The Development of an Archive of Explicit Stylistic
CHAPTER NINE
ORNAMENTS
While ornamentation has long been regarded as an important means of expression for the traditional musician, it is important to note that this term generally involves the discussion of two aspects, namely ‘ornaments’ which are stylised embellishments where the length of the ornamented note is made smaller by the addition of extra notes,1 and ‘ornamentation’, which is the practice of using embellishment. While the terms are often used synonymously within the tradition, this chapter will deal solely with ornaments and this distinction will be observed throughout this chapter.2
While definitions of both ornaments and ornamentation abound in the traditional music literature they are not always consistent.3 Kenneth Kreitner’s article on ‘ornaments’ for Grove Music Online provides both a thorough and concise definition, in addition to a description of ornaments. Furthermore, he identifies two distinct types and states that:
On the one hand, the technique of applying improvised or semi-improvised running figuration patterns to a given melody, so-called divisions or passaggi, creates melodic variation. Graces, on the other hand, are conventional melodic ornaments applied to single notes [...]4
This definition will be used as the basis for identifying ornaments from literary and audio sources throughout this study.
1 See: Keegan, Niall: ‘The Parameters of Style in Irish Traditional Music’, Inbhear Volume 1, Issue 1, (2010), 67, from where this definition is taken. 2 Except when quoting or paraphrasing the work of other authors. 3 Compare: Vallely, Fintan; Doherty, Liz: ‘Ornamentation’, The Companion to Irish Traditional Music ed. Fintan Vallely, 2nd ed., (Cork: Cork University Press, 2011), 532. Also see Breathnach, Breandán: Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, Revised Ed. 1977, (Dublin; Cork: Mercier Press, 1993), 98. Larson considers ornamentation and articulation to be often synonymous: See: http://www.greylarsen.com/services/tunebank/notationsystem.pdf (Accessed 6 June 2012). Also see: Keegan: ‘The Parameters of Style in Irish Traditional Music’, 67-74. 4 Kreitner, Kenneth; et al.: ‘Ornaments’, Grove Music Online, http://0- www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ditlib.dit.ie/subscriber/article/grove/music/49928 (Accessed 22 June 2012).
404 9.1 Historiography Since the subject of ornaments, and to a lesser extent ornamentation, is one of the most written-about topics in Irish traditional music, a thorough historiography would be beyond the scope of this chapter. Instead, a basic overview of the key literary sources is given with a more in-depth study being left to the discussion of specific ornaments in Section 9.3.
The first ornamented transcriptions in Irish traditional music can be found in what is considered to be the earliest collection, Neal’s The Most Celebrated Irish Tunes (1724). In a 2010 edition of the collection, Nicholas Carolan observes that ‘decoration is sparse’ and ‘mostly but not always found on the longer notes’.5 He continues by saying that the ornaments used appear to be ‘single and double grace notes, and trills (t)’.6 Other unusual symbols are understood to indicate ‘half shakes or mordents’ of which he specifically mentions the upper mordent and references a symbol, which he notes may indicate ‘an ascending slide’.7
The earliest literary reference to ornaments can be found in Walker’s Historical Memoirs of the Irish Bards (1786) from where the following quotations have been taken:
Such of them as were men of abilities, attempted to adorn them with graces and variations...8
[…] the Irish [style] was soft, lively, and melodious, their fingers moving rapidly over the strings of the harp, preserving a true musical proportion, not in any part injuring the art among the shakes of the notes, and a multiplicity of intricate musical sounds; ….9
It should be mentioned that the term ‘graces’ is an archaic word meaning ornaments.10 Therefore, the statement ‘gracing a melody’ can imply the use of any ornaments and
5 Neal, John; Neal, William: A Collection of the most Celebrated Irish Tunes, ed. Nicholas Carolan, 2nd ed., (Dublin: Irish Traditional Music Archive, 2010), 33. 6 Ibid. 7 Ibid. 8 Cooper Walker, Joseph: Historical Memoirs of the Irish Bards, (Dublin: Luke White, 1786), 157. 9 Ibid., ‘Appendix’, 35. 10 See: Ed. Sadie, Stanley: ‘Grace’, Grove Music Online, http://0- www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ditlib.dit.ie/subscriber/article/grove/music/53118 (Accessed 2 June 2013).
405 does not specifically denote grace notes.11 The term shake on the other hand is an older term for the trill. Incidentally, the first known mention of the cran appears in a letter dated 18 August 1792 to Joseph Cooper Walker from Sir Gore Ouselely who was originally from Co. Limerick but living in India. Speaking of an Indian bagpipe, Ouselely wrote that ‘the music bears a very strong similitude to that of our bagpipe in respect to crans, shakes &c; […]’.12
The first publication that sets out to purposely describe ornaments using staff notation and specific terms is O’Farrell’s Collection of National Irish Music for the Union Pipes, which was published in 1804.13 This document details the trill or shake, and grace notes including the appoggiatura, tipping or popping the notes, double tipping, and other examples of tipping such as curls.14
Although writing exclusively in relation to harp music, in The Ancient Music of Ireland (1840), Edward Bunting gives a systematic table of fourteen ‘graces’, not all of which are either easy to understand out of context, or necessarily relevant to the playing style of today.15 Five ‘double notes or chords’ follow this and are variations on a quick descending arpeggiated chord, only the first four of which might be properly understood as ornaments.16 They are also unusual in that they are set in the bass clef.
Since uilleann pipers are often highly regarded for their use of difficult ornaments, it is worth mentioning the piping tutor The Master’s Touch: a tutor for the uilleann pipes. Written by the renowned collector and uilleann piper Séamus Ennis in the 1960s and published posthumously in 1998, its introduction gives examples of many more obscure piping ornaments such as the ‘shiver’ and ‘pop’, in addition to detailed transcriptions
11 Seletsky, Robert E: ‘Grace notes’, Grove Music Online, http://0- www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ditlib.dit.ie/subscriber/article/grove/music/11566 (Accessed 30 Jan 2012). 12 See: Donnelly, Seán: ‘Irish Cranngal ‘Cran’ – A Piper’s Technical Term’, Celtica, Vol. 20, (Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1988), 134. http://www.dias.ie/images/stories/celtics/pubs/celtica/c20/c20-132-140.pdf (Accessed 30 Jan 2012). 13 O’Farrell, Patrick[?]: Collection of National Irish Music for the Union Pipes, (London: John Gow 1804). 14 Ibid., 327-330. 15 Bunting, Edward: The Ancient Music of Ireland, (Dublin: Hodges and Smith, 1840), 24-26. 16 Ibid., 27.
406 that display his style of ornamentation.17
The only known text, devoted to the discussion of a single ornament is Seán Donnelly’s article ‘Irish Cranngal ‘Cran’ – A Piper’s Technical Term’. In his study, Donnelly describes the history and possible etymology of the term cran and much of the discourse surrounding it.18 Grey Larson’s The Essential Guide to Irish Flute and Tin Whistle was published in 2003.19 While his notation system, essentially a series of symbols, is unnecessary and only adds confusion to what is already a complex topic, he does draw attention to the similarities between articulation and ornamentation and argues that some ornaments such as the cut should be regarded as articulations rather than ornaments.20 In fact, an ornament such as the cut functions as an articulation and indeed this could be argued in respect of other ornaments such as the pat.21
Niall Keegan’s article ‘The Parameters of Style in Irish Traditional Music’ (2010) contains seven examples of traditional ornaments and one example of a new innovative type. It is the only known consideration, however brief, of the introduction of new ornaments into the genre and the ensuing difficulty with terminology.22 With regard to this he states that:
For this sort of newer and more innovative ornament there is no standard terminology but such terminology does flourish, even if is not standardised. For example in my teaching I would call the above a ‘tapped-cran-roll’ whereas Grey Larson in his encyclopaedic The Essential Guide to Irish Flute and Tin Whistle (2003) would refer to it as a variation of a ‘double cut roll’.23
David Flynn’s doctoral thesis Traditional Irish Music: a path to new music (2011) contains a lengthy list of ornaments but also includes timbral effects from the piping
17 Ennis, Séamus: The Master’s Touch: a tutor for the uilleann pipes, eds. Wilbert Garvin, Robbie Hannan, (Dublin: Na Píobairí Uilleann, 1998), xv. This collection is based upon two manuscripts: the first was written sometime in the early 1960s whilst the second is known to have been revised by Ennis after 1968. 18 See: Donnelly: ‘Irish Cranngal ‘Cran’ – A Piper’s Technical Term’, 134. 19 Also see his online article, ‘A Guide to Grey Larsen’s Notation System for Irish Ornamentation’, (2003) which can be found at: See: http://www.greylarsen.com/services/tunebank/notationsystem.pdf (Accessed 6 June 2012). 20 Larson, Grey: The Essential Guide to Irish Flute and Tin Whistle, (Pacific Mo, MelBay, 2003), 113. 21 See: Section 9.3.4, 412. 22 Keegan, Niall: ‘The Parameters of Style in Irish Traditional Music’, 67-74. Also see: http://www.greylarsen.com/services/tunebank/notationsystem.pdf (Accessed 2 June 2013). 23 Ibid., 71.
407 tradition which do not conform to the definition of ornaments as presented above.24
9.2 Methodology As can be seen here, the subject of ornaments is extremely complex and requires a clear definition in order to proceed. Based on Kreitner’s understanding, the methodology to be used in this study involves a combination of the same four sources as those described in Chapter Two.25 1. The literature was consulted and all ornaments were critically considered before including them here. 2. Audio recordings and personal experience have also been used to augment the list and occasionally, these give rise to examples that have not previously been described. 3. Breathnach’s observation that the interval between the grace note and the ornamented note is subject to alteration means that the ornaments described in the literature must also be explored for this type of variation.26 This is achieved through simple variation that can be conducted without the use of a mathematical formula.
Key to the methodology used here is the idea of the grace note family, which traditionally comprises the appoggiatura and acciaccatura.27 However, a combination of literature and practice-based research has pointed towards a more nuanced picture in respect of Irish traditional music. Traditionally, the cut is written as an acciaccatura and there does not appear to be much differentiation between the two types.28 Indeed, it is only more recently that authors such as Liz Doherty and Fintan Vallely have begun defining the cut as it applies to Irish traditional music, stating that it is either ‘predominantly melodic or rhythmic depending on the stylistic preferences of the player’.29 Ó Canainn makes the case that the cut is a ‘rhythmic rather than melodic
24 See: Flynn, Dave: Traditional Irish Music: a path to new music, (PhD Diss., Dublin Institute of Technology, 2011), 85-86 where he discuss piping effects. 25 See Chapter Two, Section 2.1, 53-62. 26 Breathnach: Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, 96. 27 Latham, Alison: ‘Grace Notes’, The Oxford Companion to Music/ Oxford Music Online, (Oxford University Press), (Accessed 13 June 2013). 28 See: Breathnach, Breandán: Ceol Rince na hÉireann 4, (Dublin: An Gúm, 1996) for a typical example. 29 Vallely, Fintan; Doherty, Liz: ‘Ornamentation’, The Companion to Irish Traditional Music, ed. Fintan Vallely, 2nd ed., (Cork: Cork University Press, 2011), 530.
408 device […]’30 and Flynn attempts to formalise this distinction by referring to the melodically important cut as an acciaccatura and the more rhythmic version as a cut.31 To illustrate this difference, Flynn uses an x note-head to describe a predominantly rhythmic sound while the acciaccatura remains unchanged.32 I would venture to suggest that this distinction is also impacted by the various instrument types with the acciaccatura being more commonly heard on the piano-accordion, button-accordion, concertina, harp and guitar while the cut is more typically found on the tin-whistle, flute and fiddle.33 The distinction used by Flynn is adopted here and is significant because the majority of the ornaments found in the tradition are based on this grace note and in Section 9.3 it will be seen that many variants arise when this distinction is followed.
Once the literary and aforementioned sources are exhausted, the practice-based aspect is employed. While this will be discussed in detail in Chapter Ten, it is pertinent at this point to note that in the course of this research, it emerged that a harmonic could be played as an alternative to the cut and acciaccatura. This new ornament is termed the ‘harmonic cut’ and while it will be described in greater detail in Section 9.3.2 and in Chapter Ten,34 it is included in the extended family of grace notes illustrated below (see Ex. 9.1). While ornaments derived from the practice-based exercise necessitated their inclusion in this chapter, the processes by which they arose will be discussed in the following chapter.35
30 Ó Canainn, Tomás: Traditional Music in Ireland, 2nd ed., (Cork: Ossian, 1993), 93. This point is also maintained by Niall Keegan and can clearly be heard in the audio recordings found with the electronic version of the paper. See: Keegan: ‘The Parameters of Style in Irish Traditional Music’, 69. 31 Flynn: Traditional Irish Music: a path to new music, 69. Grey Larson also makes this distinction albeit with substituting the term acciaccatura with ‘grace note’. See: Larson: The Essential Guide to Irish Flute and Tin Whistle, 118. 32 Flynn: Traditional Irish Music: a path to new music, 70-73. 33 See: Keegan: ‘The Parameters of Style in Irish Traditional Music’, 71 where the author also discusses this aspect. 34 See: Chapter Ten, Section 10.4.7.6, 685-689. 35 See Chapter Ten, Section 10.4.7, 660 ff.
409 Ex. 9.1 Adapted grace note family featuring the appoggiatura, acciaccatura, cut, and the harmonic cut.
The final methodological consideration, as previously noted in the work of Breathnach, concerns the observation that the interval between the acciaccatura and the ornamented note is variable. Here, the variability of the acciaccatura is denoted by either the + or – sign to describe whether it is placed above or below the ornamented note. In diatonic examples, the size of the interval created by the acciaccatura from the ornamented note is given: for example, +3 signifies that the acciaccatura is a third above the ornamented note. As will be discussed in Section 9.3, there are cases where acciaccaturas are themselves placed on chromatic notes. In these contexts, it is not sufficient to state the degree of the scale and so instead, standard interval descriptions such as a minor third, perfect fifth, major sixth etc. are used. In the case of ornaments that are diatonic and which contain more than one acciaccatura, the numbers are separated by full stops, e.g. the Short Turn 2.0.-5 (see Tables 9.31- 9.34)
It is important to note that although musical examples are given for each ornament, the emphasis here is on the essence or colour of the ornament being described rather than on the pitch of the note being ornamented. Notwithstanding this, there are technical implications to the pitch or pitches involved in each ornament that differ from instrument to instrument. How seven individual musicians interact with five randomly selected ornaments from this list is explored in Chapter Ten.
9.3.1 Cut As stated earlier, the cut is first described in O’Farrell’s Collection of National Irish Music for the Union Pipes where the term ‘tipping’ is used.36 More recently, David
36 O’Farrell: Collection of National Irish Music for the Union Pipes, 328. Here it is stated that ‘what is meant by tipping, is making every note staccato or distinct [...]’. This refers to the technique of quickly striking, as opposed to quickly lifting a finger on the barrel of the pipes, whistle or flute. This
410 Flynn has drawn attention to what he terms the ‘high microtonal cut’, which produces a ‘yelping sound similar to a piping ornament’ and which is achieved by placing the cut at a distance, roughly of a fifth or more, above the principal note.37 Consequently, it can be imagined that a low microtonal cut is also possible, which is illustrated in Table 9.1. The pizzicato cut comes from the fiddle-player Adrian Hart (1980– ) and will be discussed in Chapter Ten.38 In terms of the performance of this ornament, the pizzicato note is so short that it is considered to be more of a rhythmic than pitched effect so there is no need to explore variations on its pitch.
The aforementioned ornaments can be understood to have two functions, namely: to accent a note; and to clearly separate two notes of the same pitch.39 When these are applied to the four types of cut identified, the following eight varieties can be postulated.
Table 9.1 Cut: eight types. Conceptual Field Cut
Conceptual Resolution Eight Types
is one of two techniques on these instruments for creating the cut – the other, the momentary lifting of the finger, is simply called the cut. Despite the difference of technique, the musical effect is the same. 37 See: Flynn: Traditional Irish Music: a path to new music, 71 where it is also described as dissonant colouring by the fiddler Oisín Mac Diarmada. 38 See Chapter Ten, Section 10.4.7.3, 671-676. 39 See: Moloney, Colette: The Irish Music Manuscripts of Edward Bunting (1773–1843): An Introduction and Catalogue, (Dublin: Irish Traditional Music Archive, 2000), 73. Interestingly, Bunting in his 1840 collection The Ancient Music of Ireland lists what according to Collette Maloney, appears to be the equivalent of the cut. There it is termed Brisidh, which translates as ‘breaking’. See: Bunting, Edward: The Ancient Music of Ireland, (Dublin: Hodges and Smith, 1840), 24.
411
9.3.2 Harmonic Cut The harmonic cut may be observed in the playing of the harpist Tríona Marshall (1975– ) and will be discussed in Chapter Ten.40 While harmonics of various pitches are undoubtedly possible, owing to the rarity of this stylistic element, various other options are not explored. Similar to the more traditional cut, it can be assumed to exist in both the accented and divisive positions.
Table 9.2 Harmonic Cut. Conceptual Field Harmonic Cut
Conceptual Resolution As observed
9.3.3 Acciaccatura In contrast to the cut, the more melodic role of the acciaccatura can result in a variety of colours, both above and below the principal note.41 The position of the acciaccatura will be highlighted using the prefix ‘upper’ and ‘lower’ respectively. Twelve chromatic possibilities in relation to both the upper and lower positions are described below, resulting in a total of twenty-two examples.
In like-manner to the cut, the acciaccatura can be used to accent a note (accented lower/higher acciaccatura) and/or to separate two notes of the same pitch (divisive lower/higher acciaccatura). The eleven higher and eleven lower acciaccaturas at Tables 9.3 and 9.4 are of the divisive variety whilst the accented variants are listed
40 See Chapter Ten, Section 10.4.7.6, 681-684. 41 See: Breathnach: Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, 95-96. Breathnach allows for grace note movement up to a perfect fifth above the principal note.
412 without examples at Table 9.5 because their various realisations can be easily imagined. In total, this results in forty-four varieties of acciaccatura.
Table 9.3 Divisive Higher Acciaccatura. Conceptual Field Divisive Acciaccatura
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability of acciaccatura higher than principal note.
Table 9.4 Divisive Lower Acciaccatura. Conceptual Field Divisive Acciaccatura
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability lower than principal note
413
Table 9.5 Accented Acciaccatura: variations. Conceptual Field The Accented Acciaccatura
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in acciaccatura up to and including plus and minus one octave
1. Accented Acciaccatura + minor 13. Accented Acciaccatura – minor 2nd 2nd 2. Accented Acciaccatura + major 14. Accented Acciaccatura – major 2nd 2nd 3. Accented Acciaccatura + minor 15. Accented Acciaccatura – minor 3rd 3rd 4. Accented Acciaccatura + major 16. Accented Acciaccatura – major 3rd 3rd 5. Accented Acciaccatura + perfect 17. Accented Acciaccatura – perfect 4th 4th 6. Accented Acciaccatura + 18. Accented Acciaccatura + augmented 4th augmented 4th 7. Accented Acciaccatura + perfect 19. Accented Acciaccatura – perfect 5th 5th 8. Accented Acciaccatura + minor 20. Accented Acciaccatura – minor 6th 6th 9. Accented Acciaccatura + major 21. Accented Acciaccatura – major 6th 6th 10. Accented Acciaccatura + minor 22. Accented Acciaccatura – minor 7th 7th 11. Accented Acciaccatura + major 23. Accented Acciaccatura – major 7th 7th 12. Accented Acciaccatura + perfect 24. Accented Acciaccatura – perfect 8ve 8ve
414
9.3.4 Pat In the online version of his article ‘The Parameters of Style in Irish Traditional Music’, Niall Keegan presents an audio example of the pat.42 On listening to him playing this ornament, it is evident that the first grace note is more melodic, making it an acciaccatura whilst the second is more rhythmic, making it a cut.43 Examples where the pitch of both grace notes are more clearly audible can be termed mordents and will be described later.44 As may be heard in Keegan’s example, the pat is played quite quickly to produce a tight rhythmic effect.45 Unlike Keegan’s notated examples, an x-note head is used here to indicate the aforementioned differences between the grace notes.
Table 9.6 Pat. Conceptual Field Pat
Conceptual Resolution One Example
9.3.5 Shiver This ornament is sometimes called the shake and can be understood as a more compressed version of the trill, from which it may have evolved.46 It is also considered by pipers to be an alternative to the cran, to which it also sounds similar.47
The term ‘shiver’ is credited to Séamus Ennis but his transcriptions of the ornament are
42 Keegan: ‘The Parameters of Style in Irish Traditional Music’, 69. See also: Breathnach: Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, 96. 43 This differentiation between the cut and acciaccatura is my own. 44 See Section 9.3.7. 45 See: http://www.inbhear.ie/volume-1/n-keegan/v1-i1-n-keegan-menu.html (Accessed 10 February 2011). 46 Flynn: Traditional Irish Music: a path to new music, 73. Flynn states that this ornament is ‘similar to a trill but it sounds differently because only one note is clearly heard’. 47 Ennis: The Master’s Touch: a tutor for the uilleann pipes, 29. Also see Section 9.3.28 where it is defined.
415 difficult to interpret given that they do not appear in the context of a full bar of music.48 In this study, David Flynn, whose knowledge of the shiver comes from the piper Peter Browne (1953– ) who in turn was influenced by Ennis, is taken as an authoritative source. His transcription includes five grace notes.49
From an examination of Flynn’s transcription, it is clear that the shiver consists of an alteration of an acciaccatura and a cut. From this, I have produced a number of variations which include the ‘high shiver’ where the ornamented note is cut from above; the ‘low shiver’ in which the ornamented note is cut from below; the ‘two-note shiver’ in which the pitch of the acciaccaturas is different from that of the ornamented note; the ‘three-note shiver’ in which the two acciaccaturas and the ornamented note are found on different pitches; the ‘high Ennis shiver’ which includes three cuts above three acciaccaturas and; the ‘low Ennis shiver’ which includes three cuts below three acciaccaturas.
Table 9.7 Shiver and its variants. Conceptual Field Shiver
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability of the second acciaccatura
9.3.6 Pop Popping is a piping ornament and is often also referred to as a ‘bark’ in that it is said to resemble a dog’s bark. It is a combination of a heavy accent and staccato note that is in part achieved by using an acciaccatura that is generally one octave below the
48 Ibid. 49 Flynn: Traditional Irish Music: a path to new music, 73.
416 ornamented note.50 The interval of an octave and a seventh is the widest range within which they would occur on their associated instrument the uilleann pipes.51 However, as will be discussed in Chapter Ten, other instruments, such as the button-accordion, have a much larger range and this necessitates that a wider series of options should be presented. Consequently, the widest interval considered below is a seventeenth or two octaves and a third.
Table 9.8 Pop: the basic options. Conceptual Field Pop
Conceptual Resolution Basic Options
9.3.7 Upper Mordent / Lower Mordent As will be discussed in Chapter Ten, it is not unusual to find instances of ornaments that either lack a term or are not associated with what might be their more correct term.52 Instead, cases such as this are often approximated to the term of another embellishment that sounds similar and the mordent is one such example.
While the term ‘mordent’ is not used in the tradition, the ornament to which it refers is actually quite regularly found. One such example of the discrepancy between an ornament and its term can be found in Breandán Breathnach’s discussion of aspects of button-accordion style in The Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, where he describes
50 More specifically, this might be thought of as a ‘tonic accent’. See Chapter Eight, 402-403 for a description. 51 From discussion with the piper Mark Redmond, while all of the pops listed are possible on the uilleann pipes, numbers one and seven would not sound authentic. Since these two options do sound well on most other traditional instruments, they are retained. 52 See Chapter Ten, Section 10.4.7.2, 667-671 for a discussion of the same in regard to the concertina- player Michaela Cunningham.
417 triplets ‘of the type cbc’.53 Rhythmically, it would be relatively rare to hear this type of ornament played as a strict triplet, even if it is written as such. Rather, what Breathnach is probably describing is in fact better known in Baroque music as a ‘lower mordent’ and this term will be used here, as will the term ‘upper mordent’ in which the middle note is played above the ornamented note.54 Unlike its use in the Baroque tradition or its more rhythmic variant, the pat, a feature of the mordent when used in Irish traditional music is the various shades of colour that result from the alteration of the pitch of the middle note.
Table 9.9 Upper Mordent: pitch variability in the second acciaccatura (higher). Conceptual Field Upper Mordent
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in second acciaccatura
53 Breathnach: Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, 93-94. 54 Also See: Neumann, Frederick: Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-Baroque Music, 3rd ed., (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), 241. As stated by Neumann, the lower or ‘inverted’ mordent was originally termed the ‘schneller’; a term apparently coined by C.P.E. Bach.
418 Table 9.10 Lower Mordent: pitch variability in the second acciaccatura (lower). Conceptual Field Lower Mordent
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in second acciaccatura.
9.3.8 Harmonic Mordent As will be described in Chapter Ten, the harmonic mordent is a creation of the fiddle- player Adrian Hart.55 The notes played are given in the first bar of the example whilst the notes as sounded are illustrated in the second bar.
Table 9.11 Harmonic Mordent. Conceptual Field Harmonic Mordent
Conceptual Resolution As observed
55 See Chapter Ten, 676.
419
9.3.9 Hammer-On The term ‘hammer-on’ refers to an established guitar technique that is also relevant to other plucked string instruments such as the banjo and mandolin. It describes the process where notes are played on the fret board before the string is plucked to sound the main note. It is characterised by a number of acciaccaturas before the main tone that very often are chromatic. The options below were observed in practice and will be further discussed in Chapter Ten.56
Table 9.12 The Hammer-On. Conceptual Field Hammer-On
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in second acciaccatura
9.3.10 Trill Referred to in earlier collections as the shake, the trill is described in O’Farrell’s Collection of National Irish Music for the Union Pipes, where it is defined as ‘[...] an agitation or mixture of two sounds together, which is performed by a quick motion of the finger, and is commonly mark’d thus tr over the note that is to be shook’.57
It is difficult to find any account of the trill in modern literature and although it is rarely used in performance, it can be heard in the playing of both the piper Paddy Moloney (1938– ) and the fiddler Frankie Gavin (1956– ), particularly in tune-types of a slow to
56 See Chapter Ten, Section 10.4.7.7, 689-693. Also see Appendix D, Disk 7, track 40 for a recording of Enda Cloke playing this ornament. 57 O’Farrell: Collection of National Irish Music for the Union Pipes, 327. Also see: Conran, Michael: The National Music of Ireland, 2nd ed., (London: John Johnson, 30 High Holborn; Thomas Johnson, Manchester, 1850), 90.
420 medium tempo.58 Through observation and the occasional example, two main types of trills have been found: using terms borrowed from Neumann’s Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-Baroque Music, one is termed the ‘main-note trill’,59 and the other described as an ‘appoggiatura trill’.60 Moreover, both types can also include a (long) turn, which is discussed as an ornament in its own right in Section 9.3.19.61
Table 9.13 Trill: standard traditional examples. Conceptual Field Trill
Conceptual Resolution Standard Traditional examples
9.3.11 Appoggiatura Like the trill, the appoggiatura is only described in the early literature but is still widely used, albeit without recourse to this particular term. In 1850, Michael Conran notes that ‘[of] the melodic ornament, corresponding with our “appoggiatura,” the Irish harpists had three kinds; also different triplets’.62
While the appoggiatura is not found in contemporary literature, it is as was stated above, very much in use within the tradition.63 The following example demonstrates how two bars of a reel can sound with the appoggiatura coming from below the principal note and from above respectively.
58 Various Artists; De Dannan: Bringing it All Back Home: the influence of Irish music at home and abroad, ‘The Humours of Galway Set’, (Dublin: Merlin, 2001), track 3. 59 See: Neumann: Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-Baroque Music, 241. These were observed in a private recording. 60 Ibid. Also see: O’Farrell: Collection of National Irish Music for the Union Pipes, 327. 61 See Section 9.3.19 where due to the different context, it is written using the acciaccatura. 62 Conran, Michael: The National Music of Ireland, 2nd ed., (London: John Johnson, 30 High Holborn; Thomas Johnson, Manchester, 1850), 90. 63 See: Kelly, Alan, Out of the Blue, (Blackbox Records, 1997), track 3.
421 Table 9.14 Appoggiatura: two basic types. Conceptual Field Appoggiatura
Conceptual Resolution Two basic types
9.3.12 Slide In Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-Baroque Music, Frederick Neumann states that ‘the term “slide” is most commonly applied to a two-note ornament whose tones rise diatonically to the principal note and are slurred to it’.64 In Irish traditional music, while most frequently known as sliding, it is also referred to as slurring.65 The term slide can be understood as sounding in an unbroken microtonal trajectory towards a principal note.66 This trajectory is usually between a quartertone and a tone in length, although this interval can be extended, and as noted by David Flynn, is often marked by a crescendo.67 From experience, in some cases, it would also seem to be characterised by an accelerando as its proximity towards the principal note increases. It is a prominent feature in the playing of the fiddler Martin Hayes.68
David Flynn has identified four types of slide: the cut slide, the short upwards slide, the medium slide and the short downwards slide.69 While these terms are straightforward, his first example, the ‘cut slide’ is slightly misleading in that it is in conflict with the general understanding of the cut. Here, Flynn means a ‘very short slide’ that is ‘almost
64 Neuman, Frederick: Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-Baroque Music, 203. 65 Breathnach: Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, 100-101. Also see: http://www.greylarsen.com/services/tunebank/notationsystem.pdf (Accessed 30 Jan 2012). 66 For more detail in how the slide relates to the fiddle, see: Ó Canainn: Traditional Music in Ireland, 100. 67 Flynn: Traditional Irish Music: a path to new music, 80. 68 Hayes, Martin: The Lonesome Touch, (Danbury, CT: Green Linnet, 2006). The slide may be heard on any of the tracks on this album. 69 Flynn: Traditional Irish Music: a path to new music, 79-81.
422 like a cut’.70 Perhaps this would imply that it comprises the interval of a quartertone and is played as quickly as a cut, although this would depend on the tune and its tempo. It is rare to find a slide spanning a distance any greater than the interval of a minor second but since it is conceivable, it is accounted for here using the term, the ‘long slide’. Incidentally, the example of the long slide given below employs an interval of a minor third.
From Flynn’s thesis and my own estimation of what is likely to occur in practice, in total, eight types of slides are proposed, all of which are illustrated in Table 9.15. These include:
1. Upwards quartertone slide 2. Upwards semitone slide 3. Upwards tone slide 4. Upwards long slide 5. Downwards quartertone slide 6. Downwards semitone slide 7. Downwards tone slide 8. Downwards long slide
Table 9.15 Slide: basic categories. Conceptual Field Slide
Conceptual Resolution Basic Categories
70 Ibid., 80.
423 9.3.13 Double-Stopped Slide The double stop is chiefly associated with fiddle playing and requires that two notes are played simultaneously. While the double stop itself is not an ornament because no division of the ornamented note occurs, what is here termed the ‘double-stopped slide’ is regarded as an ornament because the slide causes a division of the note. In effect then, if each of the eight slides listed in the previous section were combined with a sustained note at the pitch being ornamented, the options for the double stopped slide may be found.
Table 9.16 Double-stopped Slide: basic varieties. Conceptual Field Double-Stopped Slide
Conceptual Resolution Basic varieties
9.3.14 Long Roll The earliest example of a roll identified in this study may be found in Breathnach’s table of ornaments in the introductory pages of Ceol Rince na hÉireann 1 (1963).71 Meanwhile, the recordings of Michael Coleman could be considered to be an early authentic recorded example.72 In a later publication, Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, Breathnach states that there are two variants – the long roll and the short roll – the latter of which is demonstrated further on in this chapter.73 The long roll is played on notes of both crotchet and dotted crotchet rhythmic values and consists of the principal note, an
71 Breathnach, Breandán: Ceol Rince na hÉireann 1, (Dublin: An Gúm, 1963), xii-xiii. 72 Coleman, Michael: The Enduring Magic, (Sligo: CHC, 2004). 73 See: Breathnach: Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, 96. Also see: Keegan: ‘The Parameters of Style in Irish Traditional Music’, 68.
424 upper cut, the principal note, a lower cut and finally the principal note again. As will be noted in Section 9.3.19 below, a version of the roll also exists that uses the acciaccatura and which is termed the ‘long turn’.
Table 9.17 Long Roll. Conceptual Field Long Roll
Conceptual Resolution Traditional version
9.3.15 Cut Long Roll As will be seen throughout this Chapter, the first note of some of the longer ornaments (those of a crotchet or dotted crotchet length) is often preceded by a cut. The cut long roll is the first of a number of such examples.
Table 9.18 Cut long Roll. Conceptual Field Cut long Roll
Conceptual Resolution As observed
9.3.16 Slide-Roll First observed in the playing of the uilleann piper Mark Redmond (1988– ) but also often used by fiddlers, what is here termed the slide-roll is a combination of two ornaments: the slide, and the roll. As above, both the interval and the length of the slide is variable but since little can be known of the intervals without a detailed study, that of a major second is used below.
425
Table 9.19 Slide-Roll. Conceptual Field Slide-Roll
Conceptual Resolution As observed
9.3.17 Double-Tipped Roll The Co. Leitrim flute-player John Lee was my music teacher and it is from him that I learned this ornament. Since it was not given a term, I have chosen to call it the ‘Double-Tipped Roll’. As previously described, the tip is a technique employed by whistle-players, flute-players and uilleann pipers on the lowest three notes of their instrument (d’, e’ and f’-sharp) that are used to produce a cut.74 Despite the fact that technically three notes are tipped – the f’-sharp and two e’s – it is the two e’s that stand out, hence the use of the term. This ornament requires the long roll to be played in the time of a quaver rather than the more usual crotchet or dotted crotchet length. This is then followed by a divisive cut on the second quaver of the beat, the whole ornament being executed in the time of a crotchet. The extent to which this ornament is used is unknown.
Table 9.20 Double-Tipped Roll. Conceptual Field Double-tipped Roll
Conceptual Resolution Basic
74 See Section 9.3.1.
426 9.3.18 Short Roll The short roll is differentiated from the long roll by its omission of the initial principal pitch. Moreover, while the long roll features cuts, when played, the short roll can be heard to use two acciaccaturas and one cut. There are two basic examples of this ornament, which due to their direction may be understood as descending and ascending.
Table 9.21 Short Roll: two basic types. Conceptual Field Short Roll
Conceptual Resolution Descending and Ascending
9.3.19 Long Turn The ‘turn’ is described by Neumann in relation to its use in the Baroque tradition and is used in the same sense here to describe the version of the roll where instead of the cut, the acciaccatura is employed.75 While generally not acknowledged in the Irish music literature, from practice it would appear that the first note is held longer than the second note and consequently, a dotted quaver- semiquaver-quaver rhythm is used. While the first acciaccatura is always above the principal pitch and the second is below it, there is a degree of variability with regard to both and this is illustrated in Tables 9.22 and 9.23 respectively. When the various positions for both the first and second acciaccatura are explored simultaneously, the number of possibilities increases but these will be left to a further study.
75 See: Neumann: Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-Baroque Music, 465.
427
Table 9.22 Long Turn: pitch variability in the first acciaccatura (higher). Conceptual Field Long Turn
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in first acciaccatura (higher)
Table 9.23 Long Turn: pitch variability in the second acciaccatura (lower). Conceptual Field Long Turn
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in second acciaccatura (Lower)
428 9.3.20 Cut Long Turn The tables below demonstrate the long turn when it is preceded by a cut, which creates an accent on the first statement of the principal pitch. The same variations that were detailed in the above section in relation to the long turn are used below.
Table 9.24 Cut Long Turn: pitch variability in the second acciaccatura (lower). Conceptual Field Cut Long Turn
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in second acciaccatura (lower)
429
Table 9.25 Cut Long Turn: pitch variability in the first acciaccatura (higher). Conceptual Field Cut Long Turn
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in first acciaccatura (higher)
9.3.21 Semi I use the term ‘semi’ to describe an ornament that lies somewhere between a roll and a turn, not in terms of shape, but in the sense that it requires both a cut and an acciaccatura. This ornament was observed in the playing of the flute-player Robert Harvey (1988– ) and will be discussed in Chapter Ten.76
76 See Chapter Ten, Section 10.4.7.4, 676-681.
430
Table 9.26 Semi: pitch variability in the (first) acciaccatura. Conceptual Field Semi
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in first acciaccatura
9.3.22 Harmonic Long Turn The harmonic long turn is again a creation of the flute-player Robert Harvey and will be discussed in the following Chapter.77 It involves the replacement of the first acciaccatura of the turn with a harmonic cut, which on the flute is achieved using the technique of overblowing.78 Taking lead from the examples observed in Harvey’s playing, since this occurred on the note g’, the options on the flute for the second acciaccatura only extend downwards a perfect fifth to the note d’. Again, being a new ornament, an in-depth exploration of its potential variants is not warranted.
77 Ibid. 78 See: Appendix D, Disk 4, track 36 where Robert Harvey can be heard playing this ornament.
431 Table 9.27 Harmonic long Turn. Conceptual Field Harmonic long Turn
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in second acciaccatura (lower)
9.3.23 Half Turn The half turn is a term I created to describe a variant of the long turn, which does not include the second acciaccatura. While there may appear to be reason to refer to it as a single acciaccatura, it is understood by musicians as an ornament in its own right and is also characterised by a dotted quaver-semiquaver-quaver rhythm. Moreover, while the pitch of the acciaccatura is variable, it is always placed above the principal note. It appears to be used by both piano-accordion and button-accordion-players for whom, due to the difficulty in producing cuts, it sounds cleaner than the long turn.
Table 9.28 Half Turn: pitch variability in the acciaccatura (higher). Conceptual Field Half Turn
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in the acciaccatura (Higher)
432 9.3.24 Cut Half-Turn In a similar fashion to the long turn, the half turn can also be preceded by a cut. The following table details the options for this type of ornament.
Table 9.29 Cut Half-Turn: pitch variability in acciaccatura (higher). Conceptual Field Cut Half-Turn
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in acciaccatura (Higher)
9.3.25 Double Slide-Turn The double slide-turn is a term I created to describe an ornament, the creation of which can be attributed to the fiddle-player Adrian Hart and will be discussed in Chapter Ten. Unlike the slide-turn, the double slide-turn is characterised by a slide from the third note downwards to the fourth note and back up to the fifth note. In the following example, the two slides are indicated by lines.
Table 9.30 Double-Slide Turn. Conceptual Field Double-Slid Turn
Conceptual Resolution Basic type
433
9.3.26 Short Turn The short turn is similar to the long turn without its first note. As with the short roll, two basic directions are possible, the first of which may be termed the descending short turn and can be defined by the pattern: the note above, the principal pitch, and the note below. The inverse is also possible following the basic pattern: the note below, the principal pitch, and the note above. Here, it is termed the ascending short turn. As can be seen in Breathnach’s Folk Music and Dances of Ireland there is a degree of variability in relation to the first and third acciaccaturas, whilst the second grace note, being the same as that of the principal note, must remain fixed.79 Also, there is often a small accelerando before reaching the ornamented note.
Ex. 9.2 The two basic varieties of short turn.
When the alteration of the first acciaccatura is considered and with possibilities extending up to one octave, seven variants are feasible. Chromatic variations, although possible, are not considered in this case because they would need to be observed in practice to avoid the presence of unseemly intervals. This is repeated on the first and third acciaccaturas of both the ascending and descending variants. The different variations of the two basic types as presented in Ex. 9.2 are explored in Tables 9.31-34 below.
79 Breathnach: Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, 96.
434
Table 9.31 Descending Short Turn: pitch variability in first acciaccatura (+2 to +8). Conceptual Field Descending Short Turn
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in first acciaccatura (+2 to +8)
Table 9.32 Descending Short Turn: pitch variability in third acciaccatura (-2 to -8). Conceptual Field Descending Short Turn
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in third acciaccatura (-2 to -8)
435
Table 9.33 Ascending Short Turn: pitch variability in first acciaccatura (-2 to -8). Conceptual Field Ascending Short Turn
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in first acciaccatura (-2 to -8)
Table 9.34 Ascending Short Turn: pitch variability in final acciaccatura (+2 to +8). Conceptual Field Ascending Short Turn
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in final acciaccatura (+2 to +8)
9.3.27 Clipped (short) Turn Whereas the short turn is characterised by the omission of the first note of the long turn, what is here termed the ‘clipped turn’ is distinguished by the omission of the final note of the turn. It is common on the guitar and harp where the long turn or long roll is more difficult to play.80
80 Listen to: Flynn, David: Draíocht, ‘The Mad Magician’s Daughter’, (Frisbee Records, 2006), track 3.
436
Table 9.35 Clipped (short) Turn. Conceptual Field Clipped (short) Turn
Conceptual Resolution As observed
9.3.28 Cran According to Seán Donnelly, the ‘first man to notate a “cran” as it was actually played was the renowned piper Canon James Goodman (1828–96)’.81 He continues that:
In vol. IV (the earliest to date), p. 17, Goodman had copied in the ‘curls on Irish pipe’ given in O’Farrell’s treatise. However, in vol. 1, p. 18, as a preface to a section containing dance- music from Kennedy, Goodman wrote out eleven ornaments to be used in the succeeding tunes. No. 5 is the ‘cran’ on d’, but Goodman does not call it that. He writes that it was ‘one of the curls in most general use [...] which is introduced in most of the old jigs to great effect.82
However, he also notes that it is possible that it was Eamonn Ceannt (1881–1916), a founder of the Dublin Pipers’ Club,83 who was the first to define the cran. Prior to his death, Ceannt had been working on a piping tutor and it is from his unpublished notes that Donnelly found the definition that cranning ‘is the name given to a peculiar method of repeating a note, chiefly low D’.84 The cran is usually played on the note d’ and sometimes on e’ although this would appear to be a contentious issue, as evidenced by Donnelly’s reference to a disagreement in 1930 regarding this issue by two well-known pipers, James (Jimmy) Ennis (1884–1964) and Leo Rowsome (1903–1970). It should be noted that the recordings alluded to by Rowsome probably refers to those made by the celebrated piper Patsy Touhey (1865–1932). Donnelly states that:
81 Donnelly: ‘Irish Cranngal ‘Cran’ – A Piper’s Technical Term’, 134. http://www.dias.ie/images/stories/celtics/pubs/celtica/c20/c20-132-140.pdf (Accessed 30 Jan 2012). 82 Ibid. 83 Notably, Ceannt was also one of the seven signatories of the Proclamation of the Irish Republic in 1916. 84 Ibid., As related by Donnelly.
437
Jimmy Ennis (father of Seamus Ennis) and Leo Rowsome, disagreed on whether notes other than d and e could be ‘cranned’. Ennis insisted that they could, Rowsome that they could not. Though modern practice bears out Rowsome’s contention, recordings of pipers who flourished around the beginning of this century show that ‘cran’-like ornaments were played on most notes on the chanter.85
In Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, Breathnach provides the clearest distinction between the different types of cran when he states: ‘Groups of two, three, and four grace notes are used in piping to decorate the bottom and second notes of the chanter’.86 He provides musical examples of all with the exception of the cran featuring four grace notes in 4/4. However, a good example of such may be found in Leo Rowesome’s tutor from 1936.87 All three types are presented in both 4/4 and 6/8 in Table 9.36 below.
Table 9.36 Cran: basic short and long varieties. Conceptual Field Cran
Conceptual Resolution Basic Long and Short Varieties
As found on the uilleann pipes, the cran makes use of the cut rather than the acciaccatura and so the pitch placement is of little consequence. In fact, on this instrument, cuts are necessary in order to play repeated notes so the ornament may have originated from this practical requirement. Variations on the piper’s cran may be found on other instruments such as the concertina, fiddle and guitar and these will be explored
85 Ibid., 133. 86 Breathnach: Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, 97. 87 See: Rowsome, Leo: Leo Rowsome’s Tutor for the Uilleann Pipes, (Dublin: Walton’s Musical Instrument Galleries, 1936), 10 where an example of what is here termed the ‘quadruplet cran’ can be found.
438 later in this chapter.
9.3.29 Pitched Cran I created the term ‘pitched cran’ in order to draw a distinction between the more traditional cran that uses cuts, and a version that features the acciaccatura. As will be discussed in Chapter Ten, this may be observed in the playing of the fiddler Adrian Hart, from which the third and fourth examples below are taken.88 From these, two versions of the short cran were postulated. Here, the letter m is used to denote a minor interval, e.g. m3 signifies a minor third. Note that due to the confines of space, the letters S and L are used to denote short and long respectively.
Table 9.37 Pitched Cran: basic varieties. Conceptual Field Pitched Cran
Conceptual Resolution Variation in acciaccatura
9.3.30 Melodic Cran On instruments other than the uilleann pipes, flute, and whistle, the traditional cran is often technically too difficult to reproduce as written. In order to compensate, another type of ornament is used which may be termed the ‘melodic cran’.
This ornament differs from the more traditional cran in that only two instead of three iterations of the principal pitch occur, between which there are three acciaccaturas. These are variable and each possibility within a one-octave range is given below.
88 See Chapter Ten, Section 10.4.7.3, 671-676.
439
Table 9.38 Melodic Cran: pitch variability in the second acciaccatura (2 to 8). Conceptual Field Melodic Cran
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in final acciaccatura (2 to 8)
9.3.31 Concertina Cran As noted in Chapter Ten, in response to the melodic cran, what I termed the ‘concertina cran’ may be observed in the playing of the concertina-player Michaela Cunningham (1983– ) who notes that she learned it from the concertina-player Mícheál Ó Raghallaígh (1971– ).89 It should also be noted that like the other ornaments included here, it can also apply to other pitches. Rather than the mordent-like shape of the melodic cran, the concertina cran uses a descending pattern for effect, which immediately follows an ascending octave leap.
89 See Chapter Ten, Section 10.4.7.2, 667-671.
440
Table 9.39 Concertina Cran: pitch variability in final acciaccatura (2 to 8). Conceptual Field Concertina Cran
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in final acciaccatura (2 to 8)
9.3.32 Guitar Cran What is here termed the ‘guitar cran’, specifically no. 3 of Table 9.40 below, may be unique to the guitar playing of Enda Cloke (1974– ).90 From this, the other examples are determined through variation up until the interval of an octave, since to go beyond this point would make it the concertina cran.
90 See Chapter Ten, Section 10.4.7.7, 689-693.
441
Table 9.40 Guitar Cran: variations within an octave range. Conceptual Field Guitar Cran
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in final acciaccatura (2 to 8)
9.3.33 Harmonic Cran The harmonic cran is a term I coined to describe an ornament that was created by the fiddle-player Adrian Hart, which will be discussed further in the following chapter.91 In this example, the cuts found in the long cran are replaced by harmonic cuts. The following example demonstrates both how it is written and how it sounds. On the fiddle, it is played sul ponticello, which gives it a breathy, eerie effect.
91 See: Chapter Ten, Section 10.4.7.3, 671-676. Also: Appendix D, Disk 3, track 35 to hear Adrian playing this ornament.
442
Table 9.41 Harmonic Cran. Conceptual Field Harmonic Cran
Conceptual Resolution As observed
9.3.34 Tapped-Cran Roll A description of this ornament can be found in Niall Keegan’s article ‘The Parameters of Style in Irish Traditional Music’ where he gives an example and explains how ‘in recent years it is fair to say that the technical complexity of ornamentation and the sheer quantity of its use has increased’.92 Keegan’s version of this ornament is reproduced below.
Fig. 9.1 Reproduction of Keegan’s ‘tapped-cran-roll’ from ‘The Parameters of Style in Irish Traditional Music’.
While he alludes to the debate on whether or not this trend in ornamentation is welcome, he does state that ‘[it] would not be uncommon for a young flute-player to play a complex ornament like that illustrated below that incorporates aspects of the cran, long roll and double note ornament going down!’93 While Keegan used acciaccaturas in his transcription, from listening to an online recording he made of the ornament, I would venture to add that aside from the first grace note, the cut is more
92 Keegan: ‘The Parameters of Style in Irish Traditional Music’, 70. 93 Ibid.
443 accurate.94 Considering the transcriptions of the cran that can be found in earlier publications, an example such as this very clearly illustrates the evolving complexity of ornaments used in the tradition.
Table 9.42 Tapped-Cran Roll. Conceptual Field Tapped-Cran Roll
Conceptual Resolution As observed
9.3.35 Triplet Typically, the triplet is represented as a group of three quavers played with a compound-time against simple-time feel. In Irish traditional music however, its rhythm is different, sounding closer to two semiquavers and a quaver. The term ‘triplet’ can imply a number of distinct ornaments. These include the use of three different pitches, usually of an ascending or descending major or minor third, or occasionally an arpeggiated triad. It can also imply three notes of the same pitch but these are perhaps better known as trebles and are discussed as a separate ornament in Section 9.3.37. While as stated the triplet is often found written as three quavers of equal value, it is more commonly played using a double semiquaver to quaver rhythm and this approach is used here.
It is also conventional for a distinction to be drawn between triplets that are played either legato or staccato, particularly among the piping community. This distinction is adhered to in the table below because it is maintained within the tradition and perhaps more importantly, because the sound is notably different. While combinations of staccato and legato in triplets can be found in the playing of the uilleann piper Patsy Touhey, for example, these are left for a future study. In Table 9.43 below, each
94 http://www.inbhear.ie/volume-1/n-keegan/v1-i1-n-keegan-02.html (Accessed 13 June 2012). The audio recording mentioned had accompanied the article.
444 example is prefixed with either the letter S or L, denoting staccato or legato respectively.
Table 9.43 Triplet: legato and staccato. Conceptual Field Triplet
Conceptual Resolution Basic Types: L=legato S=staccato
9.3.36 Pizzicato Cut Descending Stepped Triplet The fiddle-player Adrian Hart has found that the descending stepped triplet95 can be interspersed with acciaccaturas that are played pizzicato using what is known as left- hand pizzicato technique. Here, the plus symbol is used to indicate which notes are to be played pizzicato. This ornament can be seen to draw on Adrian’s knowledge of fiddle styles from Shetland, Scotland and America where a similar effect is found in the virtuoso piece, ‘The Hangman’s Reel’.
95 See Chapter Ten, Section 10.4.7.3, 671-676.
445
Table 9.44 Pizzicato Cut Descending Stepped Triplet: two varieties. Conceptual Field Pizzicato Cut Descending Stepped Triplet
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in second acciaccatura
9.3.37 Treble The defining characteristic of the treble is that typically it involves three notes of the same pitch within the space of a crotchet and in recent times, versions have been observed that include four or more notes.
In order to describe the variety of trebles that can be found, a number of terms have been employed. Older recordings are often characterised by triplets that are played with quavers of an equal value, to which the term ‘straight treble’ is applied here. It is worth pointing out that this is the most commonly represented treble found in the collections, as for example in Breathnach’s transcription of the tune ‘Buachaillí na Locha’ in Ceol Rince na hEireann 1.96
However, the most common type of treble found in practice is what is here termed the ‘simple treble’ and can be written as two semiquavers and a quaver. The ‘four-note treble’ is one of my own inventions and produces what may be considered to be a crisper result. The ‘scratch (or scratched) treble’ is a term that is used within the tradition itself to characterise what might be described as a ‘tearing’ or ‘scratching’ sound, which is produced by using a heavy bow pressure to produce a percussive rather than pitched tone.97 This ornament is commonly associated with the fiddle-player
96 See: Breathnach: Ceol Rince na hÉireann 1, 63. 97 See: Peoples, Tommy: The Quiet Glen, (Ennis, Co. Clare: T. Peoples Publishing, 1998).
446 Tommy Peoples and more recently, his daughter Siobhán.
In Traditional Music in Ireland, Tomás Ó Canainn describes the ‘double treble’, which involves a quintuplet in the place of a crotchet, stating that it is considered as a virtuoso ornament.98 While he does not describe a ‘scratched’ version of the double treble, it is likely that both would be characterised by the same ‘tearing’ effect and so it is presented in both forms here.
Table 9.45 Treble: basic varieties. Conceptual Field Treble
Conceptual Resolution Basic Varieties
9.3.38 Ghost Treble The ‘ghost treble’ is a term created to describe a particular ornament used by the button- accordionist Peter Browne and will be further discussed in Chapter Ten.99 It is so termed because while it sounds relatively like a simple treble, two instead of three notes are articulated with the fingers while the third is a tied note that is articulated using an accent created by applying a sudden pressure to the bellows, hence the term ‘ghost’!
Incidentally, the inverse of this was observed in the playing of the concertina-player Michaela Cunningham where the first note of the simple treble is articulated and the second two notes (a semiquaver and quaver) are tied but both accented by tapping the metallic sides of the instrument, hence there are two ‘ghosts’. Here, the suffixes 0.1.1 and 1.0.0 are used, with 1 indicating an articulated note and 0 denoting the ‘ghost’
98 Ó Canainn: Traditional Music in Ireland, 94-95. 99 See: Chapter Ten, Section 10.4.7.1, 662-667.
447 note/s that are rendered by way of an accent placed on a series of tied notes.
Table 9.46 Ghost Treble. Conceptual Field Ghost Treble
Conceptual Resolution Two types
9.3.39 Lazy Man’s Treble This term appears to have been first used by the concertina-player Mícheál Ó Raghallaígh.100 The ornament resembles the treble (indicated by accents above the notes) but the normal rhythmic values are doubled and occur over a minim rather than the more typical crotchet length. The quaver on the second beat is cut to add emphasis.
Table 9.47 Lazy Man’s Treble: as observed. Conceptual Field Lazy Man’s Treble
Conceptual Resolution As observed
9.3.40 Inverse Treble The inverse treble was brought to light by the accordionist Peter Browne and using the rhythm: quaver to two semiquavers, is a retrograde version of the simple treble. In the example below, it can be found on the second beat of the bar.
100 As noted from informal conversation with Michaela Cunningham.
448
Table 9.48 Inverse Treble: as observed. Conceptual Field Inverse Treble
Conceptual Resolution As observed
9.3.41 Cut Treble It has been seen in some of the earlier examples that the first note of some of the more standard ornaments (e.g. cut long turn, cut roll) is often cut; and this can also apply to the treble. While the straight treble and the simple treble are those most commonly cut, the other trebles are also explored in this light since it is very possible that they are already in use but have yet to be observed.
Table 9.49 Cut Treble: basic varieties. Conceptual Field Cut Treble
Conceptual Resolution Basic Varieties
449
9.3.42 Split Treble The split treble employs the same rhythm as the treble but is distinguished from the latter by its use of two different pitches within the ornament. As such, it is not found in the mainstream literature but can be associated with the concertina and occasionally with the fiddle.101 In order to determine what the options are, each of the three notes of the treble is labelled as either a principal note (P) or auxiliary note (A). It is important to do this to calculate how many combinations of P and A can be found within a set of three (the number of notes in the ornament). Using this approach, the codes found are P.P.A., P.A.A, P.A.P, A.A.P. and A.P.P. It should be noted that when realised, the code P.A.P results in a mordent and so this code is omitted from those explored. Tables 9.50- 9.53 are presented in this order below.
The principal note in each case corresponds to the pitch of the crotchet it is replacing whilst the auxiliary note will be any other pitch. As is the case elsewhere in this chapter, the exact notes are determined systematically. The auxiliary note is generally diatonic and so while chromatic notes are possible, they are not explored here. The variation in intervals is denoted using the + or – symbols to describe its location above or below the ornamented note.
101 This information was taken from a presentation given by the concertina-player Michaela Cunningham at a traditional music seminar at Queen’s University, Belfast in June 2012.
450
Table 9.50 Split Treble: P.PA. Conceptual Field Split Treble
Conceptual Resolution P.P.A
Table 9.51 Split Treble: P.A.A. Conceptual Field Split Treble
Conceptual Resolution P.A.A
451 Table 9.52 Split Treble: A.A.P. Conceptual Field Split Treble
Conceptual Resolution A.A.P
Table 9.53 Split Treble: A.P.P. Conceptual Field Split Treble
Conceptual Resolution A.P.P
452 9.3.43 Graced Split Treble This again describes the use of a grace note, here the acciaccatura, to accent the beginning of an ornament. While cuts are often used for this process, the acciaccatura can also be used and adds an interesting harmonic dimension. This is only explored here in the two cases of split trebles where the auxiliary note comes first.
Table 9.54 Graced Split Treble: G.A.A.P. Conceptual Field Graced Split Treble
Conceptual Resolution G.A.A.P
453 Table 9.55 Graced Split Treble: G.A.P.P. Conceptual Field Graced Split Treble
Conceptual Resolution G.A.P.P
9.3.44 Harmonic Split Treble As will be further discussed in Chapter Ten, the harmonic split treble was observed in the playing of the guitarist Enda Cloke who notes that it is a common ornament amongst guitar, bouzouki, banjo and mandolin-players. It involves playing harmonics on the auxiliary notes but since on the guitar, the harmonics are quite weak, they could perhaps be more correctly described as muted notes. While it is a more unusual ornament on the fiddle, the harmonic effect is more pronounced. Since this ornament is rarely heard, only the examples that were observed in practice are reproduced. In the table below, the letter H denotes a harmonic while the number indicates the interval upon which a harmonic to be played.
454 Table 9.56 Harmonic Split Treble: basic varieties. Conceptual Field Harmonic Split Treble
Conceptual Resolution Pitch variability in second acciaccatura
9.3.45 Dyadic Trebles I have coined the term ‘dyadic treble’ to describe what is generally referred to by a number of friends who play the button-accordion as ‘triplet chords’. In practice, intervals (or dyads) rather than chords are used. Peter Browne is the first known exponent to employ them in accordion playing but this ornament-type would have existed earlier in fiddle-playing styles, certainly in the playing of Seán Keane (1946– ) and Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh, both of whom use quite a bit of double stopping and hence, dyadic trebles.102 Since the music played is modal, the options in the table below are constructed to allow for inflected thirds and sevenths and hence, to facilitate the possibilities that are typical of the modal system.
102 For an example demonstrating Seán Keane’s use see: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nWJc3LyLvaQ (Accessed 18 June 2012). A slightly less audible version can be heard on: Altan: Harvest Storm, (Danbury, CT: Green Linnet, 1992), track 9.
455 Table 9.57 Dyadic Trebles: possibilities that are typical of a modal framework. Conceptual Field Dyadic Trebles
Conceptual Resolution Possibilities typical of a modal framework
9.3.46 Inverted Broken Triplet I have also coined the term ‘inverted broken triplet’ to describe a type of ornament found in the playing of the button-accordionist Peter Browne and this will be referred to later in Chapter Ten.103 It is characterized by the rhythm of two semiquavers to a quaver and its descending arpeggiated movement can occur on either the first or second inversion of the triad. It will be noted that root position is not included since these examples are already accounted for under the basic types of triplet in Section 9.3.35.
Table 9.58 Inverted Broken Triplet: varieties based on triadic harmony. Conceptual Field Inverted Broken Triplet
Conceptual Resolution Varieties based on triadic harmony
103 See Chapter Ten, Section 10.4.7.1, 663-667.
456 9.3.47 Compressions The ‘compression’ is a term that I created to describe the effect generated when a musician plays either: three quavers in the space of two (a triplet), four quavers in the space of three (a quadruplet), or five quavers in the space of four (a quintuplet). As previously stated, it will be noted that the first option, which corresponds to the classical triplet and is familiar from tune collections, rarely occurs in practice with the two semiquavers to quaver rhythm instead being preferred.104
Aside from employing uniform note-lengths, diminutions in the rhythm, which are typical of the treble can also occur, resulting in ‘ornamented’ versions as illustrated below. While the 3:2 compression is well known in common-time and the 4:3 ornament has been observed in compound-time,105 the 5:4 compression has been observed in the live performances of the fiddler Sean Keane and his playing is the only known source for this particular example.106
Table 9.59 Compressions: as observed. Conceptual Field Compressions
Conceptual Resolution As observed
104 See Section 9.3.37. 105 This would appear to have been more current in early-nineteenth-century recordings. A particularly good example can be heard on: Various Artists: The Ward Irish music Archives, Milwaukee Irish Fest, presents The Francis O’Neill Cylinders: thirty-two recordings of Irish traditional music in America circa 1904, (Milwaukee: Ward Irish Music Archives, 2010), track 6 played by the uilleann piper Patsy Touhey. 106 It is possible that there are recorded examples that are commercially available but I was unable to find examples at the time of this study.
457 9.3.48 Demi The demi is a term I created to describe a type of ornament found in the playing of the concertina-player Michaela Cunningham. While Michaela terms it a ‘roll’, it actually bears no similarity to what is typically understood by that term.107 This ornament involves a division of the quaver into four demisemiquavers and has a melodic contour that is quite unlike that of any of the other ornaments contained within this chapter.
Given the speed at which they occur, the pitches are relatively unimportant but the chromaticism used in the examples at Table 9.60 below does have a definite effect in helping the ornaments stand out. It should also be noted that this does not make them cuts or grace notes because they take up a very definite space and to write them any other way would be to compromise the rhythmic characteristics of the ornament. The second and third examples here come from Michaela while the first is a feature of the playing of Peter Browne. This type of ornament is rarely found in the tradition and does not appear to have been published previously.
Table 9.60 Demi: as observed. Conceptual Field Demi
Conceptual Resolution As observed
9.3.49 Spread The spread is a rare feature of Irish traditional music today. An awareness of it came through listening to the recordings made in the early twentieth century by the celebrated accordionist John J. Kimmel (1866–1942).108 These recordings influenced the accordionist Joe Derrane (1930– ) and it is possible that it is through this line that this
107 See: Section 9.3.14. 108 See: Kimmel, John. J: Early Recordings of Irish Traditional Dance Music by John J. Kimmel, (Leader 1998).
458 particular ornament has survived.109 Although various arpeggios were described by Edward Bunting in his publication The Ancient Music of Ireland (1840), they bear little relation to the variety being described here.110
The spread involves two or three acciaccaturas ascending towards the principal note in the fashion of broken dyads and triads (respectively) played at a very quick pace. On further examination of the ornament, it was found that twenty-nine variations are possible within a simple diatonic framework. This number would increase if modal and chromatic possibilities were also to be specified using intervals. It is simpler therefore to give numbers that indicate the degrees of the scale and these can be considered to apply across the Dorian, Mixolydian and Aeolian modes.
Table 9.61 Spread: two-note variations. Conceptual Field Spread
Conceptual Resolution Two-note variations
109 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FIg3EPq0hO0&feature=endscreen (Accessed 18 June 2012). 110 See: Bunting: ‘The Ancient Music of Ireland’, 27.
459 Table 9.62 Spread: three-note variations. Conceptual Field Spread
Conceptual Resolution Three-note variations
9.3.50 Three-point Octave I use the term ‘three-point octave’ to describe the diminution of a dotted crotchet length into a three-quaver motif based on the interval of an octave, which can be replicated at any pitch. It is associated with both piano-accordion and button-accordion playing and can be found in two forms.111 The first involves a progression from the principal pitch to the same note an octave below and back to the principal pitch and is termed a ‘descending three-point octave’. The second variant is the inverse of the first and
111 See: Kelly, Alan: Out of the Blue, (Galway: Blackbox Music, 1997), a piano-accordionist who uses this ornament quite a lot in his playing.
460 involves a progression from the principal pitch to the same note an octave above and back to the principal pitch. It is termed an ‘ascending three-point octave’.
Table 9.63 Three-point Octave: ascending and descending possibilities. Conceptual Field Three-point Octave
Conceptual Resolution Ascending and descending
9.3.51 Vibrato While vibrato may seem more like a timbral effect than an ornament, it is included in this study since it does require a diminution of the note, albeit on a microtonal level.112 In Irish traditional music, the concept of continuous vibrato is considered contrary to the aesthetics of the style in its broadest terms. For instance, Ó Canainn states that ‘vibrato is out of place in traditional music but it is sometimes used to stress particularly strong notes such as the C in Rakish Paddy’. He continues to note that ‘some fiddle players use a device which is really half-way between vibrato and a trill, possibly imitating the pipe ornamentation’.113
A recent development is its usage on free-reed instruments although it has long been employed on the uilleann pipes, flute and tin-whistle, particularly in the playing of slow airs and it is also sometimes used on the fiddle in the context of dance music.114 While types of vibrato can be differentiated by the speed of the oscillations, here vibrato will simply be classified as slow or fast.
112 See: Neumann: Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-Baroque Music, 512. The authority, Frederick Neumann also considers vibrato to be an ornament. 113 See: Ó Canainn: Traditional Music in Ireland, 101. 114 It is used by Martin Hayes on structural tones whilst whistle and flute-players distinguish between breath and fingered vibrato.
461
Table 9.64 Vibrato. Conceptual Field Vibrato
Conceptual Resolution Basic
1. Slow Vibrato
2. Fast Vibrato
9.3.52 Runs Runs are often associated with slow air playing and it is a branch of ornaments described in more formal terms as passagi.115 Many examples of this ornament can be found in The Roche Collection and it is more associated with slow airs than dance music.116 In general, their usage has declined as aesthetic values have changed.117 By examining collections, such as that of Frank Roche, and from experience, it would appear that there are two basic types of run, what I term the scalic run and the composite run.
The scalic run involves the use of the quadruplet, quintuplet, sextuplet and septuplet within longer note values such as the crotchet or dotted crotchet. While the triplet could have been included in this list, it tends to be seen by the traditional music community as a separate ornament in its own right and not long enough to be a ‘run’. As implied by the term, this ornament is almost invariably scalic and furthermore, is usually ascending. One example, a septuplet, (see Ex. 9.3) is demonstrated in the context of an
115 See: Kreitner, Kenneth: ‘Ornaments’, Grove Music Online, http://0- www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ditlib.dit.ie/subscriber/article/grove/music/49928 (Accessed June 22, 2012). 116 Roche, Frank: The Frank Roche Collection, 2nd ed., (Cork: Ossian Publications, 1993). This work contains numerous examples. 117 Lacy, F. St. John: ‘Notes on Irish Music’, Proceedings of the Musical Association, 16th Session, (1889–1890), (Dublin: Taylor & Francis, and the Royal Musical Association), 194-195. Lacy is the earliest author identified who disapproves of playing melodies ‘overladen with runs and graces’. Aesthetic values have changed in the sense that the use of runs, while very present in nineteenth- century collections, have come to be regarded as expressing more of an individual’s technical prowess than their sensitivity towards the melody of a tune.
462 untitled jig from The James Tourish Collection.118 The options are presented in Table 9.65 below.
Ex. 9.3 Illustration of the Scalic Run.
Table 9.65 Scalic Diminutive Runs: basic varieties. Conceptual Field Scalic Diminutive Runs
Conceptual Resolution Basic varieties
I use the term ‘composite run’ to describe the combination of a series of smaller ornaments, such as the triplet, upper mordent, lower mordent and scalic runs, into a longer ornament. This type of ornament is often found as a compositional feature of the strathspey or hornpipe. Two examples of composite runs are given below. The first demonstrates a composite run based on triplets in the A-part of the strathspey, ‘The Laird of Drumblair’, while the second example illustrates a combination of the upper mordent, lower mordent and septuplet in the B-part of ‘The Green Fields of Antrim’.
118 Tourish, Martin: The James Tourish Collection, (Undergraduate Diss., Dublin Institute of Technology, 2008).
463
Ex. 9.4 Composite Run: moving in triplets – A-part of ‘The Laird of Drumblair’.
Ex. 9.5 Composite Run using Mordents and a septuplet on the B-part of ‘The Green Fields of Antrim’.
Table 9.66 Composite Run: two varieties. Conceptual Field Run
Conceptual Resolution Two main varieties
1. Scalic Run 2. Composite Run
9.3.53 Double Ornaments Ornaments that are played within a crotchet or dotted crotchet value are sometimes doubled, a typical example of which, as illustrated below, might be termed the ‘Doubled Long Roll’.
464 Ex. 9.6 Double Long Roll.
While I am only addressing double versions, it is worth noting that some ornaments can appear in even more elaborate forms.119 This aspect however, is left to a future study. Based upon the ornaments identified earlier in the chapter, the following options are deemed likely to be found in practice.
Table 9.67 Double Ornaments. Conceptual Field Double Ornaments
Conceptual Resolution Based on the ornaments in this chapter
1. Double Shiver 23. Double Concertina Cran 2. Double Mordent 24. Double Guitar Cran 3. Double Harmonic Mordent 25. Double Harmonic Cran 4. Double Long Roll 26. Double Tapped-Cran Roll 5. Double Cut Long Roll 27. Double Triplet 6. Double Slide-Roll 28. Double Pizzicato Cut Descending 7. Double Double-Tipped Roll Stepped Triplet 8. Double Short Roll 29. Double ‘Double Pizzicato Cut 9. Double Long Turn Descending Stepped Triplet’ 10. The Double Cut Long Turn 30. Double Treble 11. Double Semi 31. Double Ghost Treble 12. Double Harmonic Long-Turn 32. Double Lazy Man’s Treble 13. Double Half Turn 33. Double Inverse Treble 14. Double Cut Half-Turn 34. Double Cut Treble 15. Double Slide-Turn 35. Double Split Treble 16. Double Short Turn 36. Double Graced Split-Treble 17. Double Clipped (Short) Turn 37. Double Harmonic Split-Treble 18. Double Two-grace Cran 38. Double Dyadic Treble 19. Double Three-grace Cran 39. Double Inverted Broken Treble 20. Double Four-grace Cran 40. Double Compression 21. Double Pitched Cran 41. Double Demi 22. Double Melodic Cran 42. Double Scalic Run
119 See: Mitchell, Pat: The Dance Music of Willie Clancy, (Cork: Mercier Press, 1976) where numerous examples of double, and even triple, ornaments may be found.
465 At the beginning of this study, the initial list of ornaments contained only fifteen examples.120 Using the literature, audio recordings and variation, a much-enlarged list of 205 ornaments was generated. As the practice-based aspect – as will be described in Chapter Ten was employed – this list grew to contain 545 ornaments across sixty-seven conceptual fields.
120 As is quite normal, publications rarely mention any more than ten examples, although at no point had any study sought to provide a comprehensive overview. For instance, see: Breathnach: Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, 95-98.
466