 29, No. 1, Vol www.antarctic.org.nz
is published quarterly by the New Zealand Antarctic Society Inc. ISSN 0003-5327
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PUBLISHER: Gusto Patron of the New Zealand Antarctic Society: P.O. Box 11994, Manners Street Patron: Professor Peter Barrett, 2008. Wellington Immediate Past Patron: Sir Edmund Hillary. Tel (04) 4999 150, Fax (04) 4999 140 Email: [email protected] NEW ZEALAND ANTARCTIC SOCIETY LIFE MEMBERS EDITOR: Natalie Cadenhead The Society recognises with life membership, P.O. Box 404 those people who excel in furthering the Christchurch 8140 aims and objectives of the Society or who New Zealand have given outstanding service in Antarctica. Email: [email protected] They are elected by vote at the Annual General Meeting and are restricted to 15 life ASSISTANT EDITOR: members at any time. Janet Bray Current Life Members by the year elected: 1. Bernard Stonehouse (UK), 1966 INDEXER: 2. John Claydon (Canterbury), 1980 Mike Wing 3. Jim Lowery (Wellington), 1982 4. Iris Orchard (Canterbury), 1990 PRINTED BY: 5. Robin Ormerod (Wellington), 1996 Format, Wellington 6. Eric Gibbs (Wellington), 1997 This publication is printed using vegetable- based inks onto media gloss, which is a stock 7. Baden Norris (Canterbury), 2003 sourced from sustainable forests with PEFC 8. Bill Cranfield (Canterbury), 2003 (Programme for the Endorsement of Forest 9. Randal Heke (Wellington), 2003 Certification), EMAS (The EU Eco-Management 10. Bill Hopper (Wellington), 2004 & Audit Scheme) & ISO accreditations. 11. Malcolm Laird (Canterbury), 2006 Antarctic is distributed in flow biowrap. 12. Arnold Heine (Wellington), 2006 Cover photo: 13. Margaret Bradshaw (Canterbury), 2006 The base of Robert Falcon Scott’s statue toppled in the 14. Ray Dibble (Wellington), 2008 Christchurch earthquake 22 February 2011. Photograph courtesy Nic Jackson 15. Norman Hardie (Canterbury), 2008 Vol 29, No. 1, 2011 CONTENTS Issue 215
NEWS A Note From the Editor 2 Antarctica New Zealand 2010–11 Season Summary 24
EVENTS Regional Roundup 3
HISTORY New Zealand Science Expedition Finds Historical Depot Near the Scott Glacier 4 Isolated Scott Island 9 Antarctic Memories of an Old American 16
SCIENCE From Meters to Microns – 3D Imaging in Antarctica 6 Microscopic Inhabitants of the Ross Sea Plankton 10 Antarctic Scientists Focus on the Beardmore Glacier 13 Fungi in Antarctica – Witness to the Past and Guide to the Future 14 2010 Antarctic Ozone Hole: Smallest in Five Years 19 Massive Icebergs and Antarctic Ecosystems 20 The Answer is Blowing in the Wind 22 nzTABS: the Largest Landscape-Scale Biodiversity Study Ever Undertaken 26 Stress and Personality in Antarctic Penguins 28
ARTS Poem – Sastrugi back cover
Vol 29, No. 1, 2011 1 NEWS A Note From the Editor
When I wrote the Note from the Editor held in a private home in early March for the last bumper double edition of and another is planned for April. Antarctic, little did I know that another, The landscape of Christchurch – even more devastating earthquake New Zealand’s gateway to Antarctica would occur and that, yet again – has changed forever. Some parts will (a minor issue in the bigger picture), be restored to their former glory, it would be a challenge to publish the including the marble statue of Robert next issue. After the September 2010 Falcon Scott which was cast down quake we tried to put the October in the quake. The Christchurch City issue of the publication out, but after a Council, with help from heritage few weeks I realised my concentration experts, has carefully collected and wasn’t there and that it could not stored all the pieces until it can be be done to the standard the Society conserved and restored. aims to reach. This time, however A national memorial service was (22 February 2011 earthquake) held in Hagley Park in the centre of feels different. Concentration is still Christchurch on 18th March, which Statue of Robert Falcon Scott. Photograph courtesy Anthony Wright difficult for many due to continuing ten’s of thousands of people attended. aftershocks, lack of good sleep and a Representatives from a wide variety reflections on Christchurch and offers general uncertainty about what will of communities within Canterbury of help and support. These articles are happen to Christchurch both in the spoke, remembering not only those printed in this issue. To all of those near future and as we re-build. Despite who had died but also recognising people – thank you! Without you this this I felt a determination to get the the indelible changes to the landscape issue simply could not exist. A special issue out – kind of a “kick in the pants” and the challenges to rebuilding. The thanks goes to Katie from Gusto Design to the quake – to show that life goes on service began with a 14 minute film and Lester Chaplow, Treasurer of the and that the New Zealand Antarctic of the Central Business District which New Zealand Antarctic Society, both Society (and especially the Canterbury has been closed for safety reasons of whom were unstinting with support Branch) is alive and well. This since the quake. The footage included and advice. Articles originally intended determination was only strengthened the extensive damage to the Cathedral for this issue will appear in future issues by the recent catastrophic events in where the annual service is held to bless once the files are accessible. Japan. I have heard from Makoto, the the Antarctic season. Most in the crowd I hope you enjoy this “Canterbury Shirase Memorial Antarctic Museum had not seen any of these images and Quake” issue of Antarctic which cele- representative, who assures me that the entire park fell silent as the extent brates the strength of the Antarctic they are fine, although they were of the devastation was realised. and wider communities in tough without power for three days. Canterbury Museum (where I times. Despite two severe earthquakes, As far as we know, no Christchurch work as a curator) had no power, water major damage and disruption and members of the Antarctic Society lost or sewerage, no access for the first few the continuing aftershocks, the their lives in the quake. Many of us weeks after the quake, and limited Antarctic season finished in style with however have damage to our homes, access since, and thus I could not access successful science investigations and land and workplaces. Some have my Antarctic files. The question then newly discovered pieces of history. been evacuated, at least one has a was one of how to achieve an issue of The Antarctic community gathered large boulder instead of a back door, Antarctic? I sent out a plea for help together to support each other and the some have lost their homes, others to the Antarctic science and history April issue of Antarctic was published! are surrounded by hills of liquefaction community in New Zealand (but and silt, and others have (temporarily not those located in Canterbury) and Thanks to you all for your support. we hope) left town. The Canterbury to a person they came to the fore with Branch remains strong: a meeting was a fantastic array of articles, images, Natalie
2 Issue 215 EVENTS Regional Roundup
Note that this issue does not contain a full round up from all centres due to the Canterbury earthquake. A full round up will appear in the next issue.
National Antarctic Canterbury Museum Programmes campus Canterbury Museum’s heritage United States, New Zealand and buildings stood up well to the February Italian Antarctic Programs are working earthquake. The Director Anthony collaboratively to free-up as much Wright reports that work is underway office accommodation as possible on on getting essential services such as the International Antarctic Centre power, water, sewerage, security and campus for critical support agencies fire protection restored. He believes whose premises have been severely that the vast majority of collections, affected by the 22 February earthquake including the significant Antarctic in Christchurch. Currently there are collections are safe. “The Heart of representatives of St John Ambulance, the Great Alone” exhibition from the New Zealand Police, Child Youth Royal Collection is intact and is on its and Family, Department of Internal way back to Britain. Affairs, Department of Conservation and the New Zealand Historic Places Antarctic Heritage Trust Trust on campus. Both Scott Base and AHT offices survived the quake the Christchurch office of Antarctica well and they are currently working New Zealand are fully operational. Penguin from Nazareth House Catholic retirement home. through applications for conservation Photograph courtesy AHT positions for the 2011–2012 season. Lyttelton Museum They have been helping other Antarctic The Lyttelton Museum building quake survivors including a stuffed has been severely damaged in the penguin. This bird usually resides in February earthquake. Wigram Air the orphanage at Nazareth House Force Museum, which was not which has been badly damaged. The damaged, offered assistance and with bird, which is reputed to be connected the help of Canterbury Museum staff, to one of Scott’s expeditions, is being structural engineers, civil defence and held at AHT for safekeeping. the volunteer fire brigade removed AHT conservators on Ice have all objects from the Antarctic Gallery remained busy. Amongst other along with other historically significant objects conservation carpenter Martin collections held at the Museum. The Wenzel is working through the winter collections will be safely stored at the conserving hundreds of wooden Air Force Museum until Canterbury food storage boxes used by Scott Museum is able to assess them for and Shackleton in their expeditions. conservation requirements and an More information can be found at assessment on the future of the Lyttelton www.nhm.ac.uk/natureplus/community/ Museum building can be carried out. antarctic-conservation?view=blog
Food storage crate. Photograph courtesy Martin Wenzel
Vol 29, No. 1, 2011 3 HISTORY
New Zealand Science Expedition Finds Historical Depot Near the Scott Glacier
By Bryan Storey and Ian Hogg Members of a combined University of Canterbury and University of Waikato research team in Antarctica during January 2011 discovered a small depot left behind by members of Admiral Byrd’s Second Antarctic Expedition from 1933 to 1935.
The depot was located on a small rocky referring to Quin A Blackburn, whereas in remarkable condition considering promontory near Durham Point close the remaining crampon was engraved that they have been there for nearly to the mouth of the Scott Glacier less “RR” and belonged to Richard Russell. 80 years, the straps have disintegrated than 482 km from the South Pole (85.5 A second crampon (also engraved but the buckles remained. There was degrees South, 151.3 degrees West). “RR”) was found on its own about no rust due to the dry windblown The depot contained three crampons 100 metres away from the depot and environment. and a set of extendable wooden very near the ice edge. One of the survey Quin Blackburn was the leader survey poles. Two of the crampons poles had the name “Cox” burned of a geological party from Byrd’s were stamped with the initials “QAB” onto the surface. The crampons were second expedition to Antarctica
Durham Point camp site near cache. The single crampon is visible and was found here. Photograph courtesy Ian Hogg
4 Issue 215 HISTORY
Surveyor’s poles and crampon at cache. Close up of cache showing crampon with Cairn near cache at Durham Point. Photograph courtesy Ian Hogg accompanying buckle. Photograph courtesy Ian Hogg Photograph courtesy Ian Hogg
which investigated the geology of Our team left the main depot intact. However, the neighbouring Queen Maud Mountains and sledged the length the single crampon (located near the ice edge) of the Scott Glacier onto the Polar was removed and returned to New Zealand where Plateau. Richard Russell was a member of the geological party it will be donated to the Canterbury Museum. whereas Cox was the carpenter on Byrd’s Expedition. Blackburn and transmit human voices from Antarctica species of mosses and lichens were Russell were joined by a third party to living rooms in America from discovered. The team was supported member (Stuart Paine), each with a 1 February 1934. by combined United States and dog team, where they sledged across The science team who found the New Zealand logistics from a remote the Ross Ice Shelf from Admiral Byrd’s cache were part of the New Zealand field camp in the central Transantarctic Antarctic base (Little America II) and Terrestrial Antarctic Biocomplexity Mountains near the Beardmore ascended the Scott Glacier to the Survey (event K020B) led by the Polar Plateau. Glacier. Fortuitously, Edmund Stump University of Waikato and supported Richard Byrd (1888–1957) was an from Arizona State University was the by Antarctica New Zealand. Team American Admiral and explorer. He is camp’s chief scientist and author of members included Bryan Storey credited with adding a larger region the book The Roof at the Bottom of the (University of Canterbury), Leo to the map of Antarctica than any World: Discovering the Transantarctic Sancho (University of Madrid), Hugh other explorer and he was also largely Mountains (Yale University Press; Morgan (University of Waikato), responsible for modern-day United release scheduled for October 2011). Jason Watson (field safety, Antarctica States involvement in the continent. He was immediately aware of the In his first Antarctic Expedition (1928– New Zealand) and Ian Hogg (field depot from historical accounts and 1930), Admiral Byrd achieved what leader, University of Waikato). was able to furnish us with the dates, was believed to be the first flight over The team is investigating the links names and details mentioned above. the South Pole. Byrd’s second exped- between the biodiversity of the ition (1933–35) added considerably to remote landscapes and the physical Our team left the main depot intact. scientific and geographic knowledge factors that control the distribution The single crampon (located near the about Antarctica, and pioneered of plants and animals in such remote ice edge) was removed and returned to the successful use of tractors. Byrd’s locations. At one location, aptly New Zealand where it will be donated second expedition was also the first to named Garden Spur, more than 20 to the Canterbury Museum.
Vol 29, No. 1, 2011 5 SCIENCE
From Meters to Microns –
3D Imaging in Antarctica By Roberta Farrell
In January 2010, Antarctica NZ Event K021 broke new ground in Antarctic research by using highly sophisticated 3D laser and light scanning technologies to image a range of man-made and physical structures to a resolution never before achieved in this environment.
K021 is a scientific collaboration and their environs as well as having field in January 2011 by Don Cowan among The University of Waikato fundamental research aims of under- of the University of the Western (New Zealand), Universities of standing bio-diversity and mechanisms Cape. Don Cowan has been working Minnesota (USA), Bath (UK), Hong of cold adaptation, proliferation and with Waikato University teams in Kong (SAR PRC) and Western Cape impact of Antarctic fungi and other Antarctica for the past 12 years. Team (South Africa) and the private companies microbes in pristine terrestrial locations members included Adam Wild from Archifact and Geometria, head- and at the historic and human- Archifact, an architectural practice quartered in Auckland, New Zealand. impacted sites. specialising in heritage conservation K201, which initiated research in 1997, The K021 team (Principal Investi- and using sophisticated technologies has evaluated the deterioration of the gator Professor Roberta Farrell, for analysis and interpretation, and Ross Island Historic Huts, artefacts University of Waikato) was led in the Russell Gibb and Dan McCurdy,
6 Issue 215 SCIENCE
archaeologists from Geometria, buildings) but can be applied to natural the distinctive landscapes, exteriors which specialises in technology- geological and even biological forms. and interiors of the historic huts on driven archaeology and heritage The second unit, a Brueckmann Ross Island, Eastern Antarctica. These management. Also on the team were structured light scanner, is designed images represent a vast improvement Dominique Anderson, a PhD student to provide ultra-high resolution 3D over traditional surveying methods for with Don Cowan, and Donna Lacap, images of small areas, where a surface assessing changes in these important a post doctoral researcher from the or object of 10 – 20cm dimensions historical buildings. Repeated scans Hong Kong laboratory of collaborator can be scanned to an accuracy of over successive years could not only Steve Pointing. around 0.1 micron resolution (a micron be used to assess seasonal deformation Russell and Dan brought with is a 1000th of a mm). (as caused by winter snow, ice them two high-end scanning facilities, Both Geometria (Russell and Dan) accumulation etc) but could become on loan from the manufacturers and Archifact (Adam) generously cont- a working record of the placement, and together valued at around $NZ ributed staff time and resources (such security and interpretation of individual 500,000. The Leica 6100 phase-based as training, shipping and insurance items to the international virtual laser scanner is capable of generating costs) to the Antarctica New Zealand audience. According to Russell and 360o images on a radius of more than programme, and are seeking funding Adam, the technology could have 50 m to a resolution of a few mm. Each for future antarctic research and the enormous outreach capacity, where a scan generates a ‘point cloud’ of over development of the collected data and navigable high resolution 3D image 20 million data points, and multiple its interpretation across the disciplines of an historic hut could be linked to scans can be assembled to generate represented by the K021 team. ‘clickable’ expanding images, infor- high resolution multidirectional 3D In the K021 field programme, mation boxes, links to other resources images. This unit is most applicable Russell and Dan used the Leica 6100 etc. Examples of preliminary scans are for macroscopic structures (such as to obtain high resolution images of shown in the appended Figures 1– 4.
Continued over
Figure 1. The north elevation of Scott’s Cape Evans historic Heroic Era Hut, showing evidence of the current conservation work by the Antarctic Heritage Trust. [The dark circle in the centre is the position where the scanner was located. All images courtesy of Russell Gibb and Dan McCurdy, Geometria]1.
Figure 2. The interior of Shackleton’s Cape Royds Historic Hut, showing numerous historic artefacts.
Figure 3. The eastern elevation of Scott’s Discovery Hut at Hut Point. Note that this is the result of a single scan and a complete 360o image is generated by taking scans from all 4 sides.
1 These images are pdf files generated from scan data. The original scans contain millions more datapoints and can be manipulated to be viewed from any orientation and from wide angle to a focus of a few centimetres.
Vol 29, No. 1, 2011 7 SCIENCE
One of the objectives of the team structures such as crustose lichens. quantitative estimates of the effects of was to not only demonstrate that this The Brueckmann offers a real oppor- future climate change. scanning technology could be operated tunity to obtain, for the first time, And what next? K021 is excited successfully under the extreme growth data over much shorter periods at the prospects of a return in the temperatures of the Antarctic (which (weeks, or even days or hours) because 2011/2012 Antarctica summer season it did) but that it could it be applied it is capable of visualising changes with both the multidisciplinary team to the study of natural structures. of less than a micron2. By linking and the scanning units. Their focus Three different model systems repeated scans to microenvironmental for this coming season will be a were scanned in the Dry Valleys of data (temperature, humidity, light demonstration of the extraodinary Eastern Antarctica; encrusted salt intensity, etc) such short-term growth power of these technologies for deposits; frost polygons and desert analysis will allow us to link growth addressing important biological pavement rocks. These are all typical rates directly to environmental questions and helping to understand characteristics of Dry Valley surfaces, changes, which will not only tell us the subtlies of life in Antarctica. and high resolution scans offer scope which of these parameters is most for scientists to understand physical important in controlling growth, but 2 Note that is the margin of a lichen extends 1mm in a full years growth, this is equivalent to around 3 microns per day, well processes (such as the annual changes will also allow us to make sensible, within the resolution of the Brueckmann. in frost polygon dimensions and the rates of particle sorting) and even Figure 5. A typical Buellia crustose lichen, a perfect biological phenomena of these sites. model for studying short terms growth rates. For example, quartz rocks, which are Growth rates are measured by the outward progression of the dark margins. the essential requirement for cryptic ‘hypolithic’ microbial communities can be identified in laser scans because of their unique reflectivity. For the biologists, the most exciting potential lies in the ultra- high resolution scanning capacity of the Brueckmann structured light scanner. Antarctic ‘plants’ (mosses, lichens, cyanobacteria and fungi) grow very slowly in the extremes of the Antarctic climate. A limited amount of growth data exist, most commonly from annual photography of distinct
Figure 4. Desert pavement, showing salt envrustations (in yellow). By re-analysis of the original scan using selected intensities, quartz rocks could be selected from the background of other rock types.
8 Issue 215 HISTORY
Murray Gregory compiles field notes. Photograph by David Harrowfield Scott Island and Haggit's Pillar to west of island. Photograph by Andy Brown David Harrowfield on North-East Beach. Photograph by Murray Gregory
Isolated Scott Island By David L. Harrowfield Thirty years ago I visited Scott Island, located at Latitude 67° 24’ S Longitude 179° 55’ W.
This isolated island, about 310 nautical United States Expedition (1928–30). landing took place from the USCGC miles north-eastward of Cape Adare, Although the submarine USS Glacier en-route to Cape Adare, when consists of a basaltic volcanic plug Sennet was stationed near Scott Island “the pilot did an amazing piece of work about 400 m long in a north-south in January-February 1947 during the with his landing. Flying in, backing off direction and about half as wide. United States Navy Antarctic Develop- and then moving sideways, to put the The island has an ice cap and two ments Project; Operation High Jump helicopter down on a surface covered small coves with steep rock beaches, (1946-47) no landing was recorded. with boulders of various sizes.” on the north-eastern and north-western Various ships passed by Scott Island, The ten member scientific party extremities. Nearby is Haggit’s (also made soundings and collected marine comprised five other Kiwis; Murray spelt Haggitt’s) Pillar, a vertically specimens, but sea landings are difficult Gregory (geologist); Bob Kirk (coastal jointed basaltic stack about 60 m high. and the second landing appears to be geomorphologist); Mark Mabin Scott Island was discovered on by helicopter in 1960. (glacial geomorphologist); Peter Harper Christmas Day 1902 and named by Englishman Capt. Lawrence (Bill) and Graeme J. Wilson (ornithologists). Captain W.R. Colbeck of the relief ship D. Bridge, Scott Base summer Officer Three hours were spent ashore Morning for Commander R.F. Scott. in Charge, landed with three Americans making scientific observations and I A landing was made by Colbeck the from the USCGC Eastwind on 15 collected samples of beach pebbles for Chief Engineer J.D. Morrison and January 1960 In December the same Canterbury Museum and documented others that evening, when “We collected year the third landing was made – an the landing. Birdlife recorded included specimens of the rock from our unsuccessful and abandoned attempt to the Antarctic fulmar, Snow, Cape landing place [and] thousands of deploy an automatic weather station. and Antarctic petrels. Back on the birds were seen on both the islands… The fourth landing was made by a icebreaker a de-brief was held and We secured specimens and then party including three geologists, from course set for Cape Adare. returned to the ship.” the Ganovex Expedition ship Gotland Just a week later on 14 January, On 3 January 1904 the Morning 11 on 24 November 1981 Their 75 passengers and 15 crew members made a further sighting and a sketch- samples were lost when the ship sank including seven New Zealanders, survey and soundings were made off the Pennell Coast of Oates Land on landed from the MV Lindblad Explorer. by Sub. Lieut. G.F. Mulock. The 18 December. Observations were made of sea birds, next sighting appears to have been On 7 January 1982 I had the samples of algae collected, rocks were 10 December 1928 when the City of privilege of being the first “native obtained for dating and the landing New York and Eleanor Bolling, New Zealander” to land on the was celebrated with mulled wine. passed on their way south to establish island, this perhaps the fifth landing. No doubt other landings have since Little America 1 during Byrd’s I recorded that in perfect weather the been made on isolated Scott Island.
Vol 29, No. 1, 2011 9 SCIENCE Microscopic Inhabitants of the Ross Sea Plankton
By Mary A. Sewell
For the last ten years my research group at the University of Auckland has been studying the larval stages of marine invertebrates and fish (the meroplankton) of the Ross Sea. Studies from McMurdo Sound to Cape Hallett have revealed an incredible diversity of larval forms and here I describe how we collect the plankton and the detective mission that we undertake to identify the species from which that larval form is derived.
The plankton team collecting a sample at Granite Harbour. Photograph by M.A. Sewell
10 Issue 215 SCIENCE
Closed Open
The plankton net in the closed position for deployment and retrieval through the hole, and in the open position where it would be collecting the plankton in the water column. Photographs by M.A. Sewell
When scientific expeditions headed net into the “closed” umbrella form for closing the net much more difficult south to the Ross Sea, a plankton net retrieval through the hole. Although as you could not get the “feel” for was usually part of the equipment on most of the time this was achieved what was going on. Here too, because board. Some of the earliest papers without incident, there were a few drilling a 3.5 m Jiffy hole was such a on the larvae of the Ross Sea were times when the net got momentarily mammoth task, we attempted to keep collected during the Discovery and stuck, and then your heart was in your the hole open by dropping down large Terra Nova expeditions; perhaps even throat as you tried to calmly get the quantities of boiling water into it after with the plankton net that sits on the ropes untangled and get the net back on sampling was completed. Collecting wall above Scott’s desk in the Cape dry land with the precious net and the the large volumes of boiling water we Evan’s hut. samples intact. needed required some careful timing – In 2001 I headed south with John In the last 10 years we have used we did not want to deplete the supplies MacDonald, now retired from the this net to collect plankton samples needed for the Scott Base engineer’s University of Auckland, to test a new throughout the Ross Sea – from Cape morning tea!! design for a plankton net that could Hallett in the north, to McMurdo Once the samples have been be used to sample through the thick Sound in the south as part of the collected we sort the samples while sea ice present in the southern part of Latitudinal Gradient Project (LGP). they are still alive at microscopes set the Ross Sea. The plankton net that I Each site has posed its own challenges. up in either tents or in laboratories designed was based on a net used by At Cape Hallett we had to haul the depending on location. This is a very the Australian Antarctic Division, but plankton net through waters with an slow and labour intensive process constructed from high grade stainless incredibly strong current, building and there has been a large group of steel to make it more robust. The net considerable bicep strength, and had university staff and students who have could be deployed through a Sipre corer a seal that decided that our slightly been part of the “Antarctic Plankton or Jiffy drill hole and was collapsible larger diameter plankton hole here Team”. We count all the larval forms like an umbrella – while descending (40 cm) was an ideal breathing and present into morphologically based through the small hole in the ice the hauling hole. He would playfully hold categories and then take representative plankton net was only 10 cm across, onto the net for short periods when we specimens which we prepare for digital expanding to 28 x 28 cm square when were hauling the net back up, or would photography and fix in ethanol for reaching the open waters below (Fig. 1). lie at the bottom of the hole on the later DNA-sequencing. It is here where After dropping to a depth of 50 metres rope, exclaiming loudly to all the seals the detective work comes in. the net was hauled slowly upwards by in the vicinity that this was “his hole” Members of the meroplankton can hand, collecting the myriad of animals and preventing us from deploying or be identified based on their morphology and plants on its ascent, and when the retrieving. In McMurdo Sound in the to at least phylum and sometimes class, net reached the bottom of the sea ice a 2002/2003 season our challenge was but we know too little about what the second rope was used to collapse the 3.5 metres of sea ice, which made larvae of different species look like to be Continued over
Vol 29, No. 1, 2011 11 SCIENCE
“The ten years that I have spent studying the Antarctic plankton has been a fantastic journey – as more DNA sequences go into the databases, we are able to identify more larvae, and we will be writing papers on these results for many more years to come.”
Barnacle able to confidently identify the larvae to requires that the DNA sequence is the species-level. Here we venture into the present in the genetic databases. With realms of “Crime Scene Investigations” thousands of marine invertebrates (CSI) and obtain a small sequence of present in Antarctica, there are huge gaps DNA from the larva. In contrast to in the genetic databases, but international the ease in which these sequences are projects such as the “Census of Antarctic Gastropod Snail determined on the CSI shows, obtaining Marine Life” (CAML; www.caml.aq/) these larval sequences can be extremely are making good strides into filling difficult – the larvae are usually very small some of these gaps. (<0.2 mm), and we have to also ensure So where do from here? With that the sequence comes from the larvae positive matches for some of the larvae and not other contaminants from the we can now examine in detail the plankton sample, or from the food that distribution and abundance of those the larvae was eating. Over the course of species along the Victoria Land Coast this research we have, however, perfected and within McMurdo Sound. As the Nudibranch Veliger our protocols so that we have a reasonable larvae will eventually settle onto the chance of success in getting sequences bottom to become starfish, nemertean from our very precious larvae. and barnacle adults, knowing where and When we have a high quality DNA when the larvae are present is crucial to sequence, we then use a technique often understanding population dynamics and called DNA bar-coding, where we how species might respond to human attempt to match the DNA sequence of disturbance and climate change. our unknown larvae to a species. To do The ten years that I have spent this we use the same techniques as on studying the Antarctic plankton has the CSI shows, checking the databases been a fantastic journey – as more DNA that exist of DNA sequences from sequences go into the databases, we are other marine species or from DNA able to identify more larvae, and we will sequences that we have obtained from be writing papers on these results for adult specimens collected in Antarctica. many more years to come. This research Starfish Because the larvae and the adult are is a melding of the old and the new – just different stages of the life cycle, it combines sample collection with a a perfect or close match of the larval plankton net, technology that has changed sequence to that from a known adult little since the Heroic Era of Antarctic provides us with good evidence that exploration, with the new approaches that larvae belongs to a certain species. available to us in identifying larvae by In the examples shown on the left, DNA-sequences, which scientists in we have been able to identify the exact the early 20th century could not have species for the starfish, barnacle, and imagined. Plus I get great personal nudibranch larvae, and have narrowed satisfaction in using modern techniques to down the possible species for the confirm the species identity of some of the Nemertean Worm nemertean and gastropod mollusc. line drawings of larvae collected during Positive identification of these latter the Terra Nova expedition 100 years ago. Images of larval forms taken with microscope at 40x magnification. Photographs by M.A.Sewell species, just like on the CSI shows, Science making small steps!!
12 Issue 215 SCIENCE Antarctic Scientists Focus on the Beardmore Glacier
New Zealand scientists have just returned from one of the largest remote field camps in Antarctica. The Beardmore Glacier was made famous as the preferred route to the South Pole by both Captain Scott and Ernest Shackleton and lies over 700 km south of New Zealand’s Scott Base.
Antarctica New Zealand has supplied of glacial sediments first visited by the Antarctic Research Centre at the logistical support for the Central Shackleton’s expedition to the Pole University of Wellington were able Transantarctic Mountains Camp 100 years ago, and only twice since. to focus on the Beardmore Glacier (CTAM) and has also managed to These glacial rocks and the rocks we itself. Measurements were taken of ice support a number of our leading also visited at the head of Beardmore thickness using a radar system, and ice Antarctic scientists at the Camp. Glacier at Oliver Bluffs only 740 km velocity using GPS. In addition a time Chief Executive of Antarctica from the South Pole have raised lapse camera was installed on nearby New Zealand, Lou Sanson, said, “This questions and fuelled scientific debate Mt Hope to monitor the movement of is the largest, deep field camp we have on the stability of the East Antarctic Ice the glacier over time. “The Beardmore ever contributed to and it is great to Sheet (EAIS) for more than 40 years. Glacier is a prominent Antarctic outlet see the collaboration with the National They record oscillations in the margin glacier which drains a total area of Science Foundation that has allowed a of the EAIS between times when a about one hundred thousand square multi-disciplinary team of scientists to fjord existed within 700 km of the km from the Antarctic Plateau through access this historically significant part of South Pole and shrub-like beech trees the Transantarctic Mountains. The last Antarctica. The work they will be doing grew along the shoreline, requiring measurements of the glacier were made here will contribute to our knowledge mean annual temperatures of up to 50 years ago by Charles Swithinbank of past global climate and ability to 10° C warmer than today,” said Naish. and, once the data has been analysed, manage the Antarctic environment.” The group was able to make we hope to provide a definitive answer Tim Naish, the principal investi- detailed descriptions of these rock to what has changed in the glacier gator of the ANDRILL project, was sequences and hope to provide a new behaviour in this period,” said Rack. able to get his team to a site called context for these ice sheet oscillations The CTAM camp has involved Cloudmaker on the exposed side of with the potential to shed new insights two dedicated helicopters, 75 people the Beardmore Glacier Valley. The site into past climate change. on site, and 54 C130 Hercules trips yielded significant geological data for Wolfgang Rack of University of from McMurdo Sound, and is easily the team. “From a remote tent camp Canterbury’s Gateway Antarctica the largest ever deep field camp in we described a 300m-high sequence programme and Nick Golledge from Antarctica.
Low-frequency ground-penetrating radar survey on Beardmore Glacier, Transantarctic Mountains, to establish ice thickness (about 800 m in this part of the lower glacier).
Vol 29, No. 1, 2011 13 SCIENCE Fungi in Antarctica – Witness to the Past and Guide to the Future
By Roberta L Farrell
Antarctica New Zealand Event K021 is an international collaboration of New Zealand, USA, British, Hong Kong and South African scientists. Our research goals include understanding biodiversity and mechanisms of cold adaptation, proliferation and impact of Antarctic fungi in pristine terrestrial locations and at the historic huts of the Heroic Period of exploration in the Ross Dependency. The historic huts and their contents of the Heroic Period are a legacy of human exploration.
Although the British National Antarctic goals to discover new land and be programs. When the expeditions Expedition (1901–04) and British the first at the South Pole, they also ended and relief ships arrived, a rapid Antarctic Expedition (1910–13), led had important scientific objectives. exodus allowed only essential items by Robert F. Scott, and the British Each of the expeditions had one or to be returned to England. The huts Antarctic Expedition, led by Ernest more biologist, geologist, meteorologist and thousands of items were left Shackleton (1907–09), had primary and physicist to carry out the scientific behind, including food stores and
K021 in 2004 at Shackleton’s Hut at Cape Royds. Bob Blanchette, Brett Arenz, Joel Jurgens & Joanne Thwaites, Roberta Farrell, Shona Duncan.
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fuel depots with unused containers of petroleum products. The extreme polar environment has protected them from rapid decay but not from signifi- cant deterioration, both non-biological and biological. Questions we have addressed include with introduction of exotic substrates and creation of micro- environments by Heroic Era explorers, how ‘piggy-backed’, introduced micro- organisms adapt to the Antarctic climate and how Antarctic endemic microorganisms respond to introduced materials i.e. wood, seeds, leather, paper.? Fundamental questions are also addressed including how do fungi survive and what risks are associated with the impact of global climate change on Antarctic species, habitats Roberta Farrell in Ponting’s Studio, Terra Nova Hut, Cape Evans, August 2007, Temperature: Minus 40°. and ecosystems? How do extracellular catabolic enzymes function in minimal free water? Our results show that fungi from of the historic huts by identification Our results show pristine and also from historic locations of the cause(s) of the deterioration of that fungi from appear to be cold tolerant rather the wooden historic huts of the than true psychrophiles, therefore Heroic Period. Non-biological deteri- pristine and also from climate change (warming) may not oration includes ultraviolet (UV) light, historic locations adversely effect them, unless they are iron corrosion products, salts and other appear to be cold out-competed by new arrivals. At the caustic compounds and these progress tolerant rather than historic huts, we find both ‘new arrivals’ in the huts from wood surfaces to inner and endemic fungi co-existing. Aerial regions of the wood. Salt accumulations true psychrophiles, spore monitoring has confirmed viability in wood cause chemical erosion of the therefore climate and winter survival; spore counts in lignified middle lamella and alterations winter 2007 were greater in some change (warming) to cellulose within the secondary walls. locations than observed in summers may not adversely Biological deterioration has several 2008 and 2009, indicating spore manifestations, including cold tolerant effect them, unless generation is a survival mechanism for filamentous fungi, which survive temp- overwintering. Cladosporium clado- they are out-competed eratures to minus 40°, growing into the sporioides, Pseudeurotium desertorum, by new arrivals. wood cells and cause aggressive soft Antarctomyces psychrotrophicus, Geo- myces, Cadophora and Thelebolus rot. An overall picture of biodiversity sp. dominate the air environment and capability of functioning in the within the historic huts. Cladosporium Antarctic environment has now and Cadophora are in common with been discerned from the study of the dominant genera of pristine locations Antarctic historic huts environment. studied, with Cryptococcus, Epicoccum This basic information is essential and Malassezia also found in Dry if conservation plans for the long-term Valley and mountainous sites. Event preservation of the huts and artefacts K021 aids the conservation efforts are to be successful.
Vol 29, No. 1, 2011 15 HISTORY Antarctic Memories of an Old American
By Paul Drayton
A cold wind blew off the Canterbury plains as I walked by a wonderfully preserved Spitfire near the Airport. It was late morning October 9, 1963, and I had just arrived and settled into a bunk at the Navy housing at the Christchurch Airport. I had met and Margaret Lanyon, a wonderful lady who looked after naïve Yanks, and she told me that I could take a bus into town, but I did not know how to do that and opted to walk since I was so excited.
As a child I had seen pictures of He showed me the Alaskan totem I also learned about the 6 o’clock swill New Zealand in the National poles in a park on the way into the when the pubs closed to get the guys Geographic but had never for a city, and I spent the day walking home for dinner. minute thought I would see the place around town. People went out of their I rented a car, and within a couple in person. As I walked along the road way to be friendly and were bemused of blocks got confused and dodged a marveling at how well the people as I stood in wonder at the wonderful bus by driving up on the sidewalk in drove on the wrong side of the road, a antique automobiles. I visited the front of the Cathedral and sat there taxi pulled up and the guy smiled and park and the gardens and fell in love with my heart pounding anticipating told me to get in. I did not have much with Christchurch, and it has been a being arrested and deported, but money and told him I was fine thank second home for me ever since. That the cop came running over, saw my you, but he insisted that he had to afternoon we civilians were moved crew cut and confusion, smiled, and go back anyway and he couldn’t stand to the Stonehurst after learning that said “Other side of the street, Mate” to see a bloke walk. My fantasies it would be a week before we would and controlled traffic while I made were correct: New Zealand is a very leave for McMurdo. I learned that one my getaway. special place. had to have a coat and tie to eat out!
Paul Dayton diving at New Harbour, 1990.
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Through the rest of the 1960s, part of my own past has been New Zealand and American projects. ’70s and ’80s I was a regular visitor crushed. Most importantly I was able to get to Christchurch as I developed my In my first year at McMurdo was into the Dry Valleys with Tom Berg’s own research program at McMurdo. from October 1963 until December patterned ground work and to some We often ate at the Swiss Chalet, and 1964. Scott Base was much the same extent with Alistair Spain’s insect work. stayed in the Warner’s Hotel because as it is now, but McMurdo was On one of those trips I was set down it had a life of its own, both inside and basically a military base, technically near what is now known as Blood outside of the building. I tired to get a a Naval Air Facility. The few civilians Glacier with a New Zealander with the corner room so I could watch the street were scientists supported by the idea that we would sample the red stain life. In the early days there were very National Science Foundation. The NSF coming out of the glacier and walk to his sophisticated races as young people representatives (John Twiss and Bill camp at the head of Lake Bonney. I was ripped their cars around the Cathedral Austin) ran the program, but the most to be picked up much later. The glacier but eventually that raceway was closed. important person for making things was much closer to the mouth of Lake In September 2010, I was finally work and keeping the logistics going Bonney then and it was an easy hike, able to return to McMurdo and the was Graeme Johnston, a Kiwi who but made much easier when we found same excitement and sense of awe had wintered over at Scott Base in the an old (in 1963 “old” meant 2–5 years) and love of my second home flooded IGY era. Graeme, and eventually his IGY food cache. We dug in and removed over me during my brief visits. After brother Ray, spent many years with the treasures, a box of Cadbury and a I returned home, I learned about the the USARP program though the 1960s. bottle of whiskey, leaving the disgusting second earthquake, and my heart is I cannot imagine the USARP program Bolton rations! Neither Cadbury nor broken to picture my beloved city in during the 1960s at McMurdo without whiskey was readily available then, so ruins. I had just visited the Antarctic Graeme Johnston. Always cheerful and we very pleased and worked on our find Gallery at Canterbury Museum, supportive, he was one of the most as we walked to the hut. stood quietly with the relics from my capable people I ever met. The camp was run by Alex Wilson era remembering my own past, and In those early years there were a lot of Victoria, and they were happy had visited a nearby museum about of field programs with the Americans to help us finish our largesse. I still dyslexia, a very emotional experience and New Zealanders working closely remember Alex Wilson as one of the for me listening to children recount together. I was a technician for a brightest scientists I have ever met, exactly the same treatment I too had fish physiology program based at and in those hours awaiting my pick experienced as a child who thought McMurdo but by helping field people up he correctly explained the red stain in pictures. I know the city will be it was relatively easy to visit the field from the glacier, how the lakes became rebuilt, but I feel that a significant projects and I was able to visit both stratified and trapped the solar heat
Continued over
Inside the dining room of Warner’s Hotel in Cathedral Square, Christchurch.
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survive a storm. He and Dr. Janacek, a Swedish entomologist had been working on the slopes of Erebus and had been caught in one of those nasty storms driven by the katabatic winds in that area. They had struggled into the hut barely alive. Fio reported that he had fallen asleep in his sleeping bag almost immediately but had awakened listening to a roaring that did not sound like the wind. It seemed that the Swede had built a huge fire in that wonderful old stove, and it had too much fuel and the whole stove was shaking and the hut was full of smoke. Fio reported that he had used the fire extinguisher that was stored in the hut to put the fire
Gordon Robilliard and Paul Dayton on 6 December 1967, with Volcano sponge Anoxycalyx (Scolymastra) joubini, out and told me never to tell the story near McMurdo Station (Kooyman photo). although he told it often and well. One other event regarding the huts had to do with a New Zealand and how that explained why they homes of these heroes we felt we knew. archaeologist working at either the were warm at the bottom. At that time The New Zealanders had cleaned up Discovery or Evans hut in 1963. people talked of geothermal sources the huts at Royds and Evans and it He occasionally ate with us, and one of heat, a notion Wilson ridiculed. was easy to visit them in although day talked about finding a journal He was sampling the biological they were much darker than they are under a frozen pillow. They were layer in the lake, and predicted that now. At the time there were no cleaning out the Discovery Hut at the bacterial growths would form in most popular history accounts of the second time, so it must have been there, but of the lakes. He also explained how Shackleton expedition and the people my memory was that he referred to it the sea ice would wax and wane over abandoned at Cape Evans. The cross as Joyce’s journal. But that cannot be geological time and how glacier surges for the three men who died had been true as Joyce made much of his journal would happen. Over the decades erected at Cape Evans, and we knew after he returned, and I wonder if it I have watched scientists rediscover the basic story, but when Scott’s hut was Victor Hayward’s journal that the everything Alex Wilson told me that was cleaned up the Shackleton archaeologist recovered. I would be afternoon over Cadbury and whiskey presence was largely removed and the grateful to learn more about this fleeting at Lake Bonney, and I wonder why his hut restored to the photos of Scott’s memory and about what was written. early insights seem ignored. time. Shackleton’s hut seemed much My own research focused on At that time the early explorers the same then as it does now, although the benthic ecology of McMurdo seemed much more part of the none of us had any inkling of the Sound. In the 1960s we used cages contemporary scene. Many were still whiskey we almost stepped over to test various hypotheses and for alive and many of us had met some of getting into the hut! At the time I did the most part the very slow growth them. For example, I met Charles not recognize the significance of the rates of the sponges and frustrated Wright of the second Scott Expedition, large signatures by Joyce and Wild. the experiments, but over the years and Tom Poulter and Hugo Newburg I had always wondered about the though the 1980s we studied various of Byrd and Ronne expeditions were Shackleton Trans-Antarctic expedition ecological processes and never at McMurdo during the 1960s. and am very grateful for the recent observed much settlement or growth All had interesting stories that made books that recover this bit of history, of the sponges or other benthic species the early explorers seem much more in many ways the most remarkable either under or on the cages or various human than they are perceived today. saga of the era. settlement surfaces we had established. Thus visiting the huts was an awesome, One frightening story often told by However, upon my return in 2010 we humbling experience, and we felt Fio Ugolini, a soils scientist from Italy found heavy settlement and growth almost as though we were visiting the involved his use of the Royds hut to on all of our artificial structures.
18 Issue 215 SCIENCE 2010 Antarctic Ozone Hole: Smallest in Five Years
By Stephen Wood, NIWA
Analysis from the National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research’s (NIWA) ozone research shows that the 2010 Antarctic ozone hole was smaller than any of the previous five years.
Calculations made by combining The 1987 Montreal Protocol is an Measurements are recorded in satellite data with ground-based international convention phasing out Dobson Units (DU). Measurements measurements, including the Antarctica the use of ozone-depleting substances taken at Arrival Heights in 2010 show New Zealand Arrival Heights labor- such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and the ozone values are still falling below atory near Scott Base, show that the other man-made halogen compounds. 200 Dobson Units in springtime. 2010 Antarctic ozone hole reached “We see a lot of year-to-year Levels this low were not observed in a maximum area of approximately variation in ozone holes, caused by Antarctica before the ozone hole first 22 million km2 and a maximum differences in atmospheric temperature formed nearly 30 years ago. ozone mass deficit of approximately and circulation. While we can’t The Antarctic ozone hole forms 27 million tonnes. In 2009 these figures definitively say the ozone hole is between August and September each were 24 million km2 and 35 million improving from one new year of year, and remains until it breaks up tonnes. The largest ozone holes ever observations, we have now had a few in November or December. The 2010 recorded were in 2000 and 2006, which years in succession with less severe ozone hole formed rather later than both reached approximately 29 million holes. That is an indication we may be usual and persisted later into the km2 and 43 million tonnes deficit. beginning to see a recovery.” summer than normal. The summer While a one-year reduction in the Continued monitoring using the period is when the effects of the ozone hole doesn’t, in itself, indicate tools developed to calculate overall ozone hole on Southern mid-latitudes, a recovery stage, NIWA’s atmospheric ozone hole severity and statistical including New Zealand, are likely to experts, based at Lauder, New Zealand, analysis of their significance, scientists be largest. say the new information adds to a will soon be able to assess whether we The NIWA measurements of ozone pattern of less severe ozone holes in are really seeing the start of a sustained, in Antarctica are part of a Foundation recent years. long-term recovery. for Research, Science and Technology NIWA atmospheric scientist NIWA scientists have been (FRST) funded research programme Stephen Wood says the results are measuring surface ozone at the Arrival targeted at understanding what drives encouraging and indicate that inter- Heights laboratory near Scott Base global change in the atmosphere. national initiatives, such as the since 1988. Measurements are taken The ground-based measurements Montreal Protocol, may now be using a Dobson spectrophotometer, are important for validating the showing a positive effect on the an instrument designed in the early measurements made by satellite-based Antarctic ozone hole. 20th century. instruments.
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Diver collecting a sediment fauna sample from the seafloor at Cape Evans. Photograph courtesy Rod Budd, NIWA
Massive Icebergs and Antarctic Ecosystems
By Vonda Cummings and Simon Thrush, NIWA
Antarctica and Ice – these two words are synonymous! As an integral part of the Antarctic continent and its surrounding seas, ice strongly controls the flora and fauna existing at these southern latitudes. Marine ecosystems in particular are structured by the layer of ice which floats at the sea surface for much of the year and by icebergs which move around with water currents.
Anyone with an interest in Antarctica change oceanographic conditions over icebergs. These images also showed will have seen images of the massive hundreds of kilometres, which can that the extent of sea ice cover tabular icebergs which broke off the have far reaching consequences to the increased and the amount of open Ross Ice Shelf about a decade ago. ecosystem. water declined in the Ross Sea. These icebergs were up to 200 km Information gathered from Long-term monitoring of penguin in length and extended far below the satellite images showed the size, populations has shown that, as a water line. Such large icebergs can location and movement of these result, Adèlie and Emperor penguins
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Feeding frenzy! A mass of ribbon worms A modified NASA MODIS (moderate resolution imaging and sea stars on the Cape Evans seafloor. spectroradiometer) of the western Ross Sea in March 2004, Photograph courtesy Rod Budd, NIWA showing the location of the massive iceberg B-15A off Ross Island.
had great difficulty getting to their recover, not returning to ‘pre-iceberg’ Interestingly, the greatest effects colonies and to open water to levels until 2009. Because the extent on these seafloor communities were find food for their chicks and thus of the Ross Sea polynya (a large open apparent in spring 2003, almost three breeding success was extremely low. water area important for phytoplankton years after B-15A (one of the large But how have these major production) was limited, there was icebergs) first grounded off Ross Island environmental changes affected other less food than usual for the seafloor and 1.5 years after C-19 (the largest components of the ecosystem? While organisms to feed on. To compound the berg) first affected the opening of the we do not regularly monitor Ross Sea problem, because the icebergs altered Ross Sea polynya. The evidence is clear coastal ecosystems we have surveyed a the ‘normal’ water circulation of the that these icebergs affected seafloor site on the south western shores of Ross southern Ross Sea, less phytoplankton organisms far from their grounding Island on several occasions in the past than usual made it to Cape Evans, the sites, most likely through a combination decade. This has helped us understand location of our long term survey site. of effects on availability and supply how these massive icebergs can manifest Finally, due to the influence of the huge both of food resources and newly change throughout the ecosystem and icebergs, the sea ice was thicker than recruiting young. This work shows the over different time scales. normal and did not break out for as value of long term monitoring of flora We have just discovered that long. Therefore, not enough light made and fauna in the Antarctic – not only seafloor animals (e.g. sea-stars, brittle it through to the seafloor in this shallow does it help us understand how and stars, worms, shellfish) were impacted: coastal area for the tiny plants in the why various environmental factors both the diversity of these communities sediments to photosynthesise and grow influence the distribution and success and the numbers of organisms we – again limiting the amount of available of Antarctic populations, but it also found declined significantly. These food for grazing and filter feeding provides concrete evidence that these communities in fact took some years to seafloor organisms. effects have occurred.
Vol 29, No. 1, 2011 21 SCIENCE The Answer is Blowing in the Wind
By Cliff Atkins
Bob Dylan may not have been singing about Antarctica in his classic 1963 song “Blowin’ in the Wind”, but nearly fifty years on, his words ring true for a group of Victoria University scientists trying to understand the importance of windblown (aeolian) dust in Antarctica.
Aeolian dust accumulates on the Chewings from Victoria University of that McMurdo Sound is a significant surface of floating ice shelves and Wellington (VUW), spent the 2010 “point source” of dust in the Western annual sea ice in the Western Ross field season collecting aeolian dust Ross Sea. To better quantify the dust Sea. This sediment is released into the trapped in snow on the surface of flux, the 2010 fieldwork retrieved a water column either by basal melting sea ice in McMurdo Sound (Event much broader systematic grid network of the ice shelves or annual break-up K001D). The project is part of a larger of samples on the sea ice over the and melting of sea ice, sometimes far FRST funded “Past Antarctic Climate/ entire western side of McMurdo offshore. It contributes directly to sea ANDRILL NZ” program (led by Sound ranging from Granite Harbour floor sedimentation but also provides Richard Levy, GNS Science) and aims in the north to the McMurdo Ice Shelf. one source of the micronutrient iron to quantify the dust flux and evaluate This area also covers the location of to the surface waters which is thought its importance for sedimentation several important drill-core records. to trigger vast blooms of marine algae and productivity. This will improve Sampling was achieved by carrying each summer. The blooms are major our understanding of the modern out skidoo traverses from base camps primary productivity events that draw- sedimentary processes operating in the at Cape Roberts and Marble Point. down atmospheric CO2, alter the food region and therefore help interpret the Over 260 samples were collected chain and produce large amounts of sedimentary layers in the stratigraphic during a month of fieldwork biogenic sediment (mostly diatoms) (drill-core) record. providing an unprecedented dataset that accumulates on the sea floor and A pilot study carried out by Cliff of windblown dust distribution. ultimately into the stratigraphic record Atkins and Gavin Dunbar (VUW) This will, for the first time, allow us (e.g. ANDRILL cores). Variations in in 2007, showed that the amount to quantify the flux of aeolian dust the flux of aeolian dust, sea ice extent of dust trapped in snow on the sea into McMurdo Sound. The samples and productivity occur through and ice in southern McMurdo Sound were collected using a trace-metal- indeed influence cycles of climatic varies greatly but ranges up to up to clean method (including laboratory change, so understanding these 25 T/km2/yr (equating to sea-floor overalls, gloves and acid cleaned tools processes is important for interpreting accumulation rate of up to 1.53 cm/ to avoid contamination with clothing the record of past climate preserved ky). Much of the “dust” comprises and equipment. This means that in in drill-cores and also for predicting very-fine sand and silt derived addition to measuring the mass and future changes. Despite the apparent from extensive areas of exposed particle size, we can also analyse the importance of aeolian dust, there rock and glacial debris around the trace element geochemistry of the dust is scarce information of the flux, margins of southern McMurdo and snow to measure the iron content. composition, origin and iron content. Sound (e.g. McMurdo “dirty ice”). The samples have recently The answers to these questions may The amount of dust on the sea ice is arrived at the New Zealand Ice Core literally be “blowing in the wind”. orders of magnitude more than that Research Facility at GNS Science Geologists Cliff Atkins, Brent accumulating on the surface of the ice and analysis will begin in the next Alloway and MSc student Jane sheets far from the coast and suggests few weeks. Further research planned
Photographs of trace-metal-clean sampling of snow (and windblown dust) on the sea ice in McMurdo Sound. Photographs courtesy Cliff Atkins
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Sample sites and drill-core locations.
for the 2011/12 season will collect stream down through exposed rock and improve our understanding of samples from the Nansen Ice Shelf in in the Transantarctic Mountains to the impact of windblown dust on Terra Nova Bay, North Victoria Land. the coast and into open water of the sedimentation and biogeochemical This location is likely to represent Terra Nova Bay polynya. Collectively, cycles in the Western Ross Sea. another “point source” of aeolian dust these studies will hopefully find some transported by katabatic winds that of the answers “blowing in the wind”
In addition to measuring the mass and particle size, we can also analyse the trace element geochemistry of the dust and snow to measure the iron content.
Vol 29, No. 1, 2011 23 NEWS Antarctica New Zealand 2010–11 Season Summary
Antarctica New Zealand has completed the successes of this season was the New Zealand and Italian Antarctic another successful season supporting devastating Christchurch earthquake on Programs are working collaboratively to high quality science and environmental 22 February, which affected many of our free-up as much office accommodation work in Antarctica. It has been a season Scott Base and Christchurch based staff. as possible on the International of significant advances in the science Both Scott Base and the Christchurch Antarctic Centre campus for critical we support and our ability to support office of Antarctica New Zealand are support agencies whose premises have deep field science. Over shadowing fully operational. The United States, been severely affected by the earthquake.
Highlights of the 2010–11 Antarctica New Zealand season:
SCIENCE HIGHLIGHTS
Five New Species of Lichens Copepods in Lake Joyce Ian Hogg has tentatively identified five new species of During November 2010, NIWA scientist Ian Hawes working lichens as part of Craig Cary’s group mapping terrestrial with a NASA diving programme in the Dry Valleys investigating biodiversity on the Beardmore Glacier region. The life in extreme environments. During a dive in Lake Joyce, diversity of life in the area was entirely unexpected and Ian found a breeding population of freshwater Copepods, which significantly more diverse than anticipated. At aptly are a small crustacean. While copepods have been described in named Garden Spur, more than 20 species of mosses and Lake Joyce before, breeding populations have not been identified lichens were discovered. until now. With no other breeding populations of copepods in other Dry Valley lakes this discovery has raised the question Admiral Byrd Cache of human introduction. Ian believes this is unlikely given the relatively short period of time people have been visiting Lake While in the Beardmore Glacier region as part of Joyce more likely that changing conditions have allowed a Craig Cary’s terrestrial biodiversity mapping work, dormant breeding population to develop in Lake Joyce. Bryan Storey discovered a small depot left behind by members of Admiral Byrd’s second Antarctic Expedition from 1933 to 1935. The depot was located on a small Antarctic Fungi Antarctic fungi in and around the historic huts and in pristine rocky promontory near Durham Point close to the areas in Antarctica has come in for some close scrutiny this mouth of the Scott Glacier less than 300 miles from season. As part of a larger project Don Cowan his group the South Pole. The depot contained three crampons and brought with them two high-end scanning instruments to a set of wooden extendable survey poles. Two of the generate high resolution multidirectional 3D images of fungi. crampons were stamped with the initials QAB indicating The instruments were able to provide ultra-high resolution that they belonged to Quin Blackburn whereas the 3D images of small areas, where a surface or object of remaining crampon was engraved with RR having 10-20 cm dimensions can be scanned to an accuracy of around belonged to Richard Russell – both members of Admiral 0.1 micron resolution. The group was using these instruments Byrd’s second Antarctic Expedition. to determine growth rates of lichens and the extent of biological activity at a number of different locations.
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ENVIRONMENT HIGHLIGHTS
Dry Valleys Management Plan Review Non-native Species Risk Analysis Antarctica New Zealand in conjunction with the United Antarctica New Zealand in conjunction with MAF States Antarctic Program has reviewed the management Biosecurity has completed the non-native species risk plan for the Dry Valleys’ specially managed area. analysis. This complex analysis has been peer reviewed The review has taken into account such aspects as by a number of scientists supported by Antarctica New monitoring, biosecurity measures and management of Zealand and has already generated some pertinent research site specific features of the Dry Valleys’. The significantly questions. An action plan is being completed to disseminate revised management plan will be submitted to the next the analysis and its findings and to examine where our meeting of the CEP in June of this year. management practices may need to change. The analysis will be made available to the international Antarctic community through the Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP).
SPECIAL EVENTS Photograph courtesy Matt Vance, Antarctica New Zealand
Secretary of State visits Antarctica New Zealand Secretary of State Hillary Clinton spoke about the strength of the US/NZ Antarctic relationship at a function held in the Antarctic Departure Terminal in November. Antarctica New Zealand Board Chairman Rob Fenwick hosted Air New Zealand Mt Erebus Ice shelf break out Hillary Clinton at the event which Remembrance Flight near Scott Base was part of her 3-day visit to On 16 February 104 family members, The 14 winter staff at Scott Base has New Zealand to sign the Wellington joined by Air New Zealand Chief witnessed the largest ice break-out Declaration. Clinton called the Executive Rob Fyfe, the Very from McMurdo Sound in recent times. NZ-US relationship the “strongest Reverend Peter Beck and Antarctica There are now two large icebergs that we have seen in a quarter-century,” New Zealand’s Iain Miller, travelled are sitting in McMurdo Sound, one is and identified the Antarctic collab- by RNZAF Boeing 757 to Scott 20 km long by 5 km wide and the oration that exists in Christchurch Base for a special service at the other is 16 km long by 8 km wide. as probably the strongest bond in Air New Zealand Koru site immed- These large chunks of ice shelf are this relationship. She made reference iately above Scott Base. This was one estimated between 150 m and 250 m to the ANDRILL project as a prime of the largest movements of personnel thick and are sitting only a few example of this logistical and at one time for the Joint Logistics kilometers from Scott Base. A large scientific collaboration on climate Pool and attracted significant media storm in February contributed to the change research. interest. sea ice and Ice shelf break out which means Scott Base has open water for the first time in at least 15 years.
Vol 29, No. 1, 2011 25 SCIENCE nzTABS: the Largest Landscape-Scale Biodiversity Study Ever Undertaken
By Stephen Archer, Charles Lee and S. Craig Cary
nzTABS Miers Valley base camp in November 2009. Photograph courtesy of Charles Lee
Targeting the Dry Valleys of Antarctica, mineral soils dominate the environment, Within the initial study area covering one of the most extreme yet least which is otherwise characterized by Miers Valley, Marshall Valley, Garwood understood environments on the planet, large annual and diurnal temperature Valley, and the adjacent Shangri-La, the New Zealand Terrestrial Antarctic fluctuations, extreme aridity, high 544 sample “tiles” were devised based Biocomplexity Survey (nzTABS, http:// salinity, and ultraoligotrophy (extreme on their geographical and geological nztabs.ictar.aq/) is taking environmental lack of nutrients). Long thought to properties, covering a total of 220 km2. biology to the next level. The goal be microbiologically homogeneous, Within each tile, a survey of visible of the nzTABS team of experts from molecular genetic tools have revealed lichens, mosses, and macro-invertebrates New Zealand and around the world is in recent years that Dry Valley soils was undertaken, and soil samples to understand the environmental factors harbour a surprising diversity of bacteria were collected to investigate micro- driving the terrestrial biocomplexity in whose communities appear structured invertebrates, fungi, bacteria, and archaea this region through a comprehensive primarily by abiotic forces. More populations. Soil samples were also survey of biology at all levels in this specifically, these studies have shown taken for geochemical characterisation, unique ecosystem. that apparently homogeneous environ- including pH, conductivity, and The ultimate objective of nzTABS ments may support highly hetero- levels of nutrient and select elements. is to provide an in-depth predictive geneous microbial communities. The resulting collage of biological data is model of the Dry Valley ecosystem Although visible biotas, such as soil entered into a GIS model incorporating that can be utilised by policy makers to invertebrates and lichens, have long been geographical and geological information. understand and better manage human prominent and prolific topics of studies Furthermore, this mathematical model activities in the region. In the process, in the Dry Valleys, the all-encompassing is supplemented by surface temperature it will also provide opportunities to test approach adopted by nzTABS adds and snow coverage data collected using fundamental ecological theories that significant breadth to the understanding a wide array of sensors and loggers, in cannot be easily tested in more complex of these organisms, which until now additional to remote sensing data. The environments. has been largely based on studies of resulting model therefore will contain an Approximately 0.3 % of Antarctica “hot spots”. The nzTABS team includes unprecedented level of details and allow is perpetually ice-free, and the a wide range of experts, including robust predictions on biota distribution McMurdo Dry Valleys in Victoria Land bedrock geologists, geomorphologists, and potential impacts of environmental is the largest of these areas. The glacially seismo-logists, glaciologists, invertebrate changes. carved Dry Valleys are thought to be biologists, lichenologists, micro-bio- The first sampling season for the coldest and driest desert on earth logists, soil geochemists, geographers, nzTABS began during the 2008–2009 and are used by NASA as an analogue and meteorologists, making an summer. A surveying team went into the for Mars surface. Glacially weathered impressively disciplinary team. field in early November 2008 to perform
26 Issue 215 SCIENCE
Aerial view of the Dry valleys. The 544 tiles of NZTABS. on-location validation of tiles generated without the dedicated support of Scott season. In the coming years, the nzTABS based on satellite data, and define Base staff and Antarctica New Zealand. team plan to perform targeted sampling sampling locations and strategies for the During the 2009–2010 fieldin select Dry Valleys further north in sampling team in January. The surveying seasons, the field teams focused on order to provide validation as the model team also deployed meteorological performing sampling and experiments is gradually expanded to cover the entire stations and soil temperature loggers designed to measure and characterise Dry Valley system. to provide physical measurements of biological activities. Samples that could In summary, the ambitiously the study area. The sampling phase of not be collected during the 2008–2009 comprehensive approach and the use of the first field season was a tremendous summer due to weather restrictions modern molecular and computational challenge both logistically and physically were collected, utilising the established tools make nzTABS a project unlike for members of the sampling team. logistical framework set up the year any other previously conceived for Sixteen researchers, split between up to prior. The 2010–2011 field season marks any ecosystem, let alone Antarctica. Its five camp locations, worked 12-plus- the first year nzTABS expanded its study interdisciplinary nature and leverage of hour days to collect and analyse samples. area: the field teams conducted sampling innovative approaches will contribute Teams of two hiked on unformed terrain in Hidden Valley, directly south of to New Zealand’s leading position for up to 30 km per day, carrying Miers Valley, to allow validation of the in terrestrial biology research in between 10-15 kg of gear and samples model. A pilot team also visited Wright Antarctica and provide a framework per person. Once collected, the samples Valley in preparation of the upcoming for future research. were analyzed in the field to capture sampling efforts in the 2011–2012 field biological activity, and the sheer number of samples (over 600) meant that team members worked around the clock, International Centre for Terrestrial Antarctic Research (ICTAR). making use of the 24 hour daylight NZTABS is one of the projects completed by ICTAR, an organisation during Antarctic summers. The sampling based at the University of Waikato but involving members from around the effort was also a demonstration of world. Its aim is to support the growth and development of interdisciplinary NZ – US scientific collaborations, with terrestrial Antarctic research completed by New Zealand. Information gained samples regularly returned to McMurdo by the studies completed under ICTAR aim to elucidate the status of present Station for analysis by American biodiversity, predict the effects of multiple impacts to the ecosystems, and to collaborators, who dedicated their provide the science to underpin the conservation, protection, and management field season to working on nzTABS of the terrestrial ecosystems found in the Ross Sea region of Antarctica. For samples. This enormous undertaking of more information please visit the ICTAR website at http://ictar.aq/index.php. field research could not have happened
Vol 29, No. 1, 2011 27 SCIENCE Stress and Personality in Antarctic Penguins
By John Cockrem, Murray Potter and Paul Barrett
Stress in people is generally considered to be something to be avoided. However, stress responses in animals are natural responses that help the animals adjust to changes in their external or internal environment.
Animals, like people, also have levels of corticosterone in blood personalities are likely to be more distinctive behavioural responses samples. Adélie and emperor penguins successful in a relatively constant which can be called personalities. have marked corticosterone responses environment, whereas the more cautious Stress responses and personality have to capture and handling, and penguins style of reactive birds may be more now been studied for the first time in held temporarily in pens also had successful in a changing environment. penguins, with studies by a team from increased corticosterone. These results There is no optimal personality or Massey University that has worked show that temporary confinement is a corticosterone response for all situations. on Ross Island and on the Northern stressor for both species of penguins. The relative proportions of penguins Victoria Land coast. There are marked differences with each personality might differ We wanted to determine how between penguins in their corticosterone between Adélie and emperor penguins, the penguins respond to natural and responses to capture and handling in and between populations of each artificial stressors, and to understand both species of penguins. The birds also species. This could in turn be important the significance of these responses for differ in their behavioural responses to for the penguins if they experience individual penguins. Stress responses novel stimuli. Personalities are sets of habitat changes as consequences of in birds involve the release of a correlated behaviours, and birds have global warming, with the ability of steroid hormone called corticosterone. different personalities. Some birds populations and species to adapt to Corticosterone is very similar to have relatively small stress responses, these changes influenced by the cortisol in humans, and stimulates show bold behaviours and are said proportions of individuals with each changes in metabolism and behaviour to have proactive personalities. Other personality. The individual differences in that are beneficial to birds when they birds have relatively large stress corticosterone responses, behaviour are confronted with a threatening responses, show shy behaviours and and personality may thus be associated situation. We measure the size of stress are classified as having reactive with differences in breeding success and responses in penguins by measuring personalities. Birds with proactive survival for Antarctic penguins.
Field camp at Cape Washington. Photograph courtesy John Cockrem
28 Issue 215 You are invited to join – please write to: NATIONAL SECRETARY New Zealand Antarctic Society P.O. Box 404, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand Email: [email protected] All administrative enquiries, enquiries regarding back issues and Overseas Branch enquiries should be directed to the National Secretary.
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By Bernadette Hall i. was it only yesterday, the waves a crowd waving olearia branches, soft sage and white veined, throwing down the branches alleluia alleluia the waves rinsing the gravel, sieving the stones, testing them, weighing them, seeking the heavy body, the light body, the hens next door singing their lamentations ‘OH NO – no-no-no-no NO-no-no-no-no’ ii. the ice looks like leaf litter, like roughcast on the walls of the kauri villa roughly worked up, the dense blue shadow and white of pressure ridges that meet like clenched fists over a card table, clouds that replicate the ice and vice versa, O constant mirror, fantastical theatrics, an elegant display of miniatures, human apparatus in a white cabinet iii. the snow is all chopped up in layered whitenesses, smooth skin of the berg, a wash and swirl like pressed steel in a ceiling, a ship stuck fast in a milk bottle, tent toggles tightened, two spongy black figures just standing around, this impulse to read the wilderness as domus
NOTE: domus (Latin) home, dwelling.
This poem was set to music as a choral piece by the Christchurch composer, Chris Archer.
View of Scott Glacier from near cache at Durham Point. Photograph by Ian Hogg