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Cat. no: 211537 Date: 27 Feb 201 Subscripfion no: l Note: n^^ ^

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Dossier

October 2005 ISSN 1021-0814 Yearl4 1 Bibliothèque/Library -.s NESCO pi^se de Fontenc

An orga i t on islands to support n ration

BIOCULTURALDiVERSI Y .IN ÎSLAMDCOMMUNIT!ES

BYEDGAR J. DASlLVA

ISLANDCOMMUNITIES: BIOREPOSITORIES OFTRADITIONAL MEDECINE, CULTURE AND DiVERSITY 5 Bibliothèque BIEDGAR J. DASILVA, MURUKESAN V. KRISHNAPILLAI, PlERGIOVANNI D'AYALA INVESTIGATSNGDIVERSITY IN MATERIALCULTURE AND LANGUAGE 21 BYMATTHEW LEAVESLEY ANDTlM THOMAS

THEEVOLUTION 0F CULTURALDIVERSITY IN FUI: ANALYSES0F ANCIENTCERAMICS 23 evETHAN COCHRANE

ESEI MEDICINALPLANTS IN THE PACIFIC ISLANDS: BIOTECHNOLOGY ANDSOCIO-CULTURAL ASPECTS 27 BYEDGAR J. DASlLVA

THESOCIO-CULTURAL HERITAGE 0F MUSHROOM SCIENCE !NSOUÏHEAST ASIAN ISLAND COMMUNITiES 43 Library evSHU-TlNGCHANG

E-mail : [email protected] MEETINGATCASTELSARDO: Plantgenetic resources of geographical and "other" islands 48 Tel. : +33 (0)145 68 03 56/60 THEMAURiTIUS CONFERENCE: Smaltislands, big stakes 7, Placede Fontenoy75007 Paris, France

AD MEMORIAM:FRANCESCO D! CASTRi 50 ENDOFTHE OPET-OLA PROJECT 50

TAIWANCONFERENCE: Islandsof thé world "Changing islands - changing worlds" 50

PALERMOCONFERENCE: Towardsa Sustainable andQualityTourism inthé European Islands 50

EL NEWSFROMTHE MANAND BIOSPHERE PROGRAMME (MAB) 51 Threenew Biosphère Réserves inislands during thé year 2005 51 9thMeeting ofthé East Asian Biosphère Réserve Network, Jeju, Republic ofKorea 51

WORLDHERITAGE 52 U £ SLANDS Mexico:islands and protected areas of thé Gulf of California onthé World Héritage List since 2005 52 "WorldHéritage - Pacifie 2009" Programme 52

52

54 nsula InternationalJournal oflsland Affairs

EDGARJ. DASlLVA, GUEST EDITOR

Back cover: Olive oil, anemerging passion for gourmets. ISSN1021 0814 Biocultural diversity with its sig- therapeuticpurposes for morethan two thousandsyears. Year 14, No. l nificance in national development Furthermore, with thé évolution of cultural practices October 2005 and international coopération bas andresort to thé sorcerer'sinterprétation of thé benign become a flagship of global économie concern and andmalign properties of 'toadstool'magie and poison- sustainabledevelopment. Such diversity is to be found ing, mushrooms became abjects of fear and distrust, Editorial Board in thé complex range of interactions amongst différent and were even linked in mythologyto thé origin and Editer: peuples whose cultural traditions, biological, linguistic onset oflightning and thunderstorms.Notwithstanding Pier Giovanni d'Ayala and physical milieus that are mirrored in their varied thèse time-honoured cultural and mystical nuancesthé approaches,sometimes with striking similarities and at mushroom cuisine ofnumerous Southeast Asian Island other times with contrasting dissimilarities, to conserv- Communitiestoday bears witness to thé availabilityofa ScientificAdvisory Committee: ing thé natural environment, human health, traditional delicious, proteinaceousand highly nutritive food source Prof. Salvino Busuttil, Malta knowledgeand cultural héritage. that helps combat malnutrition and poverty. Prof. Nicolas Margaris,Greece g Prof. Patrick Nunn, Fiji Thé wide rangeof différentplant andanimal species, Indeed, "there is something to leam from thé meet- Prof.Edgar J. DaSilva,India ecosystems,cultural traditions and languages that are ing ofindigenous and modem woridviews. Time-tested Prof. Hiroshi Kakazu, Japan encountered in thé terrestrial and marine environments in ancientwisdoms combined with modemtechnologies

Dr.Henrique Pinto da Costa, Sao Tome e Principe ail régionsof théworld constitutesthé reality ofbiocul- are proving to create solid foundations for sustainable Prof. Uno Briguglio, Malta tural diversityand thé new scienceofbiocomplexity. development projects" that "share thé knowledge from this bridge with communities in both developing and Bioculturalissues such as traditional medicines, intel- developednations ... in an authenticglobal partner- lectualproperty rights, gender and biosafety are ofrele- ship." vancein islandcommunities that are naturally vulnérable to thévicissitudes ofclimate change and globalization. Leavesleyand Thomas investigate through Thé Pio- PdlishedbyINSULA, théInternational Scientific Council forIsland DaSilvaand Murukesan draw attention to thébiocultural neersoflsland Melanesia project thé evolutionary history Development,withthé support ofUNESCO. andsocio-economic diversity of médicinalplants and of théremarkable linguistic, cultural and genetic diversity Articlespubtished inthis journal donot necessarily reflectthé opinions of herbalmedicine in thécontinuing beliefs and reliance of exhibited by island Melanesianpopulations that are part INSULAor of UNESCO. islandcommunities in thé age-old curative properties of of thé Oceanicsub-branch of thé Austronesianfamily, Materialappearing infhis journal cannot bereprodaced withoutthé prior permissionofthé Editer. traditionalplant medicine that is practicedworldwide. andthat seeminglyentered thé région 3500years ago. Indeedthé roots of thélingua franca ofbiocultural diver- Cultural and linguistic diversity arising fi-om some 200 insula, théInternational JournalofIslandAffaiis isdistributed free toINSULA's individml andiastitutional members. Forsubscriptions and sityare to befound in théethnocultural knowledge and différent languagesis often associatedwith variations information,please write to: practiceofherbal beverages and médicinal plants. in material culture, social and technologicalpractice. Cover:Image from thé movie ofSilvia Paggi "Thé Son of Crooked Leg. In analysesof ceramictechnological change on Waya Traditionalwinemaking onthé Eolian Islands", Italy, 1994. insula Changemphasizes thatmushrooms, akey component Island, Fiji, Cochrane explains documented variation c/oUNESCO SilviaPaggi: Anthropologist-movie makerandlectiu-er atthé University ofNice-SophiaAntipo- ofNature'slibrary oftraditional medicines and deposi- l. rue Miollis présentaver three thousandyears of innovation, interac- îis.Shepro'duced severalmovies following fieldresearch inItaly (Eolian Islands, Tuscany), Africa 75732Paris, FRANCE taryofmodem-day nutriceuticals or 'plant-foodmedi- tion, and change through a proposai of hypothèsesfor (Ivory'Coast),Samoa(Upolu Island) andFrance (Camargue). thédifférent topicsapproached, Tél.: +33 l 45.68.40.56,Fax: +33 l 45.68.58.04 In spécialattention isgivento thébody techniques thataccompany humanactivities, nc)tably m cmes'that illustrate thé Hippocratic injunction that 'your stmctured testing 'by thé uni versai evolutionary mecha- E-mail: [email protected] thédomestic space."Her current research looksat thé behaviours linkedtotraditional dancfâand foodshall be your medicine', hâve been used traditionally nisms of cultural transmission, adaptation and natural music,especially thosefrom Mediterranean area,andthé current intercultural crossoversjhis in gourmanddelicacies, and more recently in nouvelle Graphiedesigner: Susanne Klein workbeganwiththé shooting ofSaintes-Maries-de-la-Mer pilgrimages(France),where Gipsy and sélection,and innovation and thus hâve implications for cuisine. Mushrooms been and Romanymusic and dances take place. hâve used for médicinal not only Wayan prehistory, but ail of thé Pacifie'.

INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS Floral andfaunal biodiversity, cultural and socio- herbs);handicraft and omamental materials (bamboo ornamental products);herbal medicinals économiediversity, linguistic diversity, and diverse and floral ecosystemsand environmental niches constitute thé andtherapeutics (kava, ginseng extracts; essential oils. herbalteas, and scents) that constitute either thé actual intertwiningof théinteractive bridging of thétime- honoredindigenous and thé modem biotechnologies. orthé major source of incarne for island village and rural Bioculturaldiversity in islandcountries is mostoften communities. encounteredin thé teaditional use offorest and non-wood summary,biocultural diversity, thé trademarkof forestproducts asfood, omamentals andmedicines. This In culturaldiversity is thé natural source ofentrepreneurial mral,tribal and village peoples ofmany cultures world- communities bedrock sus- contributionstowards sustainable économie development wide in island is thé ofisland EDGARDASILVA*, MURUKESAN V KRISHNAPILLAI ANDPlER GIOVANNI D'AYALA madethrough active engagement by especially small tainableéconomie growth, island cultural endurance, and islandenvironmental health bas beenignored islandcommunities in thé conservation,rational use, that often andrational management of their islandbioresources ormarginalized bylocal and international govemmental Abstract of thé world constitutes thé reality windward islands (Santo Antâo, Sâo agencies. Thé bioculturaland socio-economicdiversity of of biocultural diversity (Terralingua, Vicente, SantaLuzia, SâoNicolau, Sal, suchas plant foods as medicines (culinary and médicinal médicinal plants and herbal medicine is reflected in and Vista) Barlavento and thécontinuing beliefs and reliance of islandcommu- 2004). "There is somethingto leam Boa in thé nitiesworldwide in théage-old curative properties of from thé meeting of indigenous and leewardislands (Maio, Santiago,Fogo, traditionalplant medicine that is practicedworldwide. modem worldviews. Time-tested Thèsepractices are in linewith thé recommendations FormerDirector, Division of LifeSciences, Thé MauritiusDéclaration (UN, 2005)that drew ancient wisdoms combined with UNESCOand lltember of INSULA's attention to thé rôle of culture and resilience-build- modem technologies are proving to Boardof Dlrectors, Dr.Edgar DaSffva is ing in thé sustainabledevelopment of smallisland states and their diverse communities. Thé use of create solid foundations for sustain- currentlyProfessor Extraordinary in (he Dspartmentof Microbial, Biochemieal aad greenbox-based biotechnologies provides island able development projects" that "share FoodBlotechnology atthé University deVrystaat inSouth Africa communitiesopportunities to sustainbioproductivity thé knowledge from this bridge with andvisiting Professor atOsaka Universi^ inJspan. He was of theirmédicinal plants in theiraquatic and terres- educatedat(he University Bombay, and later did research trial environments;to maintainthé stabilityof their communitiesin both developingand of andteaching atacadémie mstitutons anduniversities inNoway, socio-culturaltraditions; and, to furtherengage in developed nations ... in an authen- Finlandsnd Sweden. genderequitability in islandemployment, labour and Contact:International ScientifcCouneil managementschemes. tic global partnership." (Terrawatu, 2004). In summary, floral and faunal forlslandDevelopmentflNSUl.A), l c/oUNESCO, 1rue Miollis, Paris 75015, France

biodiversity, cultural traditions and E-mail: e. [email protected] Introduction socio-economic diversity, linguistic MumkesanKrishnapillai currently holds diversity, and diverseecosystems and There are rich traditions of thé use of théposition of AgricutoreReseareher environmental niches constitute thé wîthCollège of MicronesiaUSDA Land médicinal plants in every continent bedrock of thé interactive bridging GrantPrograms at YapIsland Cafflpus. (Moran, 1996). Whilst, more than 80 Hepossssses Ph, D.in PlantScience and of thé time-honored indigenous and ^ percentof thépeople in thédeveloping PGDiploma in Environmental Education anet Management, modem biotechnologies. Biocultural besides an laternatioBalCerttficate in ISO 14001 Environ- l worid rely on plantsfor their médicinal mentalManagement System internai audlting. Heworked for diversity in island countries is most needsas a conséquenceoftheir being environraentreiated projects in NewZealand, Sweden and often encountered in thé traditional use Seychellesandwith Gujarat Ecology Comfnission inthé World closely associated with traditional offorest andnon-wood forest products Baskfunded BiodiveFsity Project. Curent research interests ape practices and livelihoods, and, not- onagrobiodlversity conservation, simplified home hydroponics as food, omamentals and medicines. withstandingthé widespreadinclina- gardens,enhanced production of giant swamp taro thFough éliminationofburowing neniafodes andgroundwater quality tion in thé industrialized societies to Africa studtesinYap Island. regard "traditional knowledge"as ContactAgricultural Experiment Station, African island communities are CollègeofMicronesia-FSM, YapSite, P. O.Box 1226, nothing more than "old wives' taies", encounteredin CapeVerde, Comoros, Colonia,Yap, FM 96943, Federated States of Micronesia approximately74 percent of théphar- E-mail:AESyap@mail. fm maceuticals were obtained thèse same GuineaBissau,Madagascar, Mauritius, Pier Giovanniil'Ayala s Sicllian,be plants credited with ethnomedicinal SaoTome and Principe and Seychelles. gradtiateelffora thé University ofPalerfflo Thé médicinal plants of Madagascar uses(Famsworth et al., 1985)and in wberehe got a degrésin chemistryand are not dealt with in view of their latera PhDin PoliiicalSciences. HB came needof conservation(Gurib-Fakim, extensive coverage. Thé best-known toParis where he carried out anthropologi- 2004). calresearches ontha inaritime world with a spécialfocus on thé plant is thé Madgascar periwinkle MediterraneanSeaand gave lectures atthé University ofParis Biocultural diversity - Catharanthus roseus that contains thé Vil(Vincennes). In1973, he joined UNESCO whew he was alkaloids vinblastine and vincristine fesponsibleforseveralfnultidisciplinaryfesearchprogrammes. Théwide rangeof différentplant Hewent into retiFement in 1992 and dedicated himself to thé used in anticancer treatment. successof INSU1.A,totbe création ofwhich he had contributed and animal species,ecosystems, Thé Cape Verde Islands at thé cross- in1989. Since 1995 he is thé Général Secretaryof INSULA. culturaltraditions and languages that E-mail:eniall: pg. [email protected] roads continents include 10 are encountered in thé terrestrial and ofthree islands and 5 islets, divided into thé Correspondi marine environments in ail régions

Yapesedancer (CourtesyDana Lee Ling) suchinformation, an undertaken study Arab States médicinalplants ofSingapore available Latin America and thé Caribbean andBrava) in thé Sotaventogroup of Mauritiuslike Trinidadand Tobago is thé established a orchids thé elsewhere (Chin, 1998) are not covered islands which are home to thé occur- beneficiaryoftraditional healthcare Systems that list of thé in Throughout thé first half of thé last There is a wide range of médicinal in this review. renée and use by rural populations, hâvetheir origin in thécultural antécédents of archipelagoofSao Tome (100 species) century, Jidd Hafs was a prosperous plants that is used, especially by thé species) relevant village in Bahrain renowned for its Some 122 médicinal plants in thé rural communities throughout thé especiallyof a wide varieddiversity African,Chinese, European and Indian peuples andPrincipe (65 with ecology,their extensive date palm graves and thé Maldives were catalogued in 1992 Caribbean (Table most of médicinalplants to treata variety of andtheir spices and medicines thatwere derived détails concemingtheir région 2). Thé (MoFA, 1992).In2001 severalhundred ailments such as heart diseases,intesti- fi-omavariety ofaromatic and médicinal plants. distribution and frequency of occur- manufactureof médicinal dmgs from important non-wood fore&t products plantswith médicinalproperties were nal andkidney problems,and diarrhea Closeto 100endémie médicinal plants, some renée(Stévart, 1999)'. thé buds,flowers, and pollen of palm are médicinal and aromatic plants, About 350 folk médicinal and aro- trees.A surveyofherbal and folk medi- reported (UNEP, 2002). Several plants (Cymbopogon citratus), (Tablel). Most médicinalplants are of whichare highly endangered, hâve been citronella encountered in Santo Antâo; and in identifiedand documented in traditional phar- maticplants are widely used through- cinés indicated that thé plant médicinal e.g. Plumeria spp. constitute a source and sassafras(Ocotea pretiosa) oil. In flora of Bahrain was encountered in of fragrancesand perfumes.UNDP/ Santiagoand Fogo. Several plants of macopoeia.(FAO, 1996). There is concemin out SaoTome and Principe in thé form thé Bahamas,thé use of indigenous GEF5 assistancehas been provided médicinalimportance hâve been identi- relationto théuse and conservation of médicinal ofwhole herbs,extracts and powders 52 specieswith widespreadrepresen- médicinal plants is widespread.Tra- towards thé conservation of médicinal fied (GEF,2003). plantsin Mauritiussince nearly 30 médicinal to treat a variety of ailments(Martins tation in 29 plant familles (Abbas et ditional bush medicines are popular species (Table traditional Comoros benefit from thé introduc- plantsare endangered, threatened or neariy et al., 2003). al., 1992). From this group, 20 indig- plant l) and in thé treatment of common ailments knowledge in Maldivian atolls within tion ofsome 60 speciesofomamental extinctas a result of overharvesting in thé wild Seychellesisan archipelago comprised enousspecies were used as traditional -colds, fevers, and intestinal disorders corallineislands. Seychelles médicinal décoctions and infusions to thé Frameworkthat emphasizesthé as well as in thé more serious illnesses plantsin 1870and yet is at a disad- (Gurib-Fakim,2004). ofgraniticand hasa rich variety plantlife. Seventyfive treatwounds, intestinal and respiratory developmentofa nationalbiodiversity of thé cancers andAIDS. vantageas some of thèseexotic plants In SaoTome and Prmcipe, some hun- of aliments, using thé knowledge and strategy. Thé Maldives now possesses hâvenow a profileof invasivegrowth dred différent orchids such as Angrae- speciesof plantsare used medicinally Cuba has aver 1000 speciesof plants skills transmitted thé Bahraini popu- 500 speciesof plants that include more (Ibrahim,2003). Thèse invasive plants cum doratophyllum,Cribbia pendula (PAO,1995). Aromatic and fragrant spe- in with médicinal properties.Several of than species, areused cul- are considérée as a menace in overall are on display in thé Bom Sucesso cies suchas Eucalyptuscitriodora, thé lace from 'génération to génération'. 300 which in thèse are endémie such as Rauwolfîa tural andtraditional médicinal practice conservationand management ofagri- botanicalgarden ofObo NationalPark. gingerlily - Hedychiumcoronarium, wild Herbal plants of potential économie linearifoliawhich is strictly endémiein (MHAHE, 2002). culta.iral resources and thé environment To counteract thé scarcity ofinforma- ginger- Zingiberzerumbet and cardamom significancehâve been screened for thé Sierrade Nipe andofsignificance in thé in thé Comoros islands. tion and thé frustrations in accessing - Elettaria cardamomum exist. présenceof antimicrobialcompounds treatmentof abnormalheart rhythms u Q rangingfrom alkaloidsand anthraqui- Europe (Grandaet al., 1995).Plants containing Table1. Traditional medicinals of plant and marine origin used in African and Indian Océan Islands nouesto saponinsand sterols (Al-Saleh In Europe, thé occurrence of médicinal essentialoils andmédicinal principles FamflyName ReputedUse as îfuirttry SciBntirc Name Local Name aflainst or et al., 1997). plantsin thé islandstates ofCyprus and are conserved and maintained in thé ;ape Verde Borreria verticillata Locotane Rubiaceae Allergies Seemingly, diseasessuch as stomach Malta are of significance.In Cyprus, Instituto de Investigaciones Funda- g Chali Poaceae Tension, fevers Cymbopogon ailments resulting malnutrition newly initiated studies in thé search citratus from mentales en Agriculturea Tropical Jatropha curcas Physic nut Euphorbiaceae Purgative, soap and poor diets in thé past Bahraini for new therapeutic principles and (INIFAT), Ministry of Agriculture, Myrtaceae Intestinal parasites Psidium guajava Goibeira générationshâve now beenreplaced by thé expansion of thé pharmaceutical Havana; and thé expérimental station Dolabella auricularia Sea slug Aplysiidae Anti-cancer Comoros thé modem societalscourges of heart industries result from thé traditional Ecteinascidia turbinata Tunicate Perophoridae Anti-cancer of médicinal plants 'Juan T. Roig' in (sea squirt) (Esteinasoidin 743) disease,diabètes and obesity that hâve use of herbs and médicinal plants in SanAntonio de los BanosMunicipal- Euphorbiaceae Balm for vertébral column pains Euphorbia prostrata emergedfrom thé drugstoreculture, ancienttimes. Thé listing ofabout 125 <^ Bafm for vertébral column pains ity. La Habana Province. Ficus thonningii Moraceae modemlifestyles and fast intakes médicinal and aromatic plants provides l Lantana camara Verbanaceae Brucellosis; diuretic agent food Eighty percent of thé Grenadian Sida rhombifolia Malvaceae Acné and arthritis (NCCAH,2004). some justification for thé enthusiasms population uses herbal medicines and Bombacaceae Urogenital infections Guinea-Bissau2 Adansonia digitata Fulani In response to thé uncontrolled use in developing new industrial crops as aromatic plants that include candle- Sinusitis, influenza3 Calotropis procera Fulani Asclepiadaceae Liver cirrhosis of médicinalplant préparations, there a sourceof greenand low-cost medi- wood (Amyris balsamifera), citronella Cochlospermum Djandere Cochlospermaceae tinctorium is concem for thé need of scientific cinés that stimulatethé émergenceof (Cymbopogon citratus), rosewood Combretaceae Catarrh, tuberculosis Guiera senegalensis Fulani (gelode) évaluationand assessment purity. new markets of healthcare products Skin wounds of (Aniba rosaeodora),sassafras (Ocotea Hymenocardia acida Coron-conde Hymenocardiaceae Recently, three halophytic plants (Akkelidouet al.,2004)6. pretiosa), common hazel (Gevuina Leptadenialancifolia safarodje Asclepiadaceae Sexually-transmitted diseases Parto'aglobosa nere Mimosaceae Anti-inflammation agent from BahrainSesuvium verrucosum, In Malta, médicinal plants are widely spp.), vétiver (Vetiveria zizanioides) Caesalpiniaceae Arthritis Piliostigma thonningii barquedje Salsolabaryosma, and Zygophyllum used as part of folk médicinal rem- and Eucalyptus sp. Sewridaca djuro Polygalaceae Skin wounds quatarense hâve been tested for their edies.Well-known Maltese examples longipedunculata In SantaLucia, avera hundredplants Anti-inflammation: and anti- Prosopis africana Tchelem-tchelemadje Mimosaceae cytotoxic activity (Tahaand Alsayed, are:fejgel, faqqus il-hmir, andhobbeja. hâve been recognized for their medici- arthritic agent 2000). Within thé context of expandingthé nal properties aad values. Médicinal Maldives Ricinus communis Aamanaka Euphorbiaceae Constipation,diabètes mellitus Aeri /a lanata Hudhu huypilaa Amaranthaceae Urinary infections benefitsaccruing from biotechnologi- and omamentalplants are conserved Diarrhea, choiera Asia Punica granatum Annaaru Punicaoae cal researchin thé areaofgenomic and andmaintained along with othercrops Boils. stress, heart disease Rosa grandiflora Finifena Rosaceae Singaporeand thé Maldivesare island médicinaltechnologies, thé University - e. Anti-inflammatory agent in designatedréserves g., thé King- Sâo Tome and Eryngium foetidum Apiaceae countnes in Asia. Thé former is a has compiled an electronic Principe of Malta shill Forest réserve in St. Vincent and Commelinaceae Anti-inflammatory drug to Seychelles Commelina Herbe cochon memberof thé Alliance of thé Small inventory of 300 Maltese médicinal thé Grenadines. benghalensis calm abdominal pains and in treatmentof dysentery IslandStates (AOSIS) and like Bahrain and aromatic plants with accompany- Thé use of herbs and médicinal Lodoicea maldivica Double coconut Arecaceae Drug (not used for several inthé Arab world, has a well developed ing text and images through its Institute plantsin thé multiethnicsocieties of thé décades) market economy.Activities concera- ofAgriculture. Amerindian tribes - thé Caribs and thé Secamone schimperiana Milkweed Asclepiadaceae Pharmacological agent ing thé inventorization and use of Arawaks; thé Afro- thé Indo- and Euro- Kanvinde(1999); DaSilva (2003); Prélude Medicinals Database" (2005)

INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS Table 2. Traditional médianes used in thé islands of thé Caribbean région Island Commumty National Park of Scmntiflc name Common name Famtly R^puted use as agent Thé Pacifie Région several island states on account oftheir Socio-economic Diversity PeservB against This région is a natural treasury of small size, limited natural resources of Africa Antigua and Botanical Gardens Achyranthes indica man-better-man Amaranthaceae Colds; diabètes and Barbuda ofAntigua and Aristolochia trilobata S/x sixty-six hypertension numerous cultures, cultural legacies, économiesignificance and geographi- Information and published reports Aristolochiaceae Fever. diabètes and Barbuda languages, social customs, and a cal isolation, hâve a limited range of hypertension of médicinaland ornamentalplants Bahamas Hydrofora Jacaranda caerulea Cancer Bignoniaceae Skin cancers wealthof floral andfaunal biodiversity options in overcoming their vulner- conceming Afi-ican island communi- Gardens Phyllanthus Bush that is a resource base of alternative, ability in aworldwide market-oriented nirun Chanca piedra Euphorbiaceae Laxative, vermifuge ties (and especiallythé CapeVerdean Barbados Andromeda Croton flavens Euphorbiaceae Coughs and colds folkloric and traditional plant-based economy. Of économie significance islands), for some reason, is scarce Gardens medicines. Verbal phannacopoeias of for thé sustenanceand development even though Euphorbia hirta Milkweed Euphorbiaceae Excrescence or not easily available ofseveral Pacifie island communities, Cuba INIFAT); and Juan Brosimum alicastrum Cauchomacho Moraceae Anticancer agent (Utérus) varied philosophiesand practices in their use is widespread throughout Tomes Roig station traditional medicine hâve been trans- traditional intellectual property con- thé islands and islets of Cape Verde, for médicinal plants Talauma plumieri Maranon Astringent De La Maestra Magnoliaceae mitted from générationto génération ceming médicinal plant resources is Comoros, Guinea-Bissau,Sao Tome Ca;a- Passifloraceae Used as sédative Dominica D'Auchamps Passiflora lauriflora andare still in thé contemporaryprac- tapped as an alternative resource to thé and Principe,and Seychelles. Gardens; Botanical basique rising costs ofcommercialized health- Gradens Roseau ïicheria grandis d as Aphrodisiac tice ofAboriginal and Maori medicine. Apopular herbaltea amongst rural folk Pomme di (?) Euphorbiaceae Thé therapeutic use of médicinal plants careand globalizingmarket-economy islands CapeVerde that Boïs in thé of is of bande elsewhere in thé Pacifie régions for thé pressures. thé herb- cidreira(Micromeria forbe- Asthma Dominican National Park 3oerhaavia erecta Patagon Nyctaginaceae maintenance and sustenance ofhuman Traditionalintellectual property bas sii). Such traditional use constitutes an of Sierra de Republic health resources has found favor with beenaccumulated through experi- Bahoruco; -lyptis verticillata thé alternativelivelihood option for mral Herbe au Diable Lamiaceae Headache Jaragua National occidentallifestyles. encesofself-taught village practition- entrepreneurs - especially women, Park; Jardin ers and observations of mral users of Botanico Nacional Thé Pacifierégion with widespread well versed in thé art of gathering, Raphaël Mocoso géographieand geological diversity in médicinal plants in thé past and présent Puello7 documenting,processing and selling terrestrial and marine environments is générations. Today, this traditional Grenada Grand Etang ;ass/a a/ate Ringworm bush Caesalpiniaceae Ringworm médicinal plants in thé compétitive National Park; Castor oil plant naturally endowedwith a diversity of knowledge is an active contributor to Vcinus communis Euphorbiaceae Laxative; anti-diabetic agent marketsofPraia. Suchactivity is testi- endémie,rare, endangeredand threat- thé understanding contemporary Jamaica Hope Ftfphonbi'ahirta Pempe Euphorbiaceae Warts of mony to thé oft repeatedand incontest- Smi'/ax offidnalis Gardons ened plant and marine species.This cultural héritageand societal practices able observation and village Sasparilla Smilaceae Anticancer agent that mral valuable bioresourceis constantly at conceming thé conservation ofhealth § St.Kitts and Nevis Brimstone Hill Asctepfascurassavica Milky-milky Asclepiadaceae Guineaworm and ringworm women possess more cultural knowl- Fortress National Spondias mombin Hog plum Diarrhea and dysentery risk of irréparable loss that accrues and human resources through thé use edge of thé soft technologies in thé Park8 Wamanda cathartic Anacardiaceae Skin infections, ringworm médicinal plants in thé Pacifie island Botanical Gardens Yellow bell from exposure to thé growth and of rearing and thé use of médicinal herbs of Nevis Apocyanceae 2004) i expansion of thé tourist industry in countries (DaSilva et al., than men who are more proficient in er St. Lucia Diamond Exostema sanctae- Chinchona Rubiaceae search of newer havens conducive to Botanical lyc/'ae thé use of hard technologiesinvolved Gardons; Mamiku Pluchea odorata Asteraceae Colds corporaland mental relaxation. Fragile Gardens naturalecosystems in thé Pacifieisland St Vincent and thé Kingshill Argemone mexfcana Yellow thistle Papaveraceae 2 Grenadines Forest Réserve Jatropha multifida Physic nut cancer agent states are susceptible to imminent dis- Euphorbiaceae mption and destmction.Furthermore, al Trinidad and MinistryofAgri- Cassia alata Wild senna Caesalpiniaceae Ringworm: Tobago culture, Land Purgative Marine Resources Momordica charantia Karilla Cucurbitaceae Malaria; diabètes (MALMR) ^.Aw pean-Trinidadiansand Tobogganshas beliefs and traditions in thé use ofbush ries encountered as occupational haz- beenthé subjectofa detailedsurvey in medicines. ards, and even to neutralize thé demor- thé control and treatment of diabètes Thé use of médicinal plants is not alizing effects of witchcraft (Lans et in Trinidad and Tobago(Mahabir and confined to humans alone. Ethnom- al., 2000, 2001). More recently, there Gulliford, 1997). Some 100 différent edicineshâve been used by huntersto bas been an assessment of médicinal médicinal plants were reported to treat themselves as well as their hunt- herb use amongst asthmatic patients hâve been used as bush medicines by ing dogs.Plant baths and décoctions, in in a Trinidadian healthcare facility over 600people afiBicted with diabètes préférenceto conventionalmedicines (Clémentet al., 2005). mellitus. An interestingfinding of thé that involve thé use ofsteroids, antibi- surveyindicated that severalmédicinal otics and enzymaticapplications (e. g. plant remédiesused by thé Indo-Fijian ananase from thé pineapple Ananas Danceis anart form in Yap.Through populationin Fiji werealso menti oned comosus),hâve been used in Dominica dance,legends are passed down, by thé Trinidadian and Toboggansof andTrinidad andTobago to counteract historyis rccordedand entertainment Indian origin in Trinidad and Tobago thé ill-effects of extemal parasites,to is created.Thé dances ofYap are raucous. colourful and well- snakebites, thus confirming thé strong influence treat wounds causedby orchestrated.Dancers perform a acrossgeographical location ofcultural scorpionstings and other similar inju- traditional dance à'ess. \

INTETOIATIONALJOURNAL 0FISLAND AFFURS in croppingSystems and animal hus- are important sources of foreign- In Seychelles, there exist several tion and release of a new rosé bred Arab, Persian, Malaysian, Sri Lankan exchange eamer in thé last décade is Chinese healers that bandryproduction Systems. exchangeincome. Annual exportation médicinal and omamentalplant spe- m Paris, France. This hybrid rosé in and traditional that ofshark liver oil (from Centropho- Yling-ylang - an important compo- of some 276 000 ornamental plants ciesof potentialmarket significance. shadesofyellow andpink was named drew upon their cultural héritage and rus granulosusor Centrophomsscal- nentof essencesand perfumes, clovers, bas been estimated at US$100 000. Endémieplants with médicinal prop- as thé Oasisof Bahrainby Her High- rituals as a means ofmaintaining their pratus),thé traditional uses of which and vanilla are of significancein thé Thé nationalomamental plant income erties are Erythroxylon sechellamm, ness Shaikha Sabeekabint Ibrahim Al goodhealth and daily good-feelstatus. hâvebeen as a lubricant in thé tanning market economy of Comoros which amounts to 40 percent. Thé occurrence Plectranthus aromatica, Lodoicea Khalifam, chairwoman of thé Suprême Thé practice of Maldivian traditional and textile industries(squalene oil)10, ranks amongstthé world's top two or and identification of aver 600 aromatic maldivica and Secamone schimperi- Council for Women. medicine, influenced to some extent as an ingrédientin thé cosmeticsand three producersof scentsand spices. andmédicinal plants in Mauritius and ana. Market-oriented omamental plants Cun-ently,assistance is being pro- by Ayurvedic practice, bas its origin skin healingproducts and as a remédiai Thèsevaluable exports in thé foreign- Rodrigues Island along with their are Bégonia sechellensis.Impatiens vided to thé Unani school of medicine. Trans- in thé healing of wounds, irritations exchangeeamings ofComoros, though corresponding ethnobotanical, phy- gordonii,Dracaena reflexa, Angraecum 0 Aid farmersin Bahrain in building mitted fi-om générationto génération of thé respiratoryand gastrointestinal significant,are nevertheless vulnérable tochemical, relevant pharmacologi- eburaeum and Vanilla phalaenopsis. up a complètefloriculture system, and practiced on a family-based level tracts and général debility (Vannuc- to thé varying market demandsand cal and antimicrobial data hâve been About 350 médicinal and aromatic including eut and potted flowers, by both holy men and women known cini, 1999). climatic influences such as cyclonic inventoried and compiled within thé plants (Hamdy, 2004) found in thé andbedding plants for exhibitionand as fanditha, there is a natural dying andmarine pollution disasters. framework of collaboration by thé Uni- Indian Océan islands of Comoros export purposesas well as to meet out of thé traditional occupationthat Europe Théaqueous extracts ofTchunfki - thé versity ofMauritius, thé Indian Océan and Seychelleshâve been described domesticdemand during thé winter is characterizedby inadéquatemonthly Cypms bas a rich héritagein thé use local namefor Securidacalongipedun- Commission and thé European Union with their distribution, pharmacology, season. income for self-sustenance.Moreover, of aromatic, culinary and médicinal culata, are used in religions rites by (Gurib-Fakimet al., 1994). chemistryand use in traditional medi- e Help vegetablegrowers to expand atoll communities taken in by thé phe- plantsin everydaylife. Récentexcava- thé Balantapeople in thé island com- Exportationof médicinalplants from cinéalong with théchemical formulae flower production for increased nomenonofglobalization and thé tour- tions at thé Pyrgos-Mavroraki site near munity of Guinea-Bisseau(Samorini, Madagascarbas been documented for of thé activecompounds (Gurib-Fakim income.Thé projectgoal is to estab- ist trade exercisea préférencefor thé Nicosia included clay perfume bottle 1996). This plant used either singly Drosera madagascariensis,Centella and Brendler, 2004).An inventory of lish Bahrain as a production center more efficient allopathie médical care fragments that contain 14 perfumes or in combinationwith other plantsin asiatica, Catharanthus roseus, Eugenia 59 médicinalplants in Comorosexists for eut ûowers and potted flowers in as modernization of lifestyles takes of varied fragrances and ten odor thé African continent - for example sp. Harongana madagascariensis, in thé Prélude4 database. An FAO thé Middle East. hold in private andpublic life sectors. essences. (Viegas, 2005). Fragrances in Ethiopia by thé Shimsha people Hazunta sp. Medemia nobilis, Voa- estimate indicates that there are 250 . Conduct large-scale cultivation for Thé World Health Organization of cinnamon, laurel, myrtle, anise, l againsttuberculosis and gonon-hea, in canga thouarsii, Satrana madinika, to 500 plants with curativeproperties floral démonstrations. initiative (WHO, 2002)to revivetradi- citrus bergamotand pine hâve been Malawi to induce'spirita^al possession' Moringa sp. and Prunus africana. in thé Seychelleswhich after survey A gardenemphasizing clean and green tional medicine and maintain Nature's identified. (Hargreaves,1986) and in SouthAfrica In 1993, exportation of 300 tons of and analysis could necessitate thé biotechnologiessponsored by thé Gulf laboratories ofbush medicines helps to Severalspecies of flora of Cypms § by thé Ikung people 'as medicine for Prunus africana bark was estimated establishment of a national data bank PetroleumIndustrial Company (GPIC safeguard against thé loss of Dhivehi hâve been used in their wild form as e peoplepossessed by evil spirits' (Win- at US$1.4 million and exportation of concemingspecies distribution, chemi- - Bahrain) ensures thé safe local cul- medicine. To avoid thé loss ofvaluable a source of aromatic oils and plant kleman and Dobkin de Rios, 1989) Catharanthus roseus roots and aerial cal andpharmaceutical properties and tivation and protection of important traditional knowledge available only medicines. Salvia fruticosa and Sideri- - basbeen reported as extremely toxic parts amountsto 1000tons. ethno-botanical knowledge. Plants Bahraini médicinal plants and herbs. in a verbal context, efforts are being tis cypria aremédicinal plants that are leadingto death(Samorini, 1996). In SaoTome and Principe, traditional that are categorizedas of 'endangered Moreover,in coopérationwith théBah- made to produce written texts for use used in tea préparationsto treat sore E Thé situation with Madagascarand healersuse a varietyof médicinalplants status'resulting from over-harvesting rain Centre for Studies and Research in traditional medicine course work throats.Four speciesofTeucrium that Mauritius is morepromising. Plants of to combat a number of ailments such and market exploitation in thé Indian (BCSR) field and laboratory studies and to accompany thé conservation of are used in thé island's traditional l food value and income (inclusive of as common colds and sinusitis (Table Océan islands are: Dracaena draco focus on l) thé efficacy of folk herbs médicinal plants that are endangered medicine hâve been studied for their aromaticspices and scents)are many l). Traditional stew intakes use sev- (CapeVerde), Catharanthus coriaceus andmédicinal plants used locally and by over-exploitativemarket forces or essentialoil content and nature (Arnold (Walter, 2001). Bakerella hoyifolia eral différent aromatic and médicinal (Madagascar), Lodoicea maldivica in indigenousbédouin medicine, and 2) by eventualextinction (MCST, 200l)9. et al., 1991). Origanum dubium and andErythroxylum laurifolium possess plantsin thédaily sustenanceof good and Toxocarpusschimperianus (Sey- their nutritional content and contribu- Other initiatives focus on documenting Thymus capitatus are well-known économiepotential as herbal remédies. health and a good-feelhealthy status. chelles). tion in relation to health and nutrition détails conceming dosage,deciphering sources of plant aromatics that are Examples are: thé fruits of Cycas Izaquenteprepared from thé seedsof (BCSR,2005). and establishing thé relevant chemical usedin Cypriot cuisines.Thé aromatic of&cinalis (Comoros),Lodoicea mal- Treculia Africana - Airican breadlruit Arab States formulae of thé plant curative princi- leaves of thé latter speciesyield oil Asia divica (Seychelles),wild coffeeCoÉfea is onesuch example that is usedto treat Recently at thé Bahrain GardenPair pies and thé purity of traditional rem- that is médicinal in nature and that is vaughanii (Mauritius); thé Malagasy coughs,fever and anémia.Médicinal (BGF) thé beautyof thé Bahrain rosé ThéMaldives naturally endowed with edies. Thé cataloguing of médicinal also used in thé préparation of cos- a clove - Syzygiumaromaticum (Mada- plant productshâve long beenused was in prominence in a traditional richnessofbiodiversity and currently plants and herbsin Dhivehi Beys,thé mettes and perfumes. Other aromatic gascar); cinnamon - Cinnamomum as antimalarials by traditional healers. Arabie courtyard.On-site workshops is a favoriteholiday spot for touristsin establishment of a national herbarium plants are Capparisspinosa that is of aromaticum(Seychelles) and vanilla Extracts from médicinal plants hâve in thé fair's rosé garden at thé Bah- searchof mentaland physical calm. of traditional plant-based remédies, médicinal and culinary significance; - Vanilla planifolia (Madagascar, been examined for their antimalarial raini international centre, focused on Maldivian traditional medicine or and thé development ofskilled human and, Laura nobilis which is used in Comoros and thé French territory of protection againstPlasmodium falci- Achafas - professionalbraiders dem- DhivehiBeys practiced for centuries resources in thé areas ofbotany, phar- thé préparation of cosmoceuticals. Réunion). pammand P. berghei (Madureira et al., onstratingtheir skills by braidinggiris' in thénation's atolls once was thé only macology, other forms of traditional In thé early 1990s, thé Ministry of Thé omamentalplants Hibiscus lilii- 1999).Other plants such as Pycnanthus hair with rosé buds and materials, and form oftreatment in thé conservation medicine are foreseen (MCST, 2001; Agriculture, Natural Resourcesand floms and Trochetia boutoniana (Mau- angolensisand Morinda citrifoliaused women grinding pétais for use in thé of humanhealth. Current popularity MCCA, 2005). Environment launched a project for ritius), thé fem tree Cyatheasp.. Ficus in traditional medicine hâve also been making of roséwater, médicinal herbs and préférencefor their remédiaiuse Fisheries and marine produce con- thé "Development and Cultivation sp., various orchids and thé aquatic assessedfor their antimalarial activity and perfumes (Torr, 2005). Another resultsfrom thé historical interactions stitute a major sourceof income for ofAromatic and Médicinal Plants" plant Aponogeton sp. (Madagascar) (Ancolio et al., 2002). feature of thé fair was thé revela- betweenand with thé ancient Indian, thé Maldivians. A modest foreign- (Walter, 2001). Aromatic and medici-

INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0FISLAND AFFAIRS 11 nal plantsof économiesignificance as Latin America and thé Caribbean thé country's PhannacyCouncil. Thé Table4. Médicinal plant activities in thé Caribbean région (a) CARAPA"activities new industrialcrops are conserved and Thé Caribbean région known for its conservation and maintenance ofoma- Year Locaîkm Thème Remarks foreseen maintainedin thé botanicalgardens of calypsos and cricketing excellence mentaland médicinal plants is 1998 Trinidad & Tobago To Rescue a Caribbean Héritage Création and sustenance of an awareness of thé Athalassagovemment nursery. In is comprised of many small islands for continuation in thé réhabilitation traditional médicinal héritage in thé Caribbean région focusing on: current times, thé rising cost of allo- that are diversity-rich in plant genetic of thé 112-yearold Botanical Garden. . documentation of herbal medicines pathichealthcare is paralleledwith thé resources. There are many botanicals Severalmédicinal plants are oftour- . value and varieties of alternative medicine . uses and benefits of alternative medicine and market demand for prescription-free of socio-economic signifîcance. Aro- ist interests and export significance. traditional healing practices in healthcare phytopharmaceuticalsfrom médicinal matic,médicinal, spice and omamental Dried bark ofCroton eleuteria used in . médicinal and culinary plants as new market products plants and herbsthat are increasingly species are widespread throughout thé préparationof digestive teas and 1999 St. Croix, Utilizing Médicinal Plants to Add Value to Development of national policies to: US Virgin Islands" Caribbean Agriculture being regarded as new industrial crops6 thé région and are conserved and exportedto Italy occursin abundance . maintain and safeguard indigenous plant biodiversityof économiepotential (Akkelidou et al., 2004). maintained either in well-established in thé Eleuthera Island of thé Bahamas. . developtechnologies conducive to productionand Thé Maltese islands constitute an apt national botanical réserves or gène A source of cascarilla - a spicy resin commercializationof médicinaland culinaryplants . support exploratory efforts with a focus on example where médicinal plants are banks of plant genetic resources and a fragrance,it is usedin infusions identifyingtraditional médicinal plants and their uses in thé health and agricultural sectors widely usedin everydaylife aspart of (Table 2). Other natural products are to treat coughs and other ailments. 2000 Jamaica Caribbean Hgrbs in Health Promotion Focus on Ethnomedicine and Médicinal Plants to culinary practice and folk médicinal edible, non-edible and essential oils. Kalanchoe tea derived from Kalanchoe facilitate: Salute . explorationof academic-industryinteraction and remédies(Lanfranco, 1992).Buzbiez Antigua and Barbuda participated pinnataand Gamalamee 21 Gun investment (Foeniculumvulgare) and Fidloqqom in a sexennialproject on thé économie Bush Tea - thé aphrodisiac bush tea or . régionaland internationalexchanges in (Boragioofi&cinalis) commonlyknown under-exploited tropical tourist tea obtained from Bursera sima- ethnomedicine through electronic means biology of . émergence and récognition in thé Caribbean of a as fennel and boragerespectively are plants (EUBTROP) two décadesago mba are popular with tourists. régionalWHO Collaborating Centre for théAmericas for ethno-medicineand médicinalplants two suchexamples. Several examples a focus on development As a result of thé 1989 political with thé of 2001 St. Lucia To Integrate Herbal Medicine into Mainstream Focus on harmonizing herbal medicine into of folklore médicinal herbs in thé herbaria; databases; phytochemical landscape change in Europe, Cuba Healthcare mainstream healthcare emphasizing: . thé value of médicinal plants in mainstream Argotti Herbariumof thé University of studies on médicinal plants to safe- embarked on thé establishment of healthcare jQ Malta hâve been exhibited for public guard against thé loss of traditional 8000 organic gardensand aver 200 . herbalmedicine healthcare used traditionallyin thé Caribbean for severat décades i a green-basedbiotechnology institutes viewing as means of sustaining knowledge and medicine; and, to . éducationfor pharmacistsand thé généralpublic private, public and pursuit scientific explorethrough research undemtilized to help sustainurban agriculture and 2003 Suriname" Integrating Herbal Medicine into thé Healfhcare Developmentof healthcarean marketingstratégies System in thé Caribbean with focus on: interest in thé médicinal flora ofMalta ensure national food security. Thé suc- § plant resources for their économie . Sustainableproduction ofgood qualitymédicinal (Table 3). Research studies indicate potentialas sourcesoffood andmedi- cessof thé province ofCienfuegos as plants . Promotionof researchin thé efficacyof médicinal e that several aromatic and médicinal cinés(OAS, 1990).Today, thé import, thé 'urban agriculture'capital of Cuba plants plants in Malta are of potential sig- market availability and monitoring results from thé nation-wide provision . Delivery of plant médicinal healthcare 2005 St. Lucia nificance in socio-economic context and sale of médicinal plants with local of accessiblelow-cost quality-control- AdvancingCaribbean Herbs in thé 21" Century of thé island. and scientific names are regulated by led biofertilizers, insect biocontrol Focus on thé science and commerce of Caribbean herbs: . légal issues in trade of herbs agentsand biopesticides. One amongst . herbs and their marketing thé few countries in thé world with a . Caribbean herbal in industry l Table 3. Research studies on médicinal in Malta11 plants . Education and herbal medicine Scientific name Research-targeted Molecufe(s) Remafks command-market economy in lieu of (b) Entrepreneurial activities Ecballium elaterium Cucurbitacins Of significance in inhibiting ovarian a free-market economy, Cuba has a Severalentrepreneurial andsmall business activities hâve emerged inthé Caribbean région e.g. : and stomach cancer cell growth . BlueMountain Aromatics (Jamaica): herbal bath and therapeutic oil products beehive biotechnology industry that . CaribbeanHerbal Business Association (CHBA) established in Grenadain 2003and based in Crataegus monogyna Oleanolic acid Potential Angiotensin-converting Trinidadand Tobago (www. caribbeanherbs.net) enzyme inhibitor results from some 220 biotech insti- . Cher-Mere(Trinidad and Tobago): body- and healthcare products, fragrances and essences Drimia maritima Glycoside Only Maltese plant that was exported; tûtes1 2 and research centres with 30, 000 . DeLa Grenade Industries (Grenada): nutmeg-, spice- and pepper-based products Used in cardiac malfunction; Now an . EXPROECO(Dominican Republic): trade with neem-based products endangered species as a result of loss plus workers that producesabout 200 . EdenHerbs (St. Lucia): Caribbean tradition ofusing natural herbal remédies inhealthcare andbeauty enhancement (wwm.edenherbs. comf) rural areas ta urban development; of biotechnologyproducts for expert to (e) Educationalactivities successfully regenerated through aver 50 countries. Similar success Awareness^conservation andrational use of médicinal plants isbeing promoted through educational activities and exhibitions e.g. micropropagation . ^Summei^Course:Caribbean Médicinal Plants-Ethnopharmacy, pharmacopoeia, régulation practices Université Antilles la Cucurbita maxima Essential oils Anthelminthic agent in canine Thé andfolk (Thé des etde is envisageawith thé researchbeing Guyane,French West Indies, July 1 -13,2002) treatment of significano in veterinary medicine conducted with traditional médicinal . Treasuresofthé Caribbean: Exhibition inthé Natural Products Expo (London, UK, 2003) promotesCaribbean herbal products aims at creating new herbal markets inEurope; and emphasizing théwealth of thé botanical base and market Nerium oleander Used in cardiac malfunction Glycoside plants (Acosta de Luz et al., 2000; potentialof théCaribbean traditional; médicinal industry Erica multiflora Glycolic acid Used in traditional medicine as an Fuentes Fiallo, 2001). . Commissioningofthé préparation ofa pioneertext: Handbook ofselected Caribbean Herbs - Phase l (CHBA, 2004) identified as active diuretic astringent, urinary antiseptic and Researchassessment ofthé extent ofuse of herbalremédies byasthmatic patients and détermination offactors influencing décisions bypatients to component diuretic; skincare health products now In thé Caribbean région a variety usesuch remédies (Faculty ofMédical Sciences, University ofthé West Indies, Trinidad - Clément etal., 2005) being developed containing glycolic teas are recommended acid of herbal that Hyoscyamus albus Hyoscyamine alkaloids Used as a sédative, pain killer; or administered by curanderaswho authorized médical approval required are generally well-meaning women communities,such incompréhensible respondto thé folk médicinaltherapy cancer, diarrhea, and stomach pain. prior to use Momordica charantia Lectins Effective against gastrointestinal believed to possess some acquired divinegifts' are associated with bmjas administrations of thé curanderas. In Grenadaas thé world's secondlarg- infection; reported to possess anti- spiritual healing power in thé use of withwitches who may engage in ritu- thé DominicanRepublic, several varie- est producer of essential oils derived cancer (breast) properties aïsand secretive practices in treating Capparis spinosa Secondary metabolites Possesses culinary and médicinal herbal-based médicinal balms and ties ofherbal teaswith spécifierecipes from thé seedsof thé nutmeg tree, illnessesand diseases not flavonoids, terpenoids properties rub-on potions. In village and tribal that do for préparation are marketed to treat Myristica fi-agrans accounts for some

INTERNAIIOKALJOURNAL 0FISLAND AFFAIRS 13 25 percentof thé worid production of thé West Indies. Activities of field areasin thé Republic of thé Marshall Village income in Langalangaresults andaround 40 percentof thé country's genebanksare carried out within thé Islands, 'ra'ui' in thé Cook Islands, ^ from shellmoney andjewellery from expertrevenue. In thélast two décades, facilities of thé MALMR, thé UWI 'tabu' areas in Fiji and 'tapu' and molluscshells. Overharvesting of thé there has been a downtum in experts and Caroni Ltd. 'fono' areas in Niue. Thèse traditional mollusc shells endangerstheir avail- and foreign-exchange earnings that MALMR has several important arealocations are repositoriesof rich ability and damagesthé environment, results from decreased world demand ongoing plant biodiversity programs médicinal plant diversity that are har- notwithstanding that this, resource for raw nutmeg and market competi- suchas l) thé developmentand main- nessedto conservethé healthcareneeds providesvillage women with income tion with other producing countries. tenance ofa germplasm bank ofspices of thé island communities in thé Pacifie to meet their family and domestic In Jamaica, Pimenta racemosa, an and herbs; 2) development and main- région(UNEP, 2005). responsibilities. ingrédientofperfumes is usedas a fla- tenanceof floriculture germplasmto Kava in thé Pacifie island countries "This work should also stimulate vouring agentin cooking and as body feed 'eut flowers' market demand; 3) is widely consumedas a médicinal, a interest in research into thé cultural tonifier in baths. On thé other hand, ex-situ conservation of endangered cérémonial drink and as an anti-stress significanceof shell money,and help Grenada's vast natural resource ofvir- and rare médicinal plants; 4) landscape beverage.Prier to thé ban of kava in women in Langalanga who are cur- tually untappedindigenous médicinal management;and 5) initiation of public Europe and thé USA ( DaSilva et al., rently looking for ways to develop a plants,herbs and omamentals provides awareness programs to inculcate an 2004) annualrevenue of export sales muséum and conserve valuable arti- opportunities for market diversifica- appréciationof greenbox technology in thé Pacifierégion amountedto 50 factsof thé shellmoney trade. Another tion e.g. with cinnamon, cloves and in thé conservation and management million p.a. In Vanuatu,Kava foreign- needidentified in thé casestudy is for cocoa. Furthermore, thé establishment of thé environment. exchangeamount to 20 per cent.Kava- research into how women in Melane- ofa banana tissue culture laboratory a In récent times thé Caribbean région kava is of cérémonial, social, ritual and sian culture candevelop and maintain décadeago is of potential économie has witnessed a number of initiatives in health significance in island culture successful small businesses."20 relevancein thé production of edible relation to médicinalplants that range is widely consumedthroughout thé Pacifie island communities. Offered as vaccines. from a séries of stock-taking and for- Conclusion u Trmidadand Tobago, by virtue ofits ward-looking international conférences a mark ofwarm welcome ofneighbour- Thé biocultural and socio-economic Q TraditionalSakau préparation inPohnpei. Sakau, aMicronesian variant ofPolynesian kava is prepared from thé as peuples,its diverse societalcustoms, to someentrepreneurial initiatives and ing tribal chiefs,kava has been used rootof thé pepper plant by pounding théplant root upon a basalticsakau stone that often rounded river rocks diversityof médicinalplants and herbal andproficiency in thé useoftraditional educational activities (Table 4). a cérémonial drinlc at village weddings, (CourtesyDana Lee Ling) medicineresults from thé continuing médicinal knowledge, is thé natural as a beverage that tones down in ten- Resortto their usenotwithstanding thé heads and seaweed farmers are few. beliefand reliance ofmiddle- and low g repository of cultural inheritances Thé Pacifie sions in conflict situations resulting in availabilityof public andprivate health Many mâle farmersadopt a somewhat income strata of rural urban societies in from earlyAfi-ican,Chinese, European, Traditional herbal medicines hâve been thé inducementofempathy and good- Systemsanses from a variety offactors casual or recreational attitude towards thé age-oldcurative properties oftradi- Indian and Middle Eastem migrants. used in ail thé Pacifie islands since will and as a folk medicine that makes with traditional beliefs and cultural seaweedfarming since it is 'te kakaki- tional plant medicinethat is practiced This legacy of médicinal knowledge time immémorial, and, hâve been rec- thé unbearable bearable. influencesbeing thé mostprominent botu' or 'thé act of ridding oneselfof worldwide in island communities. For is évident in thé large number of ognizedas part of thé cultureand way Médicinal plants and herbal rem- (Janska,2005). boredom'. (Bergschmidt,199716). example,thé relianceofpeople in thé sûi endémie naturalized médicinal and of life. Examplesof arealocations of edies aka as bush medicines are widely Théimportation oftraditional plants, In thé Marshall Islands there is Indian Océan islands and elsewhere on ^ aquaticplants that areofcontemporary thé culture, customs and traditional popularwith thé middle-incomestrata in addition to Fijian traditional medi- concem that there is a décline in thé herbal medicine is borne out to some l économieand landscaping significance resourcemanagement practices of thé of thé populationsof thé island com- cinés, for use by ethnie communities practice and use of traditional plant extent by researchthat tends to validate in market-oriented activities and thé Pacifie island communities are: 'Mo' munities as in thé Caribbean région. is permitted,certified and govemed by medicinewhich resultsfrom thé spread thé use of some local ethnobotanical developmentoforaamental ponds. théPhannacy and Poisons Act of Fiji. of globalization and thé introduction préparations. On thé other hand, calm Facilities for thé conservation, Updatesofhealth législation focus on of clinical pharmacy and occidental and relief may be due to thé result of maintenanceand évaluation ofaquatic, thémonitoring of potentialdangers heathcareproducts and techniques. To a psychologicalstate rather than to thé cosmetic, médicinal, and ornamen- thatarise from thé uncontrolled qual- safeguardagainst thé lossoftradtional présenceof a pharmacological sub- tal plants of économie significance ity, remédiaiefficiency, and safety of knowledgewomen through their newly stance.However, as thé applicationof hâve been established in Trinidad herbal medicines. formed Marshall Islands Society for médicinal plants increases woridwide and Tobago.Thèse are managedand Fiji in reducingits heavyreliance thé Protection and Promotion of Tra- by thé use of novel herbal essences monitored by thé Ministry of Agri- onfuel oil anda fluctuating médicinal ditional Medicine hâve undertaken and healthcare balms and lotions and culture, Land and Marine Resources market has embarkedmarket diver- thé production of a herbal chart; and notwithstandingtheir appréciationin (MALMR) in an interactive and 'net- sificationin usingprocessed coconut thé documentationof local practices idioms and verses, there is need for working' mechanismof conservation oil asa sourceofcheaper and cleaner used in thé treatment ofbone fractures, morepharmacological knowledge and of plant genetic resourcesin several biofuel-biodiesel.Similar initiatives reproductiveproblems and oither ail- researchand caution conceming thé institutional, académieand commercial hâvealso been made in PapuaNew ments. 17 useof médicinalplants (Table5). facilities such as thé ministry's agricul- Guiaeaand Vanuatu. Seaweeds as a source ofnutraceuti- Again, there are some hundred dif- tural services, thé Eastem Caribbean In Kiribati, farmers between 46 cals (e.g., Laminaria), cosmoceuticals ferent orchids and amongstthat are Institute of Agriculture and Forestry and55 yearsof âgeare categorized (e.g., Asparagopsis, Palmaria, Chond- sourcesof valuable natural products (ECIAF), thé Cocoa ResearchInsti- as 'unimwane' or 'old men and heads rus), agroceuticals(e. g. Fucus,Lami- such as antimalarials and scents such tute, Caroni Ltd. and thé University TraditionalYapese food dishes made out oftender coconut leaves (Mumkesan Rrishnapillai) ofhouseholds'.Women as household naria),biotechnological products (e. g, as Cribbia confusa with its strongly

INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0FISLAND AFFAIRS 15 Table 5. Thé Socio-Cultural Appréciation and their attainment of high social status touristic and romanticized bliss, there toried to déterminetheir fûll potential. developmentofsmall islandstates and Caution of Traditional Medicine and Healers in urban societies. is no doubt that there is much in terms Perhaps,thé 2001-2010 Décade for their diverse communities. Thé use Source Quotes of Appréciation and Caution Traditional medicine is an intégral of thé médicinal value of végétaland African Traditional Medicine by thé of green box -based biotechnologies Do not adore thé smoothness of thé bitter-apple; it is acrid inside African proverb and indisputable component of thé marine resources that merits technical Summit Organization Afi-i- When a knowledgeable old person dies, a whole library of thé of provides island communities oppor- disappears daily économie,political and culture assessment and scientific research. On can Unity (OAU) may help focus tunities for thé sustenanceof biopro- Amelia Simmons Garlics, though used by thé French. are better adapted to thé life of Pacifie islanders (Parsons, 1985) thé other hand, random collection and attention on thé health ofAfrican and ductivity of médicinal plants in their uses of medicine than cookery It constitutesthé responseof simple indiscriminate use by many of thé local Asianisland populations endowed with aquatic and terrestrial environments; Attributed toAvicenna There are no non-healing herbs - only thé lack of knowledge island communities eut off from thé peopleof théavailable médicinal flora dependenceon traditional medicine for maintaining thé stability of their Apocrypha, Ecclesiasticus, Honor thé healer for his services, Chapter 38 for thé Lord created him. mainstreamof advancedtechnologies for immédiatefinancial gain contrib- and médicinal plants notwithstanding socio-cultural traditions; for resilience- Mis skill cornes from thé Most High, and médical care to illnesses that inter- utesto thé possibility of extinction of their marginalizationand vulnerability buildingcapacities to safeguardagainst and he is rewarded by kings. Thé healer's knowledge gives him high standing fere with social, économie, political many endémieplants notwithstanding in geographical location, globaliza- économie vulnerability and climatic and wins him thé admiration of thé gréât. and religious activities. Finau (1994) are being a source bioactive tion and lack of Nature's bestowal of Thé Lord has created medicines from thé earth, they of disasters;and for improving gender and a sensible man will not disparage them. in his considération of traditional molécules. Furthermore, thé degree natural resources of économie signifi- equitability in thé use of skilled and Benjamin Franklin Much virtue fis) in Herbs, little in men. médicinal knowledge used in treating of thé richnessofnatural biodiversity cance.Thé Mauritius Déclaration (UN, non-skilled human resources in island Bible Psalm 51 ;7 Purge me with hyssop, and l shall be clean: wash me, and l shall illnesses within thé social and physical on many of thèseisland communities 2005) furthermore draws attention employment,labour and management be whiter than snow environments of a society identified though common is still unknown as to thé important rôle of culture and schemes. German Proverb Thé garden is thé poor man's apothecary. thé following three precepts in thé they hâvenot beenthematically inven- resilience-buildingin thé sustainable Hi Ida Leyel Botany and medicine came down thé âges hand in hand until (leading expert on herbalism) thé seventeenth century; then both arts became scientific, their practice oftraditional medicineof thé ways parted, and no new herbals were compiled. Thé botanical Pacifie islands: books ignored thé médicinal properties of plants and thé Références '' Social interactive communication médical books contained no plant lore Abbas,J. A., AI-Oqlah,A. A. and Mahasneh,A. M. 1992. intellectualproperty. World Journal of Microbiology and Guirib-Fakim,A. and Brendler,T. 2004. Médicinaland Herbalplants in thé TraditionalMedicine of Bahrain. Hippocrates Let thy kitchen be thy apothecary; and, Let foods be your and acceptancethrough thé use of Biotechnology,Vol. 20 (9): 903-934. AromaticPlants of IndianOcéan Islands: Madagascar, médiane. time-honored rituals that reinforce EconomieBotany, Vol. 46 (2): 158-163, FAO. 1995. Conservation and Sustainable Utilization Comoros,Seychelles and Mascarenes.Medpharm Acostade Luz, L., Fuentes Fiallo, V.R., Martin. G., and Ro- of Plant GeneticResources in IndianOcéan Islands. ScientificPublishers. Stuttgart, ISBN: 3-88763-094-7. James Duke M. D. An old-fashioned vegetable soup, without any enhancement, is a social relationshipsand strengthen driguezFerradâ, C. T. 2000. Agricultural Investigations Sub-regionalSynthesis Report. Annex 1 ofthé Report In:Hamdy (2004). more powerful anticarcinogen than any known medicine bonding between related and diverse in speciesof fréquentus in thé traditionalmedicine. l. of théSub-Regional Preparatory Meeting for Eastern Hamdy, R. C. 2004. Book Review -Médicinal and Hold fast ta thé treasures of thé ancestors Maori saying Llantén(Plantago major L. ). RevistaCubana de Plantas Africaand Indian Océan Islands, Nairobi, Kenya 12 AromaticPlants of thé IndianOcéan Island. Southern For they are that hâve been handed down to us by God groups (Parsons, 1984), s Médicinales,Vol. 5(1): 6-9. -14 September. MédicalJournal, Vol. 97 (11) November: 1136. Oliver Goldsmith Aromatic plants bestow No spicy fragrance while they grow; But . Interactive bonding through 'gifts' Akkelidou,D., Papadopoulosand Chimonidou,D. 2004. FAO. 1996. Mauritius Country Report to thé FAO Hargreaves,B.J. 1986.Plant induced spirit possession in l crush'd or trodden to thé ground, Diffuse their balmy sweets Reportfrom thé Republic of Cyprus.Nicosia. (http:// International Technical Conférence on Plant Genetic Malawi.Society of MalawiJournal, Vol. 39:26 -35. around. of financial significance bestowed www.ienica.net/reports/cyprus.pdf) Resourees(Leipzig, 1996). (http://www. fao.org/WAI- Ibrahim,Y. 2003. Ecosystèmes Forestières des Comores: AI-Saleh,G. F.S., Gamal EI-Din,A. Y., Abbas, J.A. and Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. l firmly believe that if thé whole materia medica ould be sunk to before, during and after treatment; CENT/Faolnfo/AgriculUAGP/AGPS/pgrfa/pdf/mauritiu.Biodiversité,principales menaces, perspectivede thé bottom of thé sea, it would be ail thé better for mankind and and which in some casesprovide Saeed,N. A. 1997.Phytochemical and biological pdf) mise en valeur -Le cas de la Forêt du Kartala dans ail thé worse for thé fishes studiesof médicinalplants in Bahrain:Thé family Farnsworth,N. R.,Akerele,D., Bingel,A. S.,Soejarto, lîle ; : Proceedings Régional l de Ngazidja In of thé livelihood means for families (Finau, Chenopodiaceae- Part 2, InternationalJournal of D.D. and Guo,Z. G. 1985.Médicinal Plants in Therapy. Palauan proverb Like thé breadfruit of Kayangel, just one rotten pièce will spoil workshopon InvasiveAlien Speciesand Terrestrial i Pharmacognosy,Vol. 35:38 -42. thé whole bunch. 1981), Bulletin of thé World Health Organization,Vol. 63: EcosystemRéhabilitation for WesternIndian Océan as Ancolio,C, Azas,N., Mahiou, V, Olliver,E., DiGorgio, 965-981. IslandStates- Sharing Expérience, Identifying Priori- Samoan saying Thé strangers' treatments will work for thé strangers' illnesses . Reliance on a verbal pharmaco- D., Keita,A., Timon-David,P. and Balansard,G. Finau,S. A. 1981.Traditional medicine in Tonga: a and thé Samoan treatments for thé Samoan illnesses tiesand Defining Joint Action, Seychelles, October 13 poeia and storehouseof traditional 2002.Antimalalarial activity of extractsand alkaloids preambleto a Pacifiemodel. Fiji Médical Journal, Vol. - 17,2003 Ed. Muremootoo, J.R. (http://www.gisp. Samuel Butler in poem Learn'd he was in medic'nal lore, isolatedfrom six plantsused in Maliand Sao Tome. knowledge about plants, animais, 9 (8/9):93-99. org/downloadspubs/AISworkshops.asp)pgs. 160plus Hudibras For by his side a pouch he wore, PhytotherapyResearch, Vol. 16:646- 9. Finau, S.A. 1994.Traditional Medicine in thé Modem annexes1 -10 (pgs 1 -xlvi). English poet and satirist Replète with strange hermetic powder beliefs, seasons,religions été that Arnold,N., Bellomaria, B, Valentini, G. and Rafaiani, SM. Pacifie:A Dilemmaor a Blessing?In: Morrison,J., Janska,E. 2005. TraditionalMedicine in Trinidadand That wounds nine miles point-blank would solder. perpétuâtesand that reinforces thé Comparativestudy on essential oil of someTeucrium Geraghty,P. andCrowl, L. (eds.), Fauna,Flora, Food Tobago(http://www. ias.unu.edu/research/traditional- Qur'an, SurahXVI:68-( Thy Lord taught thé Bée speciesfrom Cyprus. Journal of Ethnopharmacology,andMedicine: Science of PacifieIsland Peuples, Vol. III, cfm) importance of thèse parameters in medicine. Ta build its cells in hills, Vol.35 (2):105-113. pgs..47-64. (Suva) Institute of PacifieIsland Studies. Kanvinde,H. S. 1999. MaldivianGender Rôles in Bio- On trees and in man's habitations; societyand thé interrelationshipsof BahrainCentre for Studies and Research. 2005 (http:// ISBN982-02-0106-3. resource ManagementRAP Publication 1999/15. Then to eat of ail www.bcsr.gov.bh/english/index.php) FuentesFiallo, V. R.,Méndez, G., Hernandez,C. M.L., Ro- ISBN:974-680-163-5 Thé produce of thé earth . . . its constituents (Whistler, 1985). Bergschmidt,H.1997. Seaweed production in Kiribati: driguezFerradà, Soler, B. T.,Gonzalez, R. and Lapez, From within their bodies cornes a drink of varying colors, (http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?uri_file=/ a newcash crop. Bulletin Vol. 10, No. 3. pgs. 10-12, Wherein is healing for mankind A.2001,. Dynamics ofmonthly and daily accumulation DOCREP/005/AC792E/AC792EOO.HTM) September15 In comparisonto thé régionsof thé of alkaloidsand flavonoidesin Incamatapassiflora L. Kong.J. M.,Goh, N. K, CHia,L. S. andChin, T. F.2003. Vedas: Hymns of thé Atharva- "This herb, born of honey, dripping honey, sweet honey, honied, (http://europa.eu.int/comm/development/body/publica-RevistaCubana de Plantas Médicinales, Vol. 6:(3): 105 Récentadvances intraditional plant drugs and orchids. Veda21 is thé remedy for injuries; moreover it crushes insects" Caribbean and thé Pacifie islands, tions/fish/pe099710.pdf) -111JSSN1028-4796on-line ActaPharmacologia Sinica, Vol. 24: 7 - 21. William Shakespeare Trust not thé physician, hlis antidotes are poison documentedinformation and reports Chin,W.Y. 1998. AGuide taMédicinal Plants (1998 Re- GlobalEnvironment Facility (GEF). 2003. Integrated Lanfranco,G. 1992.Popular Use of MédicinalPlants in print).Published 1992, First Edition. ISBN 9971883031; concerning thé African islands and ParticipatoryEcosystem Management in and around théMaltese Islands. INSULA, No. 1, pgs.34 - 35. 012414,pgs. 160. SB protectedareas, Phase l (http://thegef. org/Documents/ Lans,C., Harper,T, Georges,K. andBridgewater, ER. scented flowers. Thé investigation Similarities exist use plant thé Maldives (Table are scanty,. of in thé of l) Clément,Y.N., Willuima, S.F., Aranda, D., Chase, R., Project_Proposals_for_Endorsem/Cape_Verde_-_ln- 2000.Médicinal plants used for dogs in Trinidadand thé médicinal value of orchids as a medicines across geographical dis- scarce, and inaccessible. Landlocked Watson,N.,Mohammed, R.,Stubbs, 0 and Williamson, tegrated_Participatory_Ecosystem_Management.pdf) Tobago.Préventive Veterinary Medicine, Vol. 45:201 D.2005. Médicinal HerbUse amongAsthmatic Patients Granda, D.C., Towers, M.G.A., Fernândez, L. and -220. source oftraditional medicines (Kong tances as women 'doctors' are more developing countries in thé African Attendinga Specialty Care Facility inTrinidad. BMC Sânchez,D. D. 1995.Metabolic altérations in patients Lans,C., Harper, T, Georges, K. And Bridgewater, E.R. et al., 2003) is of concem to conser- engageathan their mâle counterparts and Asian continent seemingly fare Complément.AlternNed. Vol. 5: 3 (pdf pages 1-8). dealt with low oral doses about amidarona. Cuban 2001.Médicinal and ethonveterinary remédies ofhunt- vationists who fear that thèse plants in thé practice ofAboriginal, African much better in coverage by thé public DaSilva,E.J. 2003. Biosciences andBiotechnologies Magazineof Infirmary,September - December. ersin Trinidad.BMC Complementary and Alternative forSustainable Development ofIsland States inAfrica Guirib-Fakim, A. 2004.The Utilization and Conservation Medicine,Vol. 1:10(17 pgs in pdfformat). and Caribbean island traditional medi- and technical press.Notwithstanding will soonbe consideredas endangered andtheArab States. INSULA, FebruaryYear 12No. 1 of MédicinalPlants in Mauritius.HerbalGram, Vol. 64: Mahabir,D. and Gulliford,M. C. 1997.Use of médicinal ISSN1021.0814.pgs27-34. speciesas a result of demandsin thé ciné. As concerns modem diseases that small islands like those found 34-43. plantsfor diabètes inTrinidad and Tobago. Pan Ameri- DaSilva,E.J,Murukesan. V.K., Nandwani, D,Taylor, M. Guirib-Fakim,A., Gu_ho,J., Sewraj,M. D. andDulloo, canJournal of PublicHealth, Vol. 1:174 -179. expandingmarkets new sources like HIV/AIDS, traditional healers are in thé Indian Océan and elsewhere of of andJosekutty, P. 2004. Pacifieislands: abiotech- C. Thé M.E. 1994. Plantes médicinalesde l'ile Rodrigues. Madureira,M.C., Martins, A.R,Gomez, M., Nogoueira, F., plant medicines. in demandwhich eventually adds to are often portrayed as attractions of nologyresource bankof médicinal plants and traditional Editionde l'OceanIndien, Mauritius, pgs 589 Antunes,A., Proençada Cunha,A. and Rosàrio,,V. E.

INTERNATIONAIJOURNAL 0FISLA^D AFFAIRS 17 1999.Validation of MédicinalPlant Productsused as OrganizationofAmerican States (OAS). 1990. Economie UnitedNations (UN). 2005. MauritiusDéclaration herbalindustry comprised of aromatic,médicinal and Australia.Transcript available at: http://abc.net.au/ra/ stringsof shelldisks threaded together in particular antimalarialsin TraditionalMedicine of thé Démocratie Biologyof UnderutilizedTropical Plants. Régional (Outcome of International Meeting to Review thé culinaryplant products pacbeaVstories/s5845660.htm patternsusing a mixtureof red,black, white and brown Republicof SâoTome and Principe. In: Proceedings and Scientific DevelopedProgram, Washington, D. Implementationof thé Programmeof Actionfor thé . encourageand promoteresearch éducation and 18Thé Secrétariat of thé Pacifie Community (SPC) - with colours.Thé red-lipped rock oyster called romu (Chama of FirstInternational Meeting of thé ResearchInitiative C. pgs.39. SustainableDevelopment of Small Island Develop- trainingin thédemain of Caribbeanherbs. its headquartersin Nouméa,New Caledoniaand its pacifica)provides red coloureddisks. Thé smallwhite on TraditionalAnti-Malarials(RITAM), Moshi, Tanzania Parsons,C. D. 1984. Idiomsand distress:kinship and ing States),Document A/Conf 207/L. 6, PortLouis, i" ThéUS Virgin Islands has Observer Status in AOSIS régionaloffice in Suva,Fiji, is thé premierrégional shellknown locally as kee(Beguina semi-orbiculata) December8-11, pgs,57 sicknessamong thé people of théKingdom of Tonga. Mauritius,January 14. and SIDS. technicaland development organization ofthé Pacifie whenheated gives orange disks. Black disks are (http://www.mim.su.se/english/partnerships/ritam_pro-Culture,Medicine and Psychiatry, Vol. 8(1): 71-93. UNEP.2002. Maldives State of thé EnvironmentReport. isLandlocked byGuyana, Brazil, and French Guiana and islands.Since its inceptionSPC has carried outseveral obtainedfrom thé horse musselshells called kurila gram.pdf) Parsons,C. D., 1985. Healing Practicesin thé South ISBN:92-807-2140-2. pgs 86. with northernfrontier open to thé AtlanticOcéan, Suri- scienceand technologyprogrammes amongst which (Atrinavexillum); and thick white disks are obtained Martins.A.P.,Salgueiro, L.R., d Cunha,A.P.,Vila, R., Can- Pacifie.Institute of Polynesian Studies, Brigham Young UNEP.2005.Pacifie Environment Outlook. UNEP/SPREP nameis memberofThé Alliance ofSmall Island States seaweedfarming figures prominently. Information on froma cockle(Anadara granosa). igueral,S., Tomi, F. and Casaniova, J. 2003. Chemical University-Hawaii.lSBN-0939154560. SpécialEdition for thé Mauritius International meeting (AOSIS)- a coalitionof smallisland and low-lying thé advancesmade in seaweedfarming in Fiji,Kiribati, 10Quotation by SPREPCoastal Management Advisor Compositionof thé BarkOil of Cedrelaodorata from S. PréludeMedicinals Database. 2005. (http://www. metafro. forthé 10-year Review of thé Barbados Programme of coastalcountries that share similar development chal- PapuaNew Guinea, Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatumay MaryPower, SPREP is coordinatingthé Solomon Tomeand Principe.Journal ofEssential Oils Research, be/prelude?set_languageïen&cl=en) Actionfor thé Sustainable Development ofSmall Island lengesand concems about thé environment, especially beobtained from offices in NewCaledonia and Fiji at IslandsWomen inFisheries Project that is being carried Vol.15:422-424 Samorini,G. 1976.An African Kykeon? Eleusis, No. 4. DevelopingStates authored by M. Mclntyre (SPREP) theirvulnerability tothé adverse effects of global climate [email protected] out by thé EnvironmentalConcerns Action Network of Ministryof Communication,Science and Technology pgs40-41. andEdited byS. Heileman(Consultant). pgs 91; change.It functionsprimarily as an ad hoc lobby and 19Shell money called tafuliae results from a lengthylabour théSolomon Islands (ECANSI) with Canadian govem- (MCST).2001. In: S &T MasterPlan SouthPacifie Régional Environment Program (SPREP). Vannuccini,S. 1999, Shark Utilization,Marketing and negotiatingvoice for SmallIsland Developing States intensiveprocess that involves thé making up ofof 10 mentfunding provided through thé Canada-South (http:www.mcst.gov.,v.Downloads/doucuments/S&T//2002.Women making money in thé SolomonIslands. Trade,ISBN: 9251043612m pgs 407. (SIDS)(which includes Suriname as a member)within PacifieOcéan Development Program. "Thé goal of thé Part2.07Health.pdf) (http://www.sprep.org.ws/publication/webpage/ ISSN:04299345(http://www. fao.org/documents/show_ thé UnitedNations System. Projectis to understandthé importantissues ofsustain-' MaldivesCommon CountryAssessment (MCCA). 2005. 001annual_report2002/ cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/005/x3690e/x3690e00.htm) i6Thé Bulletin of thé EuropeanUnion (EU) provides a ablemanagement, conservation and development of

Présentationat thé 7th Conférenceof Parties(COP7). WomenmakingmoneyintheSolomonlslands.htm) Viegas,J. 2005.Ancient Perfumery Found in Cyprus. monthlyinsight into thé activities of théEuropean Com- marineresources currently faced by thé women, " See (202.1.199.67/intraneVunrc/CCAmaldives-draftver6- Stévart,T. 1999.Les orchidées de SàoTome et Principe. DiscoveryNews, March 10 missionand its interactionwith otherCommunity enti- also(SPREP, 2002). 29-1-O2.pdf-20 Mar2005). Canopée,No. 15 pgs.3-4. (http://dsc.discovery.com/news/briefs/20050307/per- ties collaboration such as thé South Pacifie Commission 21Thé Vedas which were composed about 1500 BC Ministryof HomeAffairs, Housing and Environment Taha,A. andAlsayed, H. 2000.Brine shrimp bioassay fumery.html) withinthé framework of EU-ACPa coopération andwritten down about 600 BC speakof. Hymns (MHAHE).2002. National BiodiversityStrategy and of ethanol extracts of Sesuvium vemcosum, Sal- Walter. S. 2001. Non-wood Forest Products in Africa: a = ACP(African, Caribbean and Pacifie(ACP) of thé Atharva-Veda.Extracts from thé ritual books Action Plan of thé Maldives. solabaryosma and Zygophyllum quatarense médicinal A Régionaland NationalOverview. (http://www. fao. States and thé commentaries.In Sacredbooks of thé east. pgs 110.(http://www. mv.undp.org/perojects/environment. plantsfrom Bahrain.Phytotherapy research ,Vol. 14: org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/003/ " Natural medicine still useful in Marshall Islands. In: Trans.Maurice Bloomfield, 1847 vol. 42: Vll-56,Vlll-7 ibasbook/NBSAP.book.pdf) 48-50. Y1515B/y1515b08.htm). Pacifie Béat update of June 18, 2002, ABC Radio www.sacred-texts.com Ministryof Fisheriesand Agriculture (MoFA). 1992.Cata- Terralingua.2004. Global Source Book on Biocultural Whistler, W.A. 1985. Traditional and herbal medicine logueof Plants,Mâle', Republic of Maldives Diversity.Draft version available at in thé Cook Islands.Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Moran,K. 1996. Compensating forest-dwelling communi- http://www.terralingua.org/GDBBCD.htm Vol.13(3): 239. liesfor drugthé work of théHealing Forest Conserv- Terrawatu.2004. Bridging Indigenous and Modem Worlds Winkleman,M. and Dobkinde RIOS,M. 1989 Psycho- no. htm) active propertiesof IkungBushmen Medicine Plants. ancy.Unasyvla, Issue 186,pgs. 564. (http://www.terrawatu.org/pages/front. Traditionalknee-length Hibiscus plant-derived skirt NationalCouncil for Culture,Arts and Héritage(NCCAH). Torr,R. 2005. Bahrain - a roséby any othername.. ! Daily Journalof PsychoactiveDrugs, Vol. 21:51 -59. wom by Yapanesewomen. g 2004. Seminar on Traditional Medicines and Herbs, GulfNews, VI: XXVII, No. 345, Friday 4 March. WoridHealth Organization (WHO). 2002. WHO Tradi- ?: 29/12/2004,Doha, Qatar (http://www.gulf-daily-news.com/Story.asp7Articles1058 tionalMedicine Strategy 2002 - 2005,62pgs. Geneva, (www.apctt-tm.net/business/display.jsp?id=1628) 10&Sn=BNEW&lssuelD=27349) Switzeriand:WHO/EDM/TRM 2002. l

Notes ' Furtherinformation may be obtained from: www.metafro.beofthé MetadataAfrican Organization. for considération of délibération and adoption. a) StevartT. 1998. Etude sur les orchidéesde Sâo Thé Prélude database deals with thé use of about 1 900. "Squaleneis usedas a bactéricide,an intermediatein thé Tomeet Principe.Mémoire de licence,Université libre plantsin traditionalveterinary and humanmedicine in manufactureof pharmaouticalsand aromatics, Nowadays de Bruxelles,Laboratoire de botaniquesystématique morethan 13000recipes from Sub-SaharanAfrica. it is extensivelyused as an additivein pharmaceutical

et de phytosociologie,117 p. + 191 p. annexes. ' Thé Nationalbiodiversity and Action Plan of thé Mal- préparations,cosmetics and health foods. As squalane itis b)Stevart T. 1999. Rapportde mission sur les orchidées diveswas developedby thé Ministryof HomeAffairs, alsoused in skincare products, as it is a naturalemollient de Sâo Tomeet Principe.Projet ECOFAC (Conserva- Housingand thé Environment(MHAHE) with support andis consideredto beefficient in healingwounds and in l tionet utilisationrationnelle des écosystèmes forestiers fromthé UnitedNations Development Programme preventingthé multiplication of bacteria d'Afriquecentrale), AGRECO-GEIE, Bruxelles, 364 p. (UNDP)and thé Global Environmental Facility (GEF) " Adaptedfrom Research reports -Aromatic andMedici-

2Guinea Bissau land-bounded onthé north by Sénégal, withinthé frameworkof thé followingprojects: nalPlants, Instituts of Agriculture,University of Malta on thé east and south by Guinea,and on thé west by a) National BiodiversityConservation Strategy and (http://www.home.um.edu.mVioa/amp.html) thé Atlantic Océan includes about 60 offshore islands ActionPlan and Reportto thé CBD includingClearing 12Does not includeCentre for GeneticEngineering and amongstwhich are thé nearby Bijagos (Bissagos) Ar- HousingMechanisms (CHM) - projectNo:649;and, Biotechnology(CIGB) a globallyrecognized institute at chipelagoand other islands in théAtlantic and amongst b) Atoll ecosystem-basedconservation of globally Havanaas one of thé world'sbest biopharmaceutical whichare encounteredthé OrangeNational Park, thé significantbiological diversity inthé Maldives' Baa Atoll researchinstitutes outside thé US and Europe,and JoaoVieira & PoilaoNational Park and thé Cantanhez -Project No: 1044 whichhas a staffof about700 people nor thé Centro

protectedarea. Guinea-Bissau is includedin this article 5 Reportfrom thé Republicof Cyprusin frameworkof Nacionalde Biopreparados (BIOCEN), Instituto Carlos as it is a memberof thé SmallIsland Developing States INFORRMa-IENICAbproject funded under thé Fifth DFinlay, Centra de Inmunoensayo (CIE), and thé Centro Network(SIDSNET) and of thé Alliance ofSmall Island FrameworkProgramme by DGXII of thé European de InmunologiaMolecular (CIM). BIOCEN for example, States(AOSIS). Commission. markets55 productscomplying with ISO standards.

3 Severalplant species (1) - Cassiasieberiana (Fam- a) INFORRM= IndustryNetwork for RenewableRe- Fourproduction facilities of théFinlay institute supply ily name(FN): Caesalpiniaceae), local name (LN): sources and Materials Cuba and customersfrom developingcountries with Sambasintche-andje);(2)- Dichrostachysglomerata b) IENICA=Interactive European Network for Industrial vaccines and sera and there are 82 CIE labs; some of (FN: Mimosaceae;LN: Burle);(3) - Entadaabyssinic Cropsand theirApplications them located in thé former Soviet Union, Ghana, Brazil

(FN: Mimosaceae;LN: Fulani) and (4) - Erythrina 7 'El ProyectoMediano TRAMIL-UNEP titulado: and Colombia.Moreover, Cuba througha generous senegalensis(FN: Mimosaceae;LN: Fulani)are used Conservaciônde la Bioversidade Integraciôndel biennialdonation to UNESCOmakes possible thé award in treatment of sinusitis and influenza. Conociemento Tradicional de Plantas Médicinales a las byUNESCO of théCarlos Finlay Prize in Microbiology 4 Prélude(Programme for Researchand Link between Politicas de Attenciôn Primaria de Salud en Centroa- - théonly prize in thé UN System for this discipline. UniversitiesforDevelopment),recognized by UNESCO mericay Caribe'es ejecutadopor enda-caribe,través "Thé Caribbean Association ofResearchers and Herbal andupdated January 26, 2005,is an initiativeof thé Bel- delPrograma TRAMIL (GFL/2713-01-4356)'. Practitioners was established in 1998 to ensure that gianDirectorate Générale for Development Coopération 8 Recognizedas a UNESCOWorld Héritage Site of ail Caribbeannational authorities recognize that some (DGDC)in collaborationwith thé BelgianRoyal Muséum historical,cultural and architecturalsignificance. médicinalplants possess

for CentralAfrica (RMCA)that concemsthé use of 9 Thé Asian DevelopmentBank provided assistance . therapeutic properties in treating and preventing plants in traditionalhuman and veterinarymedicines; in 2000 towards thé préparation of thé Master disease in humans and animais andwhich is linked to thé proprietary database software S&T plan that was finalized in draft form in 2001 . supportthé émergence ofa safesustainable médicinal

INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 19 DOD^iyM

evMATTHEW LEAVESLEY AND IM HOMAS

Thé history of diversity Developing models: Thé Pioneers of Island Melanesia phylogeny and reticulation project seeksto investigatethé evo- Currentthinking suggeststwo models lutionary history of thé remarkable for thé générationofdiversity: linguistic, cultural and geneticdiver- l. Thé phylogenetic model - ances- sity exhibited by Island Melanesian tral populations split into divergent populations. partsthrough time, becoming gradually au We needa subtlemethodology that There are about 200 différent lan- différentinterms oflanguage,artefacts i allows for, and can explain, différent ^ guagesin this areaof thé world. Some and biology. Consequently, material pattems and proportions of variation i are part of thé Oceanic sub-branch culture and language co-vary in time a and transmission, and applicable 0 of thé Austronesianfamily, and are and space,as a package accompanying is at différent scales and with différent thought to hâve entered thé région identifiableand distinct population his- g: datasets. Our work seeks to achieve 3500 years ago with thé appearance tories. In thé Island Melanesia case we this, conducting a séries detailed of an archaeologicalculture known might expect that Papuan-speakingand of as Lapita. Othersare currently classi- Austronesian-speaking groups would quantitative and qualitative analyses of Melanesian material culture. Thé ce fied as belongingto thé unrelatedand hâve distinct material cultures, paral- ï resultsof thèseanalyses will be directly pooriy understoodEast Papuan group, leling their linguistic historiés. l perhapsderiving from languages 2. Thé reticulate or 'net-like' model comparedwith thé linguistic research produced Pioneers oflsland Mela- spoken by pre-Lapita populations - material culture is independentof by nesia collaborators. livingin thèseislands for théprevious language, often transmitted between 40,000 years. populations and across linguistic A gréât deal of variation in mate- boundaries. Borrowing and exchange rial culture,social and technological between geographically proximate MatthewLeavesleywas an undergradu- atestudeiit of Melanesianarchaeology practice accompaniesthé linguistic groupscréâtes distributions of artefacts at LaTrobe University, Bmdoora before diversity.We know very little about that are unrelatedto language.If true undertakinggraduate studies atthé School of Afchaeologyand Anthropotogy at howthis was generated. for IslandMelanesia we would expect ttieAustralian National University in In orderto understandthé prehistory Papuaa-speakers and Austronesian- Canberra,hew is eurrentlya postdoctoral researeher at of this régionwe needto explainthé speakersto hâve historiés characterised théLeverhulme Centre for Huraan EvoluSonary Studies atthé UniversityofCambridge. way m which populationsinteracted by interaction and thus share material anddiversity was generated and main- culture. ïïm Thomas(PhD Anthropology, Otago) Is a postdoctoralresearch fellow at thé tamed.This involves identifying and BUT: It has become increasingly Unwersityof Carobridge,and is soonto analysingthé natureofboundaries and apparentthat eachmodel, on its own, takeup a Lectureshipatthé Universiiy of afiinitiesin languageand material cul- is an inadéquatemeans of explaining Otagoin New Zealand. He has conducted Seldwerkin thé Soloinontslands, Cook Is- ture.One aspect ofthis is determining thé formation and nature of material tands,andAmerlcan Saawa. His i-esearch an answerto thé following question: culture boundaries. It is seldom a case interestsfocus on raateriat culture studies, tandscaps anthropol- Towhat extentdoes material cultural ofeither/or in most parts of thé world ogy,and Melanesian etftnogiïiphy andarehaeology. (Jordan Shennan2002; Welsch et al. variation parallel thé pattern of lan- & A sub-projectof thé OMLPioneers of IslandMelanesia guage distribution and historv? 1992;Moore & Romney1994). researchprogramme.

21 Data sélection: ShellRing Exchange Média continuity through time. Broadly examining levels and kinds of speaking,people with différent his- between-group artefact variation tories may hâve différent material We intend to look at a range of data cultures. types - moving beyond single-class . 'Passive' change: isolation, bot- artefact studies. We expect that dif- tleneck effects, and transmission ferent artefacts, and différent artefact errors result in cumulative variation attributes,will tell us différent things in material cultures,so that through Ë@ra[nn]0( about diversity. We will examinethé time groups become différent with- Poata- NewGeorgia, Solomon Islands following kindsof variationthroughout outreally 'trying'.

Island Melanesia: . 'Active' change: because material ETHANCOCHRANE l. Presence/absence of artefact culture is a form of communication types in its own right, certain artefacts can 2. Stylistic (attribute) variation be utilised as boundary markers, within a singleartefact type: a) stylistic expressing différent fonns of iden- similarity but différent meaning/use; tity, domination, résistance etc. b) stylistic différence but identical . Functionaland resourcedriven change: Anthropologistshâve often explained Kiha - Rendova,Solomon Islands meaning/use;e) similar style and mean- thé patteming of natural resources populationsimilarities and différences [Bakihain Roviana,Solomons] as a result changes human inter- ing, but with social result of group and raw materialsimpacts thé kinds of in Yasawa diiïerentiation; ofthings peoplemake anduse. action acrosstime and space.While Etends 3. Manufacture séquence varia- . Trade and cérémonial exchange: interaction may structure thé distribu- a single artefact type: material culture variation often tion of similar cultures, gènes, and tion within Fig. l. ThéYasawa Islands Complexity/simplicity séquences reflects thé purposivecirculation of artifacts,not ail aspectsofhuman cul- r-'a. iscuca forma gentlearc approximately a) of ÏÙfX 40 km northwest of thé main -relatively long productionséquences abjectsthrough spacevia networks ture and biology are equally affected: FijianIsland ofViti Levu. interaction. may promote vertical transmission of Hâta 'imu - San Cristobal. Solomon Islands of some similarities may result from Analyzedceramics are irom abjectsand/or résistance to borrowing. [Amfatin NewIreland] n Borrowing, learning and skills trans- interaction,others from a sharedpast, excavated and surface collected sitesthroughout thé Yasawas. Complex séquencescan be enclaved mission:thé production of artefacts or thé development ofsimilar cultural through spécialisation, and ritual. can be copied, taught, or learned solutionsin unrelatedpopulations. Thé \ ', b) Modes of learning/transmission ,./ from sources of innovation or inter- PacifieIslands présent an idéalcultural baseline pattems ofhuman interaction est occupations(e. 800 BC) belongto \> - may or may not be lineagebased. mediary parties. andnatural environment to explorethé in thé Yasawas. Compositional data a Yasawa-Mamanucacompositional l oa 4. Nomenclature Detailed Melanesian ethnographies, relationshipbetween interaction and were generated through LA-ICP-MS group definedby a north-southcontin- s Both abjectsand words are subject to muséumcollections and archaeologi- materialcultural diversity.Colonizing (Fig. 2) on aver 300 sherdsfrom sev- uum of rare earth élément abundances l processesthat either promoteor limit cal surveysenable us to developa rich thé Pacifie,voyagers sailed east leav- eral time periods and sites. Principal (Fig. 3). A handful of exoticsherds Bokolo - Simbo, Solomon Islands transmission. A comparison between accountof thèseprocesses. We can map ing thé islands ofMelanesia and reach- component and hierarchical cluster- from this time period suggestYasawa [Hokatain Roviana,Solomons] thé distribution of abjectsand related exchangenetworks, test for environmen- ingFiji(Fig. l)byc. 1000BC. Island ing analyses were used to identify populations were in contact with other nouns will investigate thé direction of tal corrélations, and examine modes of groupsfurther to thé eastin Polynesia compositional groups in thé elemental areas of Fiji as well. transmissionand thé degreeto which productionand leaming. Ultimately this were colonizedaver thé ensuingcen- data set. Thé distribution of shared Early (e. 800 BC)Yasawapopulations they co-vary or follow their own unre- will result in a betterunderstanding of tunes.Fiji occupiesa uniquelocation compositional groups across sites interactedfrequently with thoseclosest lated trajectories. what is meantby 'diversity', and how in thé Pacifieon thé boundarybetween reflectsthé spatialscale of interaction. to them and primarily only within a this relatesto populationhistoriés. Melanesiancultural diversity and For example,sherds dated to thé earii- Yasawa-Mamanuca population. Thèse Determining sources of Polynesianhomogeneity. Thé history populations also interacted with a Références diversity: thé complex interaction and relationship Haddon, A.C. and J. Hornell, 1937 Canoës of Oceania: of in Fiji its larger,probably pan-Fijian population, génération of patterning Bakihamendaka - Roviana,Solomon Islands Volume II, Thé Canoës of Melanesia. Queensland and toFijian cultural diversity is important but at a much lower frequency. Phylogenetic and reticulate models New Guinea.Bishop Muséum Spécial Publication 28 forunderstandinglarge-scale questions Early vessels, rims, and décorations Honolulu. tend to simplify transmission into Moore,C. C. andA. K. Romney,1994 Material Culture, aboutthé région. To better understand two directions: Vertical (time) and GéographiePropinquity, and LinguisticAffiliation onthé ancient Fijian interaction and material EthanCochranereceived hisPh. D.ffom /7' . -. 'w/ ^ NorthCoast of NewGuinea: A Reanalysisof Welsch, théUflivereityof Hawaii wh6» his research Horizontal (space).We needto break . ^:-i^ -. ^.^" culturesimilarity we maybegin with ^" \ Terrelland Nadolski (1992). American Anthropologist oncentratedon styliste and mmpositional \ " thèsedown to achievea morethorough '->.- 96(2):370-392. a simple question: (ï;^ ^ variationamong Fijian ceramlcs. He has understanding. ^ .y Shennan, S. and P. Jordan, 2003 Cultural transmis- How doesceramic similarity reflect also worked in Micronesia,Samoa, and ^c sion,Language, and BasketryTraditions amongst througtoutthéHawaiian islands studying . History: much of thé material condi- changingpatternsof cultural diversity Hinuili - Solomon Islands thé CalifornianIndians. Journal of Anthropological Fig. 2: LA-ICP-MS allowsthé archaeologistto target a prehistoricsettlement pattems and nionumental architecture tions ofpeople's lives are transmitted Archaeology22:42-74. in Fiji? précisearea of théceramic matrix for detailedchemical affiongoiher tapies. Dr. Cochrafle also specializes inarchaeo- Welsch,R. L, J.Terrell,and J. A.Nadolski, 1992 Language analysis.Hère l hâvelaid out a rasterpattem on thé clay logicalmettiod and theory and evolutionary theory. He is cur- generationally,and we can expect Claycompositional groups in archae- (Ail artefactsfrom Auckland War Mémorial Muséum and Cultureon thé NorthCoast of NewGuinea. Ameri- paste,avoiding temperparticles. Thé laser (blue light) is rendyLectufer inPacifie tsland Archaeology atthé Institute of that some artefacts exhibit will collections.Photographed byTim Thomas.) canAnthropologist. 94(3):568-600. ologicalceramic assemblages define ablatingthé pattem. Archaeology,University Coilege London.

INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0FISLAND AFFAIRS 23 0 " « .»< 0^^ o Os . .. *; "0^ &.

-1. 00 -050 0. 00 -1.00 -0.50 0.00 Tbl59 ^>pm ïglO) Tb159(ppmlog10)

Fig. 3. Sherdsat eitherend of thé REE continuumare Lateséquence sherds from Qaranicagi (green Fig.7. Fig.8. Late séquence vessel easilyseparated into compositional groups. Blue data squares)arepredominantly associated with thé north- and rim forms are found em end thé REE continuumdefining thé Yasawa- pointsrepresent sherds made &om northemYasawas of at sites in thé Yasawas and clays,red data points those made from southem Mamanucacompositional group. ByAD 800Yasawa throughoutFiji. Thédecora- Yasawa-Mamanucaclays. Circles are sherds excavated populationswere using ceramic materials from a more tionsand padddle-impressing fromthé Olo site on Waya Island. Triangles are sherds resfrictedgéographie space. Red and blue data points techniquesare also présent at fromthé Natia site on Nacula Island. See Fig. site Fig. 4. Early vesseland rim fonns arefound arethé early sherds at eitherend of théREE continuum l for othersites in Fiji. locations. at sitesin théYasawas and throughout Fiji. plottedmFig.3. Thénotehed rim andcrescent shape decora- tionsare also found throughout Fiji asmuch at thé sites of Olo, Qaranicagi, and as 250 km from thé Yasawas. Natia (Fig. 4) arepredominantly made Late séquence vessels, rims, and suggestthat Yasawpopulations main- with local clays;only 6% of thèseearly décorationsdiffer from mid-sequence tainedconsta. nt and relativelyunvary- sherds are made from exotic materials. materials, but are similar to other areas ing interaction with thé rest of Fiji. However,ail of thé eariy vesselfonns in Fiji (Fig. 8). Bowls ofvarious types This would also suggestthat diversity at thèsesites are also found throughout continuethroughout thé late séquence among Fijian populations is, past and Fiji. Eariy décoration and surface treat- deposits,some of thèsebowls from e. présent,a functionsolely of interaction ments at thèse sites are found across 1000 show incised décorations Fig.5. Qaranicagicave on Waya Island contains AD and cultural transmission.Combining g Fiji aswell. During this time 100-200 approximately2.6 m ofculturaldeposits dating from identical to vessels from Viti Levu. provenanceanalyses with analysesof Théshared decrease ofvessel diversity and similar e. 800 BC to récent times. Field school students are décorationsduring thé mid-sequence indicate some yearsafter colonization,Fijians did not Large flare-rimmedjars are found in other dimensions ofceramic similarity l excavatingdeposits containing ceramics, charcoal, culturaltransmission across pan-Fijan populations, but moveceramics aroundthe archipelago, faunalremains, and otherartifacts. thé Yasawasand throughout Fiji at demonstrates that thé pervasive simi- ceramicsimilarities may also be generated by similar s but wereinteracting enough to transmit this time. Impressed surface treatments larity of décoration and vessel fonns processesin separate populations that limit costly productionof multiplevessel variants. ideas about vessel manufacture. suchas parallel ribs continuefrom mid- in Fiji must be interpretedagainst a Mid-sequence (e. 300 BC - AD 800) séquencedeposits and are found along backgroundof contractinginteraction ceramics were excavated from Qara- with a checkered impressed form. with some periods of wider ranging 2 m nicagi cave in thé Yasawas (Fig. 5). Checkeredimpressing, like parallel contact. This suggestsseveral explana- S Compositionalanalysis of sherdclay ribbing, is found throughoutFiji. By tiens for ceramic similarity. suggeststhat interaction patterns at théend of thé séquenceincised decora- l this time were similar to those of tion often appearson sherds. thé earliest inhabitants. During thé Temperpractices changedramati- mid-sequencepeople in thé Yasawas cally in a high proportion of late Fig.6. Mid-sequencevessels, surface modi- interacted frequently with those clos- séquencesherds from Qaranicagidated fications,and décorations from thé Yasawas est to them and primarily within a aresimilar to thosefound throughout Fiji at to e. AD 1500-1700 (Fig. 9). Thèse Yasawa-Mamanuca population. At thé thé time. sherds contain abundant amounts of Withinteraction at a dramaticallysmaller spatial space, andalmost no exotic ceramics, Yasawa populations beginning mid-sequence of thé offew calcareoussand temper. This repre- of thélate séquence still sharemany décorative and exotic sherdsappear, but contactswith sentsa dramatic change from early technologicalceramic characteristics with thé rest Frequency of Fiji. Perhapsand ecological "crunch" suggested a wider pan-Fijianpopulation diminish modifications are sparseand include diversity late-sequence ceram- ceramics a of containing random mix bypaleoenvironmental work fostered compétitive over time. rim notching and paddle impressing ics (Fig. 7). Late-sequence ceramics of lithic and calcareoustempères. Fig.9. Thé proportion ofsherd with abondant interaction and cultural transmission. calcareoussand temper (30% by volume) increases Mid-sequence vessels, rims, and of parallel rib motifs - décorations excavated from Qaranicagi do not Interestingly,70% thé sherdswith of dramaticallyin thé upperexcavation levels at décorations are différent from those foundthroughout Fiji. Again it appears dérive from a Yasawa-Mamanuca abondanttemper are made from exotic Qaranicagicave. présent in early Yasawa deposits, but that with even limited movement of compositional group defined by a claysand represent contact between again are very similar to forms found ceramic materials, thé people of thé north-south continuum of rare earth Yasawanand probably pan-Fijian throughout Fiji (Fig. 6). Inverted Yasawas shared vessel and décorative élément abundances. Instead they populations. and shallow bowl forms remain and traits with peoplethroughout Fiji. dérive almost solely from thé north- An inaccurate picture of ancient there is a decreasein thé diversity of Late séquence (e. AD 800-1700) ern, Yasawa-end this continuum. of interactionand population diversity is Théexotic sherds and changed tempering practices restrictedneckjars. New fonns include Yasawa populations underwent a During thé late séquencethé scaleof producedby examiningonly ceramic Théearly sharing ofvessel forms and décorations may ofYasawapopulations during thé last several hundred beproduced through a combinationofcontemporary yearsindicates contact with other populations and large,ovoid restrictedneck pots.Mid- rapid change in interaction patterns interaction involving ceramic materials décorationand vessel forms. Alone, culturaltransmission, and local rétention ofpast shared possiblyoverriding fimctional reasons influencing séquence décorations and surface evidencedby restrictedcompositional contracted. thèsedimensions ofceramic similarity cultural traits. similarceramic technologies.

INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0FISLAND AFFAIRS 25 EDGARDASlLVA

Abstract single island states or in groups of namely, Micronesia, Melanesia and Vulnérableto thé vicissitudesof globalization,bio- large and small dispersed islands that Polynesia. technologicalissues such as traditionalmedicines, are inhabitedby a total population of Enjoying widespread géographie and intellectualproperty rights, gender and biosafety are ofrelevancein théPacifie islands. Thé région with its some 8.5 million inhabitants constitut- geological diversity in terrestrial and économie of 15 million km2 exclusive zone possesses ing a fascinatingamalgam of people, marine ecosystemsthé Pacifie région a uniqueand unrivalled combination ofgeographically located bioresourcesof cultural and socioeconomic religion and diverse cultures. encompassesseveral small island states significance. some of which are madeup of many Thé Pacifie région small islands.Many of thèse Pacifie Introduction and médicinal piants island states are naturally endowed 0 Thécalming remedy and thé therapeu- with a biodiversity of endémie, endan- i tic serenity in a world ofsocio-cultural Your food shall be your medicine gered, rare and threatened species. ^fc development in thé Pacifie région, and and your medicine shall be your * This contributionis an abridgedversion of thé article more particularly thé South Pacifie food. g ThéPacifie Islands: a biotechnologyresource bank of régionhas been captured in thé Pulitzer Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.) médicinalplants and traditional intellectual property in : e Prize-winningnovel Taiesof thé South WorldJournal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 20(9): 903-934,2004,(DaSilva et al.), SpringerNetherlands, Pacifie by James Michener, and in thé ThéPacifie région and especially that of with kind permission. cinematic musical by Richard Rodg- thé South Pacifie islands that constitute ers and Oscar Hammerstein Jr. This an area of stratégie geographical and FormerDirector, Division of Life Sonces, UNESCOand Memberof INSULA's Board région of geographicaland political political significanceoften described as ofDirectors, Dr. Edgar DaSilva iscurrently l significance,whose stratégie location thé PacifieRim or thé PacifieArc is rich ProfesserExtraordinary in thé Depart- basbeen described as thé Pacifie Rim in socio-cultural traditions that hâve ment of Microbial,Biochemical and Food Biotechnologyat thé Univeisity deVrystaat in South A-frica spreadwideacross or thé PacifieArc, is long beenacknowledged as a remédiai andvislting Professor atOsaka University inJapan. He was some 29 km2 of thé Pacifie Océan that fount of mental calm and corporal well- educatedatthé Unlvereity of Boinbay, and tater did »search andteaching atacadémie InstituttQns anduniversities inNonvay, is home to about 30,000 islands. Thèse being. states territories Thé island and Finlandand Sweden. in tum constitute some 22 countries of thé Pacifierégion, collectively called Contact:International ScientBc Council fer Island and territories with a land surface Oceania',hâve been grouped into three Development(INSUIA), ctoUNESCO, 1rue Miotlis, Paris75015, France of 550,000 km2 contained in either distinct socio-cultural régions (Box l) E-mail: e. [email protected])

Box 1

(a) IslandStates and Territoriesof thé PacifieRégion - Source:WorldAtlas. wm Melanesia Micronesia Polynesia Groupof islandsnortheast of Groupof islandseast of thé Philippines,thé Mari- Group of islands including ail French Polynesia and NewCaledonia and includingthé independent ana Islands,and includingPalau, thé Federated thé Austral Islands, thé Easter and Pitcairn Islands, countries of Fiji, Papua New Guinea, thé Solo- States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Kiribati Wallis and Futuna, Cook Islands, Niue, Samoa, Tuvalu mon Islands and Vanuatu and Nauru and Tonga (b) Governancein thé PacifieRégion - Schoeffel(2000)2

IndependentStates States in Freeassociation Territories

Fiji,Kiribati, Nauru, Papua CookIslands (New Zealand); Easter Island (Chile); NewGuinea, Samoa, FederatedStates of French Polynesia, New Caledonia, SolomonIslands, Tonga, Micronesia,Palau and thé and Wallis and Futuna (France); Tuvaluand Vanuatu MarshallIslands (USA) Tokelau (New Zealand); American Samoa, Guam and Marianas (USA)

27 Amongst thèse menaced indigenous Republicof Marshall Islands,Samoa, use of médicinal plants concerning island practitioners (Nandwani 2003). Aboriginal and Maori medicine was to protect, conserve bioresources of thé Pacifie région thé Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and thé conservation ofhealth and human Moreover,such héritage and property Medicine and sustainAboriginal human health médicinal plants occupies an Vanuatu possess valuable resources world of resources (Figure l). Indeed, thé folk- is thé raison d'ètre oftheir livelihoods Early Aboriginal and thé Maori com- resourcesthrough thé useof médicinal important socio-economic niche. Thèse of traditional knowledge concern- lore science of thèse islands accrues andan indisputable factor for their self- munities,seemingly, were farhealthier plants and herbal remédies and to rid valuable and vulnérable médicinal uses and ing thé of herbal medicines from thé preciousand pricelessherit- sustainingexistence. Notwithstanding thantheir currentday descendentsand thé body of evil spirit either through bioassets, edible in some cases, are and médicinalplants that are,indisputably, âge of accumulatedindigenous and thé attraction, thé introduction, compatriots whose ancestral settlers massage(mirimirî) or suctionby either continuously exposed to thé risk of of économiesignificance in thé daily traditional knowledge (Nandwani & efficiency of modem medicine,many arrived from thé northem hémisphère tribal men or women 'doctors'. In thé irréparableloss that émergesfrom thé sustenance of thé Pacifie island com- Pacifie island communities are unwill- DaSilva 2003). somehundreds ofyears ago. Thé resort caseof Rongoaherbal (Maori) medi- growth and expansion thé tourist munities. of Humankind since time immémorial ing to foregotheir confidence,cultural to traditional knowledgein thé use of ciné thé médicinal doctorsor tohunga industrywhich is constantsearch of in Thé World Health Organization has depended upon plants as a source customsand reliance in their traditional nativeplants by thé early communities playedan intermediary rôle in spiritual newer small island havens conducive (WHO) deflnes traditional medicine of food and medicine for their well- medicines that hâve contributed to their of native island inhabitants for food prayers (karakid) to thé gods (atua) to corporal and mental relaxation. to include diverse health practices, being, shelter,protection and survival socio-cultural wellbeing aad health- and médicinal purposesbas contrib- since thé spiritual dimension {taha Several of thèse small island stateswith approaches, beliefs knowledge and against climatic forces and changing carefor décadesthrough use of either utedthrough migration and tribal trade wairua) occupiedan anchoringrôle in their isolated geographicallocations, incorporating plant, animal and/or min- environments. Entrepreneurial rural one or more parts of médicinalplants to thé introduction and évolution of thé maintenanceof thé mental(hinen- their vulnérable économies are at a eral based medicines, spiritual thera- and village cultures worldwide consti- (DaSilvaet al, 2004). médicinal plant usagein Micronesia, garo) andphysical (tinana) wellness of disadvantageat thé take-off point in pies, manual techniques and exercises tute a rich sourcefor anthropological, In Fiji, a tea of thé kava root is used Melanesia and Polynesia. Some tra- a Maori being. Most health discomfort large-scaletechnological development applied singulariy or in combination to to treat kidney and bladder ailments. botanical, and ecological research ditional plants usedin Aboriginal and and illnesses like in ancient Indian cul- within a worldwide market-oriented treat, Thé root when chewed considered to maintainwell-being, as well asto vis-à-vis thé search for new drugs, is Maori native plant-basedmedicines ture resultedfrom a major deficiency economy. Given thé occur- limited diagnoseor prevent illnesses(WHO foods, pesticides, natural products, be effectiveas a contraceptive.In fact, are provided in Table l . Moreover, thé in spiritual health(wairua). renée of natural resources of low- or 2002).Activities concemingthé useof etc., to meet thé demandsof thé âge this médicinal plant bas been consid- practice of such medicine by current médium level économiepotential thé herbalmedicines3 and médicinal plants of global consumerism. In thé Pacifie eredas a virtual all-roundremedy for dayAboriginal andMaori descendents Pacifie Isiand Médicinal rangeofbioindustrial optionsis virtu- in thé Cook Islands,thé FederatedStates région, like in Asia and thé Caribbean a number of aliments ranging from revealsthé availability of traditional Plants and Intellectuai ally non-existent. Nevertheless,thé of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru, région, traditional médicinal knowl- sexually transmitted diseases e.g. knowledgeand apriceless héritage that Property Rights bankoftraditional intellectualproperty Niue, Palau,Papua New Guinea,thé edgeaver a spanof some3000 years gonorrhoea to that of muscle aches has beenbequeathed from génération In thé Pacifie région, a vast majority ?: (TIP) in thé Pacifie island countries and headaches. § Republicof Marshall Islands,Samoa, bas been accumulatedfor simplistic to génération through unwritten/ar- of thé peoplerely directly on thé rich conceming médicinal plant resources SolomonIslands, Tonga, Tuvalu and healthcareuse. Home to a largenumber Médicinal plants of marine origin macopoeias in thèse two communities. biodiversity of island plants for their l and their use constitutes a stratégie ethnie cultures and diverse socio- Vanuatuare dealt with though not in of - green,brown and red algae in thé Govemmental foresight and action has food and medicine. There is an abun- économie input thé émergence an exhaustive manner. 10 e in économie mcome generatmg groups, Pacifie région contain between beeninitiated to ensureagainst loss of danceof localknowledge and expertise new markets green medicinals of of Traditional intellectual property, thé Pacifie islandspossess a wealth of and20 percentprotein, fibre, calcium, this legacy of bush medicine4 as thèse pertaining to plant genetic resources often described as traditional knowl- that are increasingly being accepted bioresources. Micronesia, Melanesia iodine, iron and potassium,trace ele- communities decrease in number and that has been in use aver a considérable in thé industrialisée societies as a edge accumulated from thé experi- and Polynesia are acknowledged ments,and vitamins A, C, E, and thé succumb to thé customs, pressures, period oftime and which is in constant realistic alternativeto thé rising costs treasurehouses folkloric medicine encesand observationsof succeeding of vitamin-Bgroup inclusive ofespecially and vicissitudesof thé attractiveglo- évolution and upgrading.Traditional of commercialized and conventional and domesticated health conservation générations of self-taught village vitaminB, andbio-active compounds balizing occidental lifestyle. Rongoa knowledge is people's awarenessat allopathie healthcare products. Thé practitioners and mral dispensersof skills. Folk medicinein Tongabas been of médical significance.Given their Maori or Maori plant-based medicines thé communal,rural andvillage levels Cook Islands, thé Federated States aiedicinalplants, facilitâtes thé under- used in rural areas for obstetric and usagem traditional Chinese,Japanese hâve been researched as a resource ofsociety oftheir naturalplant capital of Microaesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru, standing of contemporary cultural gynecological conditions and disorders and Pacifie island medicine. seaweeds for skin balms and essential oils such and its bioeconomic and biomédical Palau,Papua Guinea,thé Niue, New héritage and societalpractices in thé (Singhetal.1984). area naturalresource bank ofagroceu- as manuka oil (Tairawhiti Pharma- significance in thé sustenance of thé Médicinal applications, concoctions ticals,cosmoceuticals, dermaceuticals, ceuticals Ltd. 1999) and tamanu oil qualityoftheir daily existence.In brief, Fig. 1. Number of plants used in thé Pacifie Région for thé treatment and décoctions refined and 'standard- andnutraceuticals that are finding their (Kilham, 1994). traditional knowledge generatedand of différent aliments ized' through repeateddomestic use way into contemporary pharmaceuti- An exampleof thévalue and appreci- accumulatedthrough years ofobserva- hâve contributedto thé development cal préparations as new health and ation ofthis accumulation oftraditional tion, practice and skills in accepting of self-sustaining traditional health- skiacaremarket products in différent knowledgeis to be found in thé posted and rejecting plant species as food 50-1 culturesand societies. thé Solomon care Systems in thé conservation of In injunction Warning'. Aboriginal and medicine is nothing else but TIP 4Q»i early and contemporary human health Islands,coastal plants such as kokoilo people hâve expert hîowledge about that provides usefùl leads for scientific No- of plants îo-j resourcesin thé Pacifierégion. Tradi- (Calophylluminophyllum), vutu (Bar- plants. Someof thé plants listed hère research.Leptospermum scoparium - tional medicine in thé Pacifie islands nngtonia asiatica), talise (Terminalia arepoisonous unless treated properly" a sourceof thé skin healthcareproduct having evolved from thé applications catappd),tututu (Scaevolataccada) carried in a muséum information sheet manukais an apt example(Tairawhiti of a wide range of médicinal plants andsala (Ipomeapes-caprae) dominate conceming aboriginal plant use in cur- PharmaceuticalsLtd. 1999).. Global primarily in mral and village societies thécoastal village areas. Thé people rent times (MuséumVictoria 2001). annual sales of products derived .^ today a much covetedcultural and of SavoIsland use some 70 per cent , /^^%^ is Elémentsof similarity exist in thé from tapping of geneticresources lie has traditionalmédicinal plants, most ....ci" iatellectual property héritage that of philosophiesunderlying thé practices between US$ 500 and US$ 800 billion ^ beenfiercely and secretlyguarded by probablyobtained from Papua New ofAboriginal and Maori plant-based annually(Kate & Laird 2002).Sales of family, communal healers and tribal Guinea,as herbal medicine. medicines. Thé aim of Aboriginal herbal medicine alone are estimated

INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0FISLAND AFFAIRS 29 TABLE1 Aboriginal and Maori médicinal native plants to hundreds of billions of US dollars Guinea and thé Samoan mamala trees practical use and development of annual growth rates averaging (Homolanthusnutans). Abortglnal traditional médicinal planta "with nativeplants used by théTuhoe. " In thé on Botanical name Aboriginal Plant part Médicinal use Used in Aboriginal between5% and 15%, depending Inadéquate protection against eventthat anynew drugsor treatments name used Language and in thérégion" (InternationalTrade Fomm exploitation of genetic resourcesin aredeveloped and commercialized, thé region/clan area 2001). Indeed,traditional knowledge thé Pacifie région results from a lack benefitswill be shared:40 percentwill Acacia Karraank Gum from plant and Mixed with Gunditjmara - thé basisfor screeningand identify- appropriate mechanismsthat pycnantha nectar from water ta prépare / Victoria State (Australia) of légal go to thé Tuhoe représentativebody, flowers; a sweet drink; Djab wurrung ing naturally-occurring therapeutic protect and safeguardthé rights of another 40 percent will be awarded Tunline Bark Used to treat principleswithin a plant which gains in farmersand indigenous peuples. Apart to a trust board for New Zealand's indigestion value Carpobrotus Keeng Old plants Treatment of Bungandit commercialandphannacopoeial from PapuaNew Guinea and Tonga Maori and Waikato University (thé ross» Katwort cuts and bites Gippsland e.g. reserpinefrom Rauwolfîaserpen- that issuednew intellectual property employerof thé researchinvestigator) Gadwud Gunai/Kurnai tina whose root bark has been used for laws and régulations at thé start of will receivethé remaining20 percent. Centipedia Gukwonderuk Wholeplant Infusion drunk Wotjobaluk cunninghammi boiled to treat colds; circulatory disorders in Indomalesia thé millennium, patent laws in most Finally, thé researchwill specifically to treat ski n [thégeographical area from Indiato thé Pacifie island states hâve been carried focus on developing treatments for complaints and Philippines and PapuaNew Guinea] aver from thé era of colonial relation- chronic diseasesaffecting thé Maori, infections; and in skincare and (colocynthin [or alhandal Arabie ships as transitional légal mechanisms such as diabètes,high blood pressure balm products for name] from Citrullus colocynthus into thé national governanceof thé and asthma.This setsthé project apart babies and adults used as a purgative in thé Middle East newly independentisland states. Thèse from thé vast majority - which seekto Clematis Tarook Leaves Leaf poultice to Djab wurrung; microphylla treat blisters and Gunditjmara sinceBiblical times)is an indisputable mechanisms are now confi-onted with profit from indigenousknowledge of skin irritations constituentof ancientcultural legacy thé need ofupdates given thé advances médicinalplants without sharingfinan- Leaves Leaves used in Eucalyptus Be-al Woi wurrung that is in need of safeguardsagainst in thé formulationofintellectual prop- cial or médical benefits (UNESCO camaldulensisi Beeul aromatic steam Lake Boga indiscriminate commercial and market Bial bath for various Gunditjmara erty rights in thé pastfrwo to threedec- 2002). Biel illnesses; in Wemba Wemba forces. ades(Forsyth 2003)8. Furthermore, no A similar ventureencompassing thé Dharnya treatment of Yorta Yorta In thé Pacifie islands,access to TIP international patents hâve been taken sharingoffinancial retums is that of thé Mooerr diarrhoea Wimmera g than Peeal Djab wurrung is unhindered, and, more often out as protective measures to ensure Universityof thé SouthPacifc, thé gov- Ta'art Gunditjmra not, made availablethrough thé age- proprietary rights of biotherapeutic emmentalauthority of Fiji, thé local E. leucoxylon Tarrk Oil Used to treat Djadja wurrung old principles of goodwill and tmst. and bioremedial principles présent 'connata' colds communitiesof9 villagesin théVerata Bioresearchingresources Mentha australis Poang-gurk Leaves Crushed leaves Djab wurrung ofbiodiver- in traditional médicinal plants of thé Tikina county on thé island Viti Leva g" and inhaled for sity for thé developmentof éducation Pacifie région. Severalreasons hâve and thé StrathclydeInstitute for Drug treatment of and knowledge hâve given way to been advancedfor this dysfùnctional Research, Scotland in thé framework colds and coughs bioprospectingfor thé advancement state. 2002; Maori traditional médicinal plants Remarks (Grain & Kalpavriksh , ofa marinebioprospecting agreement ofandpharmacommercial biodiversity 200210). Aristotelia serrata Makomako Leaves Infusion used to Known also as Pushpangadan92002;Thorpe (Prévost2002). Financial retums from s make soothing tea tonic and wineberry which is used in markets of new medicines for thé However, interest in thèse issues thé analysis of thé extracts from marine for cleansing of in winemaking curtailment, treatment and eradication exists as thé Pacifie states embark en plants and organismsby thé Scottish l sore eyes; leaves used externally of new diseases.As a conséquence,route" to safeguarding their assets institute "on an équitablebasis" will for burns and andin light ofoverall marketeamings of traditional médicinal knowledge, ensurethat thé village communities boils of thé bioprospectedproduct, retura- their usagein cultural custom, ritual as a whole will benefit in their efforts Caulerpa Rimu kai Green marine Used as folk Found in ail countries ing financial benefits to thé Pacifie racemosa (in Maori alga medicine throughout thé Pacifie expression,and biodiversity resource of conservingpotential resourcesof medicine) for rheumatism région island communities are of a much managementprimarily for their own plant andmicrobial-derived therapeu- in thé lower order. well-being and subsequentlyfor their Philippines tic phnciples rather being peripheral Coprosma Manono Leaves Used as poultices Also known Bioprospectiag is synonymous more well to do entrepreneursand beneficiaries. . " grandifolia to help healing knitbone' plant with exploitation6. Kava and Nonu users elsewhere. Thus, thé conserva- Suchtraditional knowledge exempli- fractures and are two well-known examples of tion indigenous and traditional Systems weak bones of fied by thé traditionalmédical Coprosma Karamu Plant Décoction used Used in Maori productsof médicinalplants that hâve knowledge through time becomes a of thé Ririo tribe of thé Laura Island robusta for kidney cérémonial beenthé subjectsof bioprospectingnecessity(UNDP/CSOPP 2000). amongst thé western Solomon Islands troubles, bladder culture research elsewhere in thé northern indicates that local practitioners of stoppage, and inflammation. hémisphère(Grain & Kalpavriksh7 Compensatory and traditional medicine possessed "a Eases stomach 2002;Thorpe 2002) notwithstanding Coliaborative Research sophisticated knowledge of human ache and thatcurrent local Pacifie products hâve Partnerships anatomy, disease states and médical vomiting Halydroclathrus Rimu orna Marine brown Used ta prevent Cook Island, Fiji, beendeveloped through thé ingenuity Thé Tuhoetribe (aka thé Peopleof thé treatments" (Mozena 2001). {Maori alga heart disease; Marshall Islands, of théindigenous people aver several Mist) of thé Maori people has devel- Thé world's naturalproduct market réserves) and during Micronesia, Samoa, générations in hundreds and hundreds opeda répertoireof médicinalplants of may soon benefit from collabora- pregnancy Solomon Islands and Tonga of years. Other examplesare thé significancethat formally "recognizes tive researchbeing conductedby thé coralreef spongesfrom PapuaNew Maori ownership of thé knowledge, Universities of Papua New Guinea

INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0FISIAND AFFAIRS 31 and Utah in thé framework of thé activities as those in Asia, Africa and and thé issuesof intellectualproperty in Vanuatu,natural therapy clinics in Kiribati and Tonga; some 28 percent of GACP monographsthat instmct International Coopérative Biodiver- Latin America. Lack of opportunities rights concemingPacifie island avail- Port Vila and Santoare testimony to of reported and protected médicinal on thé safe and efficient use of sity Groups (ICBG) 'Conservation for fùrthering thé little formai educa- ability anduse oftraditional médicinal thé innovative skills of women that plants in Nauru; and conservation of médicinal plants and herbal medi- and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity tion received at thé mral level during plants (Box 2). arebreaking out of thé confinementof young médicinal plants seedlingsin cinés; and in Papua New Guinea'1project12. Thé childhood and thé time spent as a dis- Thé undemtilized resource of sea- established gender rôles that restrict Tuvalu. In Samoa,several Polynesian 3.encouraging, monitoring cultiva- focus ofresearch is on thé occurrence penserof traditional healing restricts weeds constitutes another avenue them to thé drudgery of domestic introductions of médicinal plants tion and collection pro.cedures of ofbiological and chemical therapeutics fiilfilment oftheir customarydomestic of incarne génération for rural and chores and habits. hâve been made (Imo & Câble 1995). médicinalplants ofgood quality that for use in thé conservation of localand duties and responsibilities.Neverthe- entrepreneurial women in thé Pacifie Thé most significantfinding is that of contributes to thé conservation of international human health resources. less. Pacifie island women occupy a région (Novaczek 2003). Encouraged Safety Homolanthusnutans that is reportedto médicinalplants and to thé manage- Collection and establishment of an unique rôle as instinctive and intuitive by UNDP supportedworkshops at thé Thé safety and appropriateness of contain prostratin and "to hâve activity ment of thé environment. inventory of ethnomedicinal plants, agents of change and innovation in University of thé South Pacifie, women médicinal herbs and plants is always against thé AIDS/HIV vims" (Cox & TwelveWHO CollaboratingCentres assessment of thé économie value of bridging gapsbetween thé practiceof desirousof engagingin thé develop- an issueof concemamongst médical Balik 1994).In summary,thé guiding for Traditional Medicine hâve been naturalproducts is beingconducted by traditional green health sciencewith ment of small enterpriseshâve taken and health professionals. Whereas and motivating principle throughout established for thé Western Pacifie thé University of PapuaNew Guinea thé modem healthcare advances in thé pioneering steps. A small successful thereis wide acceptanceoftraditional thé historyof thépeople ofMicronesia, région.. Two of thèse are Universities and thé National Forest Research maintenanceof thé well-being oftheir business providing seaweed-based plant medicine as an important com- Melanesia and Polynesia and their in Nanking and Shanghai,and five are Institute prior to thé developmentof families. Récent initiatives focus on cosmetics, tonics and other health- plementarycomponent of therapeutic voyage into current times has been an institutes of science and research in intellectualproperty rights législation. empoweringand enabling women to related préparations exists in Suva, practice, thé use of plant and herbal unshakeablefaith in thé healingprop- médicinal plants and acupuncturein Tobia (2004) reports that some 250 engagein 'participatorydemocracy' by Fiji. In PapuaNew Guinea a similar remédies on thé other hand has been ertiesoftheir médicinalplants. Beijing. Out of théremaining five insti- plant samplesand aver 120 marine bringing an understandingof science herbal venture has been opened;and questionedon thé groundsof absence There is an urgent need for thé tûtes,two eachare based in Japanand invertebrateshâve been processedto of scientific rigour in determiningthé rational use of traditional medicine thé RepublicofKorea, andone in Viet- datefor thé détectionof remédiaiprin- Box 2. Women and Médicinal Plants in thé Pacifie région degreeofeffectiveness and toxicity of with oversight mechanismsin order nam (WHO 2002).Perhaps by thé end ciples againsta variety of diseases. l Country Duration (and Goal-oriented Achievements Lessons Learnt thé remédiescompared to that applied to conserve, préserve and protect of thé décade one will be established B Also an agreementreached between Program Sponsors) activities morestrictly with allopathiemedicine; public safety.WHO through its of&ce for thé région of thé SouthPacifie for a Fiji: 1997-1999, AIDS Research Alliance America ' sci- of Transfer Coopération ' Ongoing activi- thé absenceof standardizedquality in Manila embarked upon a policy of préservation and conservation needs of EcoWoman (CIDA)" entific group with ties need to be ''&. (ARA) and Samoa guarantees thé Project controlmeasures; and, thé présenceof promoting thé sound use oftraditional médicinal plant germplasmresources knowledge from Wainimate more widespread return of 20 percent of commercial substancesother than that of thé tradi- women profession- (see below) to throughout thé medicine that involves thé following in thé région andto provide thé much s revenues derived from thé use of aïs in science to develop Fiji's country tional remedy that could be injurious éléments: neededtraining opportunitiesfor thé Prostratin,promising anti-HIV/AIDS rural counterparts Biodiversity to health(Kang-Yum & Oransky1992; l. framing national and régional assessmentof green pharmaceutical l Build network Strategy and 0 compound, to thé people of Samoawho 1993). infrastructure for Action Plan Catlinetal. policies, applicationsand their safetyconsidera- helpedAmerican researchers discover program delivery Thé use oftraditional medicine in thé 2.enhancing safety, efficacy and qual- tions in daily use. on traditional this plant-derived therapeutic(Saga- Pacifieisland statesis an indisputable ity oftraditional médicinal practices medicine polutele,2002). Fiji: 1998-2002 Issuance of componentof thé islanders'répertoire and products, Kava and Nonu Record occur- Participation of Wainimate (WWF,thé traditional of culture, customs and habits that l rence and promote professional 3. ensuringaccess to and use of safe Amongst thé médicinal plants of thé NGO- University of medicine handbook Gender safe use of tradi- women scien- contributeto their maintenanceofgood procéduresof application,and Pacifie thé two most widely used Women's thé South - 'Na Vola ni Wai Women,thé mainstayofmral andvil- tional médicinal tists and rural Association Pacifie, Fiji, health.As a result,it is beingintegrated 4. promoting rational, standardizedand species and well-known experts of practices; Vakaviff for use by women healers lage households in thé Pacifie islands, for Natural and Pacifie healers in thé Fijian médicaldoctors and hospitals into medicine and protect against aids growing by quality use of traditional virtually worldwide économiesignifi- Médicinal Peuples' islands like thoseelsewhere in other régions, loss, misuse and awareness of theirdaily practices conceraing health (WHO2003a). cance are kava and nonu - traditional Therapy)14 Partnership) Conduction of are thé guarantors and transmitters of piracy of healers' traditional and care. Such a developmentbas been Guidelines conceming thé cultiva- workshops in Fiji, medicines that may include thé use of know-how of modem healing traditional knowledgeconceming thé Kiribati [with heal- mirrored thé growing préférence traditional Systems; in tion andcollection of médicinalplants thé root, stem, bark, leaves, flower, ers' group - Te useof médicinalplants for thé healthy médicinal plants potential to médicinal plant use in thé north- and some post-harvest opérations rhizomesor whole plant for treatment, Maurin Kiribati) that well-being of their familles. Village through thematic source of new ern industrialised societies that are that are necessaryfor thé safety and Récentdevelopments, however, hâve activities: /)as developed thé income for rural women occupy an important rôle in ETEN Médicinal 1) 'Save plants that women résulta facedwith thé high monetarycost of ef&cacyof médicinalherbs hâve been diminished thé attraction of foreign- thé use of plant médicinal resources; save lives' and Plants garden) and from establish- pharmaceuticalhealthcare medicines issued(WHO 2003b).Thé guidelines exchangeeamings and trade of thèse Vanuatu; and through time-honouredpractices 2) 'Affordable ment of business visits to and products. Traditional domestic focus on: two Pacifie médicinal plants with Healthcare for Ail 'kura' (Morinda handeddown fi-om mother to daugh- Niue and Tuvalu; herbaria are becomingstore- by thé Year 200V citrifolia) now l. ensuring thé quality of médicinal financial losses being particularly and conduction of ter through severalgénérations in thé plantations; housesofvaluable informationon thé plant materials used as a source for sévère in thé case ofkava. Such lasses workshop in thé sowing; harvesting and use of tradi- more need to Solomon Islands occurrence, préservation and use of herbal medicines for purposes of as in thé case of kava arise from thé to protect against tional médicinal plants contribute to for trainers traditionalmédicinal plants. and to exploitation of improving thé quality, safety onslaught of dieback disease due WAINIMATE their préservationand availability in traditional cures Home garden cultivation accounts ef6cacy ofmarket-oriented remédiai cucumber mosaic virus (Davis et Project displayed at village markets.However, thé major- and loss of EXPO 2002 for some40 percentof thé reported products al. 1996). Sévère losses ofplanting ity of traditional healers are women, 183médicinal plant speciesin Fiji and knowledge pos- 2. promoting thé formulation material reported in Fiji, Tonga and and thus thé women's labour force sessed by thé (Clarke& Thaman1995); some 75 use of national and régional GACP Vaauatu contribute to thé économie cannotcompare in scopeand range of aged génération percentof ail reportedherbal plants in guidelines through dissémination vulnerability of thèse Pacifie states.

INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0FISLAND AFFAIRS 33 To containthèse losses, thé technique TABLE 2. Worldwide responses to kava products from thé Pacifie région16 TABLE2 (cont.) thé considérableéconomie losses in of tissue-culture bas been preferred Country Year Remarks UK (see a/so Wales) 2001 MedicinesControl Agency (MCA) requests marketing com- trade(Gmenwald et al. 2003)and of by thé Plant Protection Services of thé Developed World munityto withdrawon voluntarybasis ail kavaproducts their safe consumption for human health 2002 toxicityévaluation MCA concludes safety assessment and SPC in building up stocksof disease- Germany 1998 Twocases of hepatotoxicityreported issuesban on médicinalproducts containing kava (Table2). Théreporting of liver tox- free kava-plantlets similar BundesinstitutfurArzneimittelund Medizinprodukt(BfArM) or in Fiji. A 2003 2001 FédéralInstitute for Drugsand MédicalDevices issues notice In mid-Januaryorder banning sale of kava-basedproducts icity of kava especiallyin Germany approachhas beenmade at thé Papua becomeseffective with foreseenreview after two years of withdrawalof marketingauthorizations for kava-containing and Switzerlandtriggered a virtual New GuineaUniversity ofTechnology products27 2004 Followinga meetingin London,April 2 betweenUK Medicines 2002 June:registrations of Germanmanufacturers of kavaprepa- and HealthcareProducts RegulatoryAgency (MHRA) and thé worldwide chain réaction that was with nonu that is susceptibleto attack rations inclusive of food and médicinal products and also IKEC,thé MHRAexpresses interest in thé Germanapproach crippling and detrimental to several by insects(Anon 2004). homéopathie medicines cancelled; - thé créationof newdata, dialoguing on thé issuein question Pacifie island économies. October. German Fédéral Institute for RiskAssessment warns and re-consideration of thé results of ail new research 2004 consumers not to use kava products. Following a meeting in USA 2001 Foodand DrugAdministration (FDA) calls on healthcare Once flourishing markets of kava Kava Berlin,April 2 betweenthé GermanHealth Ministry and IKEC professionalsto reportadverse events linking kava use with (actingon behalfof thé PacifieIslands States) agreement is nutraceuticalsand food suppléments Piper methysticum,a shrubbelonging 2002 liver toxicity. reachedon that researchwould first focuson thé safetyàf Report from Centres for Disease Control and Prévention andexperts fi-om Fiji, Samoa,Tonga to thé pepper family Piperaceaeand kavaprier ta a discussionof its efficacy;a re-evaluationof thé safety of kava within thé next six months would be made. As reportson two casesof liverassociated with kava-dietary andVanuatu were virtually destroyed thé psychoactivebeverage made fi-om products1 ' FDA continues ta draw attention of a conséquence Deputy Health Minister for Germany calls on consumers and overnightupsetting self-sustaining it are both known by thé name kava IKECand independentexperts in pharmacologyand toxicol- healthcareproviders to potentialrisks oncerning use of kava- rural enterprisesand livelihoods and (Rudgley2000). Awa, Waka,Lawena, ogy ta jointly déterminethé designmodality for thé génération based products of new data. Wales 2002 Throughthé WelshStatutory Instrument 2002 No. 3157 adding to an increasein thé vulner- Sakau, Yaqona are other commoa Switzerland 2000 Kavamarketers notified by governmentauthorities on safety (W.293) Thé Kava-kavain Foods(Wales) Régulations 2002, ability of oncethriving communities names m use in Fiji and elsewhere in concerns relating ta use of kava. Following conclusion of that cameinto force on 9 January,2003, thé sale offood 2001 SafetyDrug Control use of kavaextracts suspended and 2003 consistingofor containingwas prohibited. that were using traditional medicines thé Pacifie région for kava which is withdrawn. As a resultof thé case broughtby thé NationalAssociation Australia 2002 andpractices that through thé passage offeredat traditional social gatherings, February.Attention of healthcarepersonnel and consumers of HealthStores (NAHS) against thé UK Government,Thé throughrespective Therapeutics Goods Association (TGA) oftimehad sustained thé well-being of cérémonies 2004 National Assembly or Wales reversed its ban that came into andin culturaland religious alertsdrawn to emergingand increasingnumber of interna- force on end October 2003 theirpeoplesthrough several centuries (Lebot et al. 1997) and which spread tional reportslinking kava-medicine use with hepatotoxicity. Consumers recommended to discontinue use of kava and to LondonHigh Court in Januaryrejects NAHS case re: UK andsuccessive générations. As a result westwards to Papua New Guinea and Government re-consideration of its ban on kava t_> desistfrom use of unsupervisedprescription drugs. Consulta- of thé actioninitiated by severalSouth a Micronesiaand eastwards into Fiji and tion with a doctoremphasized prier to use of kava-containing Developing countries medicines Pacifie governmental and scientific Polynesia from thé group islands Brazil 2002 BrazilianNational Agency of SanitaryMonitoring (ANVISA) of August TGAissues voluntary recall of ail kava-containing requiresspécifie labelling for médicinalproducts containing bodies20,thé fact-findingGruenwald l m eastem Melanesia - Vanuatu that is medicines. kava.This measureis to restrictindiscriminate usage ofsuch N.B. Thereare 84 medicinescontaining extracts from thé report21and its proposedstratégie s considered thé centre of distribution. products without médical évaluation kavaplant on Thé TGA Register Malaysia 2002 action plan to counteract thé debilitat- Of thé known 118 cultivars ofkava, Belgium 2001 BelgianHealth authority announces (i) requirementof ad- Thé DrugsControl Authority (DCA) suspends thé registration of ail kavaproducts until safety concerns answered; requires ing impactof théban, thé conveningof 80 occurin this archipelago.Interest in ditionallabelling on kavaproducts and (ii) distributionby pharmacies and health stores be done with care registeredholders of kava-productsto providedetailed infor- a kava-stakeholders'meeting (Gruen- l kava has extendedbeyond thé Pacifie Austria 2002 FollowsGerman ban of July 2002though no caseof illness mationon their productsand methodsof préparation:cancels wald 2004),and thé délibérationsof thé Rim into thé industrialized world on reported registrationof 9 out of 13 kava-containingregistered products Canada 2002 January:Health Canada announos safetyassessment in Malaysia WHOAdvisory Committee on Safety ci: accountofits manybénéficiai qualifies Singapore 2002 UJ surveyof kavaand advicesconsumers to refrainfrom using SingaporeHealth Sciences Authority (HSA)voluntary with- Médicinal Products, thé World Health that help to reduce stressand induce kava products drawsail kava-containingproducts from Singaporeanmarkets Organization thé l August Stop-saleorder issuedfollowing report of illnessin (WHO) is to review a state relaxation. Federated andproceeds ta prohibitimportation of kavaand its constitu- of In thé four cases sntsunderthe PoisonsAct; violationof thé prohibitionorder safety ofherbal kava. States island France 2002 Micronesia (FSM), thé FrenchAgency for thé Safetyof HealthProducts suspends for aunishableby fines up to US$10,000 and imprisonmentup ta ofPohnpei is thé major marketwhere one-yearail productscontaining kava. Public advised to stop [wo years. usage of kava products South Africa 2002 Uedicines Control Council of South Africa issues recall of ail Nonu sakaubars are a common sight ail along Ireland 2002 Irish MedicinesBoard institutes voluntary withdrawal ail of dietarysuppléments, medicines and préparations kava containing products Morinda citrifolia, commonlyknown thé island. Local consumptionalone 2003 Issuesgazetted notice conveying MCC décision ail kava-con- Malta 2002 Followingévaluation of growingscientific information on thé as noni or nin and one of thé most could amount to about US $10 mil- tainingmedicines, dietary suppléments and préparationsare a healtheffects of kavaon humans,Food Safety Commission serions health risk widelyused médicinal plants in Poly- lion annually.Sakau is beingexported prohibits kava extracts from local markets International Netherlands 2002 Governmentauthorities ban thé sale of kava-basedproducts nesiaprier to Europeanuse, is widely from thé FSM to nearby islandswith IKEC 2003 CommoditiesLaw (Herbal Préparations) Decree amended 2003 Explores ways to re-establish thé trade between EU Member popular in currenttimes (Dixon et al. Ponapeanpopulations, Guam and thé so that herbalpréparations are not to containany material Satesand thé South Pacifie countries in first ever European- 1999).Moreover, aptexample Commonwealth of Northem Mariana derived wholly or partially from kava South Pacifie Stakeholders' consultations it is an New 2002 Sale of kava-basedproducts in pharmaciesbanned Health (Brussels,Belgium, August) thévaried ways used plantmedici- Islands. Fresh extracts are also of in ofkava Caledonia and SocialDepartment; traditional kava préparations served WHO 2003 October.Advisory Committee on Safetyof MédicinalPlants" nal préparationsby différent cultures. sold in thé local markets in Micro- in nakamals" and products such as kava sweets and instant recommends: kavasold in supermarketsnot coveredby thé ban; For example, noni juice products, nesia1 5. In thé 1990s thé kava industry (1) Pharmacovigilance in herbal médianes New Zealand 2002 FoodStandards Australian and NewZealand(FSANZ) author- (2)Obtaining data /assessments from countries reporting ad- availablewith or without pasteuriza- and market in thé Pacifie islands was ity warnsconsumers of possibleill-effects of kava-containing verse réactions arising from thé use of kava-based medicines dietarysuppléments; (FSANZ) issues proposa! (i) to retain tion, areprocessed and prepared either widely estimatedto hâve grown to a 2003 and inclusive of literature reviews prohibitionon kavaingrédients in foodsbut not in dietarysup- throughfennentation or throughdrip value of US$200 million. plementscovered by NZ governmentrégulations; (ii) ta keep (3) Re-evaluationof ail datafollowing compilation of ail 2004 labellingstatements concerning public health. In additionto availabledata on kava-productsand their safetyby thé WHO extraction or thé squeezingof fresh This médicinal plant that originates abovewarnings and considérations,FSANZ proposes to: CollaboratingCentre for InternationalDrug Monitoring based fmits.(Box 3). from a wild progenitorPiper wich- (1) operatein conjunctionwith thé NationalCode of Kava in Uppsala, Sweden More than 200 commercial entities mannii bas beea thé focus of concem Management;and (2) amendthé définitionof kava;and (4) Extraction and analysis procédures used for ail kava (3) retainthé labellingstatements concerning public health préparationsbe thé subjectoffurther researchpreferably at sell anddistribute noni productsworld- for thé Pacifie région on account of (ses also Gruenwald2004). thé Ph.D. level wide as a contemporary medicine.

INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0FISLAND AFFAIRS 35 Box 3. Family-owned 'noni' enterprises

Country Product Remarks Category listed urther détails at

Cook Islands 100%OrganicNoni No additives or Health ttp://www. noninz. com/ juice preservatives présent 100% Pure SOrganic Family owned Health and ww. estermaria. corn/ Noni Juice and managed Médicinal company Samoa 100%OrganicNoni Family owned and Organic Certjfied ww. nonusamoa. com juice managed enterprise by International Federa- International Trade tion ofAgricultural Centre,2001). Movements (IFOAM)

However, in some casesuse as a medi- UK Compétent Authority2 2. Following drink- eitherby a speciallydesignated ciné has been contestedthus necessitat- completion of consultations between individual or a group ofindividuals in ing thé need for constant clinical moni- European Commission (EC) Member thé community.Historically, prepara- toring for impurities ând additives. States, thé EC Scientific Committee tion of thé kava beverageinvolved thé Thé methodsof use and préparation on Food (SCF)expressed an opinion" dental power of chewing thé root for of thèse médicinal products are now that nonijuice is acceptableas a novel use.Social consumptionof thé bever- being challengedby healthauthorities food given that toxicity data showed âgein modérationsoothes an agitated m some countries on account of thé no cause for concern. Furthermore, tempérament, eases moral discomfort absenceof standardizedprocédures following pasteurization,thé product and anxiety, lessensnervous tension, for préparation and quality control. was microbiologically safe. neutralizes stress and contributes to Regulatoryaction against nonijuice in mentalcalm and serenity. Kava, prima- thé USA was successfullyterminated Médicinal plants - rily, a médicinalpréparation was also cr in 1998through a multistateagreement Culture, Linguistics, consumedas a cérémonialbeverage. ^ by thé Attomeys-Generalof Arizona, Biodiversity and Festivals Thé kava ceremony is credited California, New Jersey and Texas with breaking down communication who had contestée thé daims made in Exactly what is lost when a hostsand visitors; antagonistsand promotionalmaterial conceming reme- language dies? Do we ail lose what strangerswith réservations through s dial actionsin relationto a varietyof can be called a biotic world-view, thé installationof a comfortablegood illnesses22.In relation to unpasteurizedthé local knowledge and wisdom of feel ambience and confidence that is and 'ail other unprocessedpackaged a which is repository iree of doubt aad stress.Legends and E fmit andvegetablejuices, ' théUS Food Down to Earth, 2002" myths exist with thé kava and noni andDmg Administration now requires plants throughout thé Pacifie région l that thèseproducts carry a warning Thé use of plant forms for traditional and especiallyin Polynesia. label or sign by thé fall of 1999indi- medicine is found in ail traditional Areview offems as food and medi- cating that such products 'can be thé societies of thé World. In thé Solomon ciné and as décoration and ritual items cause of serions illness in children, Islands, ornamental and important hasrecently been covered in anupdate thé elderly andpersans with weakened religious, fruit and médicinal plants (Croft, 1999). Attention bas also been immune Systems' (see also Mueller et such as mango (Mangifera indica), givento useoffems asfibre, abrasives, al. 2000). Thé Finnish National Food kinu (Barringonia edulis), gheva and handicraft and constmction mate- Administration22 in 1998 banned thé (Delonix regia), sisivalu (Hibiscus rial. In addition, Elevitch and Wilkin- sale ofnoni juice until suchtime that rosa-sinensis) and différent varieties son(2000) hâve made available a spe- thé mandatory required brochure in of keghi (Cocos nucifera) are widely cies table of aver 70 traditional Pacifie \ conjunction with sales as well as other encountered in daily cultural use. island nontimber forest products that ./ promotional had been corrected in Traditional kava cérémonies are of hâve environmental, économie and accordance with thé Finnish Food Act three major types: (l) those held on cultural importance in sustainable and its legislatedrégulations. And in very formai occasions such as to hoaor development and diversified économie 2000,thé Belgian Compétent Authority royalty; (l) kava cérémonies per- growth. concludingthat information provided formed at community meetingssuch Médicinal trees and shmbs, which 'concemingprobable place of thénovel as at elder's councils, and (3) informai are mcome-eamers in poverty-stricken food in thé diet and its level of use were kava cérémonies such as those on a mral and lower-incomeurban popula- not suf&cient' issued an unfavourable Friday night social occasion. Cultural tiens, are traditionally associated with opinion- a view that washeard by thé contextdictated thé préparationof thé cérémonial practices, rituals, health

37 conservation magie and spiritual sig- sonsleamt from this policy venture are well-beinghas been given prominence herbaland médicinal plant techniques medicineand healthpractice, thé effi- withdrawalofauthorization for market nificanceconceming human émotions applicablein strengtheningéconomie within thé séries of thé quadrennial for thé conservationof humanhealth ciencyofwhich, at times,is weakened was unjustified on thé basis of insuf- and events (Thaman, 1989) and that developmentin Fiji, Samoa,Tonga, conférences:Festivals of thé Pacifie resources.Hopefully thé next festival bythé phenomenon ofmicrobial dmg fiaientand unconvincing data concem- eventually contribute to thé growing and Pohnpei in Eastem Micronesia) Arts. Thé 7thfestival (Apia, Samoa, in Pago Pago,American Samoawill résistance. ing liver toxicity.Thé formulation of interest in kava trade. Thé sustainabil- and other Pacifie island countries. 8-23 September, 1996) attracted give attention to folklore medicine Thé rôle of womenespecially a stratégieaction plan focusingon ity of thé kavatrade bas been culturally some 15900 participants from over that emphasizesMother Nature's in thé least developed countries in Linguistic diversity is like genetic révocationof théban and instituting constmcted with cultiu-al variations in 20 Pacifie island state and territories benevolencefor humankind'shealth whichfamilles cannot afford thé steep market re-introductions of kava is a five Pacifie island countries where thé diversity because mapping it and aad shared basic knowledge on thé and welfare. expensesof allopathie medicines is useis moreofa religiousrather than of understanding ail its nuances is a necessarystep m re-establishingthé conservation and use of médicinal Théthèmes of thépast nine festivals vital. Mindful of thé crucial rôle of race against time. once mutually-beneficial trade between a médicinalnature (Pollock, 2000). plants in thé treatment of children's (Table3) emphasizethé élémentsof Cavalli-Sforza2* women using médicinal plants for thé European and Pacifie countries. Recently a successstory has been and women's aliments, skin diseases biocultural diversity which covers family andcommunal well-being, described with thé case of kava in Anothervital issue is whetherù-aders, and thé healing of broken bones. In thérelationships between thé planet's severalUN agencies,and particularly producersand devastated kava-using Vanuatu and its contribution to thé Thé contributionof médicinalplants to 9th medici- thé festival(Belau, Palau) interactive and interlinked diversities of WHO, hâve endorsedthé undeniable national economy(Lebot, 2001).Les- thé sustenance of human welfare and médicinalenterprises in Fiji, Samoa, nal plant healersdemonstrated on-site thébiosciences, culture and linguistics value of traditional médicinal knowl- Tonga and Vanuatu are entitled to (Cavalli-Sforza,2001, Harmsworth, edge in thé conservation of human Table3. Contributions in thé strengthening of Biocultural Diversity in thé Pacifie island countries financialcompensation through appro- 2002; Skutnabb-kangaset al, 2003; health. Efforts to formulate national pnate international mechanisms to Year Place Festival Thèmes Features Sutheriand,2003; UNESCO, 2004). policies that embracethé efficient and meettheir économie losses coming May1972 Suva, Fiji Fightagainst thé disappearance of traditional arts ' Statementof architecturalsolidarity of Pacifieisland safe use of traditional medicine.that from a ban unjustifiedto someand in most Pacifie countries peoplesin constructionand exhibitionof thé 'villageof Conclusion evaluateand regularizetraditional valid for others. Protect them from being submerged by other traditionalhouses' by nativesfrom Fiji, Kiribati,New ThéPacifie région, an oceanic blanket practices, and that fosters consultations cultural influences Caledonia.Niue,Solomon Islands and Tonga Indeed within thé world of biocul- Starta processof préservationand development ofsome29 million km2 of théplanet's betweentraditional and modem health turaldiversity and médicinal plants of thé various local art forms surface,is hometo neariy9 million practitioners attract national and inter- March, Rotorua, thé world's languagesrepresent an . Presenting our culture to our neighbours and Artisticwindow to thé worldthat thé peoplesof thé people who hâve descendedfrom a u 1976 New Zealand national endorsement and commercial Q sharing a common héritage Pacifieislands countries hâve their own patternsof extraordinarywealth of human crea- successionof ancestorsstarting with i Acting forfriendship between peoples of thé culturalbehaviour and héritagethat can only enrich interestand support. tivity. They containand expressthé ^ région biocultural diversity eariyAsian,Austronesian and Melane- Safetyissues regarding thé use of total "pool of ideas", nurtured aver Cultureas a key to individuality siansettlers several thousands ofyears June/July, Port Moresby médicinalplants in thé technically- timethrough héritage, local traditions A célébration of Pacifie Awareness Emphasison a Pacifieawareness and by conse- l 1980 New thatwere followed by implantations CQ Papua a and advancedsocieties hâve corne to thé quence of Pacifie régional awareness andcustoms communicated through >-" Guinea renaissance of 16thcentury European explorers, forearousing concem and controversy locallanguages. Thé diversity ofideas g July, 1985 French 0 Pacifie, my home Reaffirmationof thé Pacifieisland cultural identity and 18thcentury entrepreneurial fishing (Moulds& Malani2003). Use oftradi- Polynesia carriedby différentlanguages and sus- Dur own Pacifie way for our new home legacyin thé wakeof thé festivaloriginally pallnerec- andtrading communities, 19th century tionalmedicines such as kava gen- For a Pacifie way in development Newplanned for NewCaledonia in 1984but organized by tained by dififerentcultures is as nec- empire-buildingpowers of thé north- in 1985in FrenchPolynesia erationsof nativepopulations through essaryas thé diversityof speciesand August, Townsville, thé Ta promotethé maintenanceof indigenouscul- Emphasison thé significanceof thé indigenouscul- em hémisphèrethat culminatedin severalcenturies bas beenbrought 1988 Australia ecosystems for thé survival ofhuman- tures of thé Pacifie région tures of thé Pacifie région and their contribution émergenceof théearly 20th century into doubt on thé ground of health Making thé Arts Festival a lime for communication ity andof life onour planet. In many l bioculturaldiversity indigenous people-settlerdominated between Pacifie peuples concemsarising fi-ombiosafety issues casesthé knowledgeof naturalcures Making thé 'Dreamtime' a rebirth for thé Pacifie states. Thé région is thus a natural - lackofquality control, liver toxicity, andremédies for illnessestransmitted peuplesin their commondestiny, working, living, treasuryofnumerous cultures, cultural andlack of useof standardmethods of and achieving fulfilment together through their arts by languagesthrough générations and legacies,languages, social customs, and cultures préparationand application.Another linked to local plant life hâvebeen lost October, Rarotonga, and a wealth and faunal Seafaring Pacifie Islanders Paystribute ta thé skillsand spiritof thé thé seafar- of floral complicatingfactôr is inaccurateor mis- 1992 Cook Islands dueto théabaadonment of languages Pacifie Islanders as gréât océan voyagers ing Pacifieislanders and thé anxcientnavigators of biodiversity that is a resourcebase of leadingproduct labelling that apart from and cultures, and thé destmction of Polynesia alternative, folkloric and traditional September, Apia, Samoa damagingthé médicinalplant market Tala Measina Spécialattention given ta youthand their contribution naturalhabitat' (UNESCO, 2004).. 1996 plant-basedmedicines. Verbal phar- in thé unveilingof Samoa'sorigin and hospitality.With alsoputs into disreputeand doubt thé Médicinal plants, thé oldest known relationto médicinalplants, healers shared their experi- macopoeiasofvariedphilosophies and time-honouredproven réputation of thé healthcare products, play a vitalrôle ences in thé healing ways of rituals in thé use and practices in traditional medicine hâve herbas a médicinalplant. Linked to conservation of médicinal plants in treating skin dis- in thé maintenanceof human health beentransmitted from générationsto eases and broken bones suchdoubt arethé issuesof économie worldwideand especially in thédevel- October/ Nouméa, Pacifie Cultures on thé move together Reaffirmation of ancestral wisdom. thé rôle of générations and are still in thé con- significanceand global markets wherein November, New Caledonia opingworld (Hoareau & DaSilva1999; Words of Yesterday traditionalPacifie island communities in confronting temporarypractice and 2000 ofAboriginal thé galloping growth of thé médicinal Words of Today thé phenomenaofdemocratization, globalization and McNeillJr. 2004)). Their importance Maorimedicine. Thé therapeutic use Words of Tomorrow homogenization kavaand nonu plant products compete is linkedto théavailability and use of of médicinalplants elsewhere in thé with thoseof allopathietherapeutics that July,2004 Belau, Palau traditionalintellectual property Nurture Emphasison a livingPacifie island culture that bears Pacifierégions for thémaintenance and (Blumentahl2002). hassustained thé well-being ofances- Regenerate witness to thé Pacifie island communities to nurture, sustenanceofhuman healthresources scien- Celebrate regenerate and celebrate their contribution to thé emer- ThéGmenwald Report in its tral générationsover severalhundred has found favour with occidentallife- genceof bioculturaldiversity tific évaluationfound in faveur of thé years.Thé discoveryof anticancer 2008 Page Pago, To be defined stylesas an alternativeto thérising useofkava basedon overtwo thousand American Samoa compoundsand other therapeutics of costsof patentéedrugs in conventional yearsof traditionaluse. Furthennore, plant-originis justificationnot only

INTERNATIONALJOURNAL0F ISLAND AFFAIRS 39 for such traditional use but also for thé gent and new diseaseswhich threaten pursuit of pharmacologicalresearch familles and that erode national human Notes Oceaniais thé collective name that is occasionally anddmg developmentto combatemer- health resources. of intellectualproperty protection in théWest and thé a centralmeeting place for menfolk and their familles usedfor thé islands in thé Pacifie Océan, and thé exact SouthPacifie. fromail walks of life that wish to relax and escape from numberof whichis notknown. Agénéral accepted 9 Paperpresented at Consultation Meeting of BIMST thépressures and stresses ofdaily work routine. Références estimateis of 25,000to 30,000.Thé islands were first Countrieson 'BiodiversityConservation and Sustain- 18Thé Morbidity andMortality Weekly Report (MMWR) 2002. Anon. 2004 Noni fruit and coconut oil studies kick off. October17, page 11, publ. online UNCTAD/WTO at portunitiesforAsia-Pacific Countries in Biotechnology describedas Polynesia(a combinationof thé Greek ableIndustrial Utilization ofMédicinal Plant and Expert HepaticToxidtyPossiblyAssociatedwithKava-containing ThéReporter, April 23-29, pg 6; Ed.Lahies, C., Public wwwi.tradeforum. org/news/fullstory. php/aid/301/me- andHerbal Technology - Strengthening Régional Co- polyand nesos meaning 'many' and 'islands') by GroupMeeting for thé Establishmentof Asia-Pacific Products- United States, Germany, and Switzerland, RelationsUnit, PNG University ofTechnology, PM Bag dicinaljjlants.html opération, pp.1-17 (www.apcff.org and http//china. Charlesde Brosses, French magistrale and scholar, TraditionalMédicinal Network fAPTMNETJ, Bangkok, 1999-2002,MMWR Vol. 51:1065-1 067 from thé Centres Lane411, PapuaNew Guinea. Kang-Yum,E., & Oransky,S. H. 1992Chinese patent apctt-tm.nef) followinghis visit in 1751and publication ofhis Histoire Thailand,20-22 May. forDisease Control and Prévention présents data for two Blumenthal,M.2002 Kava Safety questioned due to case medicineas a sourceof mercurypoisoning. Veterinary Rudgley,R. 2000 Thé Encyclopaediaof Psychoactive desnavigations aux terres australes in Parisin 1756. "Listedamongst several other associated documents casesin thé USAand summarizes théEuropean situation reportsof livertoxicity. HerbalGram 55, 26-32. andHumanroxfcotogy34, 235-238. Substances,Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin'SPress, Thégrouping ofislands as Melanesia (acombina- andstudy papers as backgroundmaterials to thé (seealso Ji\Mh. 2003,289:36-37. Catlin,D. H., Sekera,M. &Adeiman,D. C. 1993Er/th- Kate, K. & Laird, S.A. 2002 Thé CommercialUse of NewYork, USA. pgs. 302. ISBN 031 226 3171. tionof théGreek me/as and nesos meaning 'black' Reportof théCommission onIntellectual Property " Recommendationsfromthefirst meeting oftheAdvisory rodermaassociated with thé ingestionof an herbal Biodiversity,Access to GeneticResources and Ben- Sagapolutele,F. 2002A PositiveAids Connection and'islands') results from thé visitin 1824of Jules Rights'Integrating Intellectual Property Rights and Committeeon Safetyof MédicinalProducts, 20-22 product.Western Journal of Medicine159, 491^493. efit Sharing, p. 398. Earthscan,London. UK. ISBN - SamoanHealers Recognized forThousand-Year-Old SébastienCésar Dumont d'Urville, botanist and DevelopmentPolice, November 2002 (2"" Edition}. October20034, WHO, Geneva. (www. who.int/medi- Cavalli-Sforza,L. L. 2001 Gènes, Peuples,and Lan- 1 853833347 Knowledge.Pacifie Magazine, (http://www. pacificis- linguist.d'Urville coined this name on account of thé Publ.Commission onIntellectual Property Rights, c/o cine/organization/paredl/WAD-safety.doc};see also guages.Publ. Universityof CaliforniaPress, May 7; Kilham,C. 1994Tamanu Oil: A TropicalTopical Remedy lands.cc/pm22002/index.php) prédominantdark skin colour of théinhabitants in this DFID,London, UK (www. iprcommission.org). WH0.1998,pg.145. pgs.240ISBNNo:0520228731 Herba/Gram63, 26-31. Schoeffel,P. 2000 Thé PacifieIslands: Past, Présent and groupof islands. "Examplesof suchinterest are: (1) thé Mataatua 20Pacifie Island Forum Secrétariat (PIFS); Fiji Kava Clarke,W. C. & Thaman,R. R. 1995Nonfood plants. In Lebot,V., Merlin,M. & Lindstrom,L. 1997Kava, Thé Pa- Future,pgs. 11 D'Urvillecoined thé term Micmnesia (acombination Déclaration(June 1993) concerning thé Human Council,Samoa Association of Manufacturersand Agmforestryinthé Pacifie Islands: Systems for Sustain- cificElixir: Thé Definite Guide to its Ethnobotany, History (www.fdc.orgau/files/schoeflel.pdf) Greekmïfcros and nesos meaning 'small' and ofthé GenomeDiversity project; (2) thé Maori Congress of Exporters,Tonga Lava Council and VanuatuKava Tokyo,Japan Chemistry. International, Skutnabb-kangas,Tove; Harmon, 2003 'islands')to describe thé thousands ofsmall islands that ability,United Nations University Press, and pgs.255. InnerTraditions Maffi,Luisa; David IndigenousPeoples (1993) concerning thépatenting ExportersAssociation. pgs.307, UNUP-824, ISBN 92-808-0824-9 VermontUSA. ISBN 0892817267. Sharinga Woridof Différence:Thé Earth's linguistic, constitutethis grouping together of thèseislands. of life-forms. 21Thé Pacifie Islands Forum Secrétariat, Suva, Fiji, Cox,P. A. & Balik,S. A. 1994Thé ethnobotanical approach Lebot, V. 2001 Expert diversificationin Pacifie Island culturaland biologicaldiversity - Paris,UNESCO Archaeologicaland linguistic évidence indicate that 12A project-Thé International Coopérative Biodiversity (RégionalAgency: (1) SPARTECA= South Pacifie to drugdiscovery. ScientificAmerican 270, 60-65. Countries:thé developmentof non-traditionalagri- Publishing,2003. 56 ISBN: 92-3-103917-2 théislands were first discovered and settled between Groups(ICBG) Program is a uniqueeffort by six RégionalTrade and Economie Coopération Agree- DaSilva,E. J, Murukesan,V.K., Nandwani, D., Taylor, M. culturalproducts, pgs. 26 - Présentationat Régional Singh,Y. N.,Ikahihifo, T., Panuve, M & Slatter,C. 1984 some3000 years ago by settlersof Austronesian componentsof thé National Institutes of Health(NIH), ment;(2) SPC = SouthPacifie Commission; (3)SPF andJosekutty, P.C. 2004 Thé Pacifie Islands: a biotech- Workshopon 'Constraints, Challenges and Prospects Folk medicinein Tonga.A Studyof thé use of herbal originwho brought with them horticultural skills and thé BiologicalSciences Directorate of thé National = SouthPacifie Forum) onbehalf of thénegatively nologyresouree bank of médicinalplants and traditional forthé Commodity-Based Development and Diversifi- medicinesfor obstetricand gynecologicalconditions valuablemaritime knowledge. Thèse first settlers are ScienceFoundation (NSF) and thé Foreign Agriculture affectedSouth Pacifie Member States requested thé intellectualproperty, World Journal of Microbiologyand cationin thé PacifieIsland Economies', August 18-20, and disorders.Journal of Ethnopharmocology12, thoughtto hâvemigrated eastwards from Southeast Serviceofthé USDAthatfocuses onthé interdependent Centrefor thé Development of Enterprise (CDE), Biotechnology.20:903 -934 2001,Nadi, Fiji. Authorcan be reached at CIRAD,PMB, 305-329. Asia Yap(FSM), and then PapuaNew Guinea, ta to issuesofdrug discovery, biodiversity conservation, and Brussels,Belgium - an institution of théACP bloc and Davis, R.l., Brown J.F., & Pone, S.P. 1996 Causal Port Vila, Vanuatu. Sutherland.W.J. 2003 Are Languagesreplaceable?, SolomonIslands, to Kiribatiand thé Marshall Islands sustainableéconomie growth. théEuropean Union established within thé framework relationshipbetween cucumber mosaic cucumovirus McNeill,Jr., D. G.2004 Herbal Drug Widely Embraced in Nature423: 276-279 asis evidenced from thé historical Lelu ruins in Kosrae s " ThéSouth Pacifie People's Fwndation (SPPF) func- of théCotonou Agreement in 2000,for assistancein Q and kavadieback in thé SouthPacifie. Plant Disease TreatingRésistant Malaria, Thé NewYork Times, May Tairawhiti Pharmaceuticals Ltd. 1999 Thé Traditional (FSM) 1400 and NanMadol ruins ofPohnpei in AD thé tionedas thé Canadian Executive Agency; thé Pacifie relationto thénégative impact on ThéSouth Pacifie 80,194-198. 19,publ. Thé New York Times Company, NY., USA Uses of Manuka. (1000AD). IslandNation Partner was thé Sou PacifieAction MemberStates resulting from European bans on kava Dixon,A. R., McMillen,H., & Etkin, N.L. 1999 Ferment (http://www.nytimes. corn f). (http/www.manuka-oil. com/uses. html) 2 PrésentationatThé Brisbane Dialogue: South Pacifie Committeefor HumanEcology and Environment impartproducts. CDE then engaged thé Phytopharm This:Thé transformation ofNoni, traditional Polynesian Moulds,R. F.W. & Malani,J. 2003 Kava:Herbal panacea Thaman,R.R. 1989 Coastal reforestation and agroforestry FuturesConférence, Brisbane, November 2000 organ- (SPACHEE). ConsulfingofBerlin, Germany (www. phytopharm.org) medicine(Morinda citrifolia, Rubiaceae).Economie or liver poison.Thé MédicalJournal ofAustralia 178, as immédiateameliorative measures to addressglobal isedby thé Foundation forDevelopment Co-operation 14Part extraction form thé Onceand FutureAction to performthé "in-depth investigation Info EU Member ! Boteny53, 51-68. 451^153. warmingand to promotesustainable habitation of lowly- (FDC),Brisbane, Queensland. Australia[www. Uc.org. Network(OFAN) in Scienceand Technology, Pacifie StatesMarket Restrictions on KavaProducts". s Elevitch,C. R. andWilkinson, K. M. 2000Agroforestruy Mozena,J. 2001Traditional Médical Systems of théRirio ing islandsand coastalareas. Paper presented at thé au). Edition,December, 2000 pg. 3 (www.wigsat/org. 22(a) New Warning Labels and Regulatory Action against Guidesfor PacifieIslands Publ. PermanentAgriculture tribe on thé Island of Laura in thé Western Solomon Environmentand PolicyInstitute (EAPI) Workshop on Herbs,herbal materials, herbal préparations fin- and ofan/res/OFANewsPacific.do) TahitianNoni. In: Nutrition Forum, November 1998. éd. Resources,P. O. Box428, Holoualoa

INTERMATIONAIJOURNAL 0FISLAND AFFAIRS 4l SHU-TINGCHANG

Abstract somerefer to thé poisonousmushroom health vegetable (food) which is rich in Thé mushroomis a macrofunguswith a distinctive as"Toadstool". Actually, thé namehas protein,but alsoas a sourceofbiologi- fruitingbody that can be eitherepigeous (above- no scientific basis at ail and it should cally active compoundsof médicinal ground)or hypogeous(underground) and large enoughta be seenwith thé nakedeye, and to be not be usedin any situations,although value. Uses include complementary pickedby hand.Approximately 14, 000 described it is possible to find a toad sitting medicine/dietary suppléments for speciesof thé 1.5 millionfungi estimatedin thé beside, or even on top ofa mushroom. anticancer,antiviral, immunopotentiat- worldproduce fruiting bodies that are largeenough au to beconsidered mushrooms. Thé richness of newly Mushrooms attract toads, not due to ing, hypocholesterolemic,and hepato- describedmushroom species are usuallyfrom thé thé mushroom itself, but becauseof thé protective agents.This new class of tropics,e. g.,in a casestudy in Malaysiawhich showed § 66%to bepreviously undescribed. Mushrooms hâve various insects which are harboured in compounds, temied "mushroom nutri- LU beenused and prized as a delicacy,as well as immu- them.Insects certainly are interested in ceuticals" (Chang andBuswell, 1996), l notherapyfor morethan two thousands years. On thé CQ a are exû-actable from either thé mush- otherhand, mushrooms, especially thé wild forms or mushrooms as source offood. >-- "toadstools",became abjects of fear and distrust, It cannot be denied that some mush- room mycélium or fruiting body and becauseof thé storiesof mushroompoisoning. Thé rooms, even though they represent representan important componentof association of mushroomswith thunderstormswas commonin mythologyin thé communities,and it aboutonly lessthan 1% of thé world's thé expandingmushroom biotechnol- wasformeriy believed that mushrooms were formed known mushrooms, are dangerous if ogy industry. It has been showed that c^ by lightningand thunderstorms. Nutritionally, mush- ly constant intake either mushrooms roomsare low fat, low carbohydrate, high in vitamins, eaten. Some are deadly poisonous. of and highin traceéléments. Actually, thé mushroom Therefore, if you are not absolutely or mushroom nutriceuticals (dietary l representsa delicious and highly nutritive food source sure whether a given mushroom is suppléments)can make people fitter andalso possessing health and tonic qualities. Thé developmentof mushroomcultivation in Southeast edible or otherwise, don't touch it. and healthier. In addition, mushroom Asian IslandCommunities has beenincreasingly Leave thé strange mushroom alone. cultivation also can help to convert popularizedin récentyears. But perhapsa more likely explanation agricultural and forest wastes into for thé widespreadabhorrence ofwild useful matter and reduce pollution in introduction mushrooms in thé communities is that thé enviromnent. Therefore, mushroom Our attitudes to thé pheaomenon of they areby naturea ratherstrange and cultivation can be considered as one nature are seldom based on simple mysterious group of organisms, quite stonekilling threebirds: productionof observations. There are, however, unlike thé green plants. In ancient health food, manufacture ofnutriceuti- examples throughout history where times, thé seemingly miraculous cal, and réduction of environmental certainliving thingshâve inspired fear manner of its growth without seed, pollution. and loathing simply becausethey are without leaf and without bud, but its regardedas ugly specieswith peculiar finiting body'ssudden appearance after behaviour, and supposedly evil. For rain, especially, after lightning and Sftu-TmgChang is VicePrésident of WortdSociety for MushroomBiology example, in some Southeast Asian thunderstonns,its equallyrapid disap- and Mushroom Products, Directorof Island Communities, bats, snakes, pearanceand its curiousumbrella-like thé Centrefor InternationalServices to MushroomBiotechnology and spiders, toads, and owls hâve ailbeen shapegave rise to a wealthof illusions EmeritusProfesser of Biology,Thé Chinese University associated with thé devil or regarded and mythologies. of HongKong, Shatin, N. T. HongKong, China.

as harbingers of illness and even of There has been a récent upsurge Contact: 3 Britton Place, McK&tlar,A. C.T. 2617, death. This is one of thé reasons why of interest in mushrooms not only as Australia

43 Aspecinirn ot'Ainanitaphglloïde? What are mushrooms? How then should we define them? thé throne as Emperor. In thé first year adults and children, rich and poor, (Figs.3, 4) or cultivated in mushroom Should we conceive them as animais? Chang and Miles (1992) defined a ofhis reign, he usedthé samemethod hâve been enjoying mushroomsthat houses. Products derived from thèse No, they arenot, eventhough they are mushroom as "a macrofungus with leamtfrom his mother,to fatally poison arehunted from their wild populations mushroomshâve scientifically been also heterotrophic in their nutrition, a distinctive fruiting body, which can his half-brother, Claudius Britannicus. as delicious vegetables.Mushrooms proven (and beyond doubt) to be deriving their food from complex be either above ground (epigeous) or Throughout his reign, Nero was cmel, can be roasted,they can be fried, and very effective in boosting thé body's organic compounds synthesized by below ground (hypogeous). Fruiting tyrannical, and wild. This is thé same they canbe cookedas palatable soups. immunoresponse Systems. Regular chlorophyll-bearing plants; even bodies of macrofungi are large enough Emperor Nero, who had ordered Theycan be dried,canned, pickled, and and sustained use of such mushrooms thoughsome of thé naturalproducts to be seen with thé naked eye, and to St. Paul, thé apostle, killed. This is frozen, for use at a later date. Some can thus serve as préventive (dietary constituting thé cell walls of some be picked by hand." Fig. 2. Aman'itacaesarea, edible wild mush- thé same cmel Nero, who had ordered can be farmed, and are indeed being supplément) medicine, and also as roomwith four morphological structures mushrooms(e. g., chitin) also occur in Some mushrooms are fleshy, his own mother, Agrippina, and his farmed.In théprocess ofbeing farmed, agents for making people healthier, (courtesyofX. L. Mao) thé exoskeleton of insects and other while others are not. Thé latter are own wife, also killed. This is thé same they transform individuals in thé fitter, andhappier.Thèse starkrealities arthropods. Mushrooms are distinct variously textured.Some mushrooms include anatoxins and phallotoxins. Nero whose mie is best known for a worid's poverty strickencommunities, aboutthé many virtues ofmushrooms from animais becausetheir cells are are edible, while others are non- Thé genus Amanita, unfortunately, fire that destroyed much of Rome in into men and women enjoying greater hâve significantly elevated their protectedby a rigid cell wall, while edible. Some are médicinal, others contains both poisonous and edible AD 64. He killed himself in AD 68 socio-economicprosperity, and also importance in world trade. Récent cells of animais do not hâve cell are poisonous. In addition, some species,and thèsecan easily be con- at a tender âge of 31. His almost-final more dignity in society. estimâtes reveal that thé combined

walls. with neurotropic (hallucinogenic fused in their appearance.Amanita words were, ' WTiat a loss l am to thé commercial value of edible and Should we then conceive them as or psychotropic) properties usually caesarea,for example, is very deli- arto!'(Wishart,1996). médicinal mushrooms stands at US$ plants?No, they are not, eventhough referredto ashallucinogenic, narcotic, cious, and was so named becauseit was Actually, thé incidence ofmushroom 30-35 billion annually. Few people their protoplasmis alsoprotected by sacred, psychedelic or entheogenic thé choicemushroom loved by Julius poisoning occurs in thé communities realize that thé monetary contribution a cell wall. They are devoid of chlo- mushrooms, are highly diverse and Caesar(100-44BC). Thismushroom every year. There is no known test ofmushrooms in world affairs is ofthat rophyll, and cannot, therefore, use hâvea wide distributionthroughout thé has ail thé four stmctures characteriz- by which you can tell if a mushroom order of magnitude. light energyto build complexorganic world. Mushroomsail grow relatively ing otherAmanila mushrooms (Fig. 2). is edible or not. Peopleshould avoid Nutritive value of mushrooms: When la foodsubstances from simple inorganic fast, once provided with conditions [A pileus (a cap), a stipe (a stalk), an any white-gilled mushrooms and used as a dietary supplément or as an 2 materials, such as nitrates, carbon optimal for their growth. Mushrooms annulus(a ring), and a volva (a cup) should try not to eat any mushroom ingrédient of our human diet, mush- ^ dioxide, and water. were often highly treasured by thé at its base]. unlessthey can be absolutelycertain Fig.3. Thejoys ofthe authorandMr. P.Sugita in discov- rooms supply thé body with protein, Wherethen do we place them sys- ancient civilisations ail aver thé world, Listen to this true story about thé that it is not poisonous.Anyone who eringthé wild Ganodermamushrooms ontree stump m carbohydrates,lipids, vitamins, and e Surabaya,Indonesia in 1997 cci tematically?They belong to anentirely who traditionallyused them as a relish, Roman EmperorClaudius (10 BC to suspectsthat they might hâve eaten inorganicminerais. Thé protein level >-~ new Kingdom of their own. They are as a tonic, and as medicine. 54 AD), who mled from 41-54 AD. death cap mushrooms should seek Fig. 4. A doserlook at thé Ganodermamushrooms ofsome ediblemushrooms (e. g., Pleu- mentionedin Fig. 3. sufficiently distinct from both plants According to what is documented urgent médical help immediately, rotus sajor-caju, P. ostreatus, Agaricus and animaisto be groupedseparately Mushrooms and human in thé literature, he was actually an preferably at a hospital. Thé sooner bisporus, and Volvariella volvacea) is into what bas been designatedas thé health excellent ruler. But in 48 A. D., he thé treatment begins, thé better thé impressivelyhigh (20% to 40%, dry s FungiKingdom. But not ail fungi are Edibility of mushrooms:Thé edibility madethé greatestmistake. He married patient's chancesof survival. People weight basis). Although mushroom l mushrooms. ofmushroomsis known in virtually ail his youngestnièce, Julia Agrippina,to who are poisoned initially expérience proteinis slightly lessthan animal méat Mushroomsare without buds,with- human societies. Their characteristic be his fourth wife. This marriagewent vomiting, diarrhoea and cramps but protein, it contains ail thé essential out leaves, and without flowers. Yet unmistakeable flavour, texture, and against thé Roman Law. However, he thé death cap can causekidney or liver amino acids required in human diet, they producebeautiful fruiting bodies taste, hâve been commonly celebrated changeathé Law: shewas so beautiful failure resulting in death. including leucine and lysine, which (Fig. l). We hâve said that they are by humans from days immémorial. A and sensual. As bad luck would hâve Fortunately,most mushrooms,99% are often lacking in some ofSoutheast without chlorophyll. They are also wide spectmmof mushroomspecies it, unfortunately, she did not love of théknown species, are safe, although AsianIsland Communities' most staple devoidofvascular xylem aad phloem. bas,aver thé years,been collected for thé Emperor. And, using her beauty some are inedible. It should be noted Some mushroomsdisplay scientif- cereal crops, e.g., rice. In addition, Althoughthey cannotcarry out pho- use as food, as medicine, and as a tonic. as a weapon, she persuadedhim to that ail cultivated mushrooms are quite ically provenstrong médicinal potency. when you get thé dietary protein source tosynthesis, they can biosynthesize Thé most highly treasuredspecies, in renounce thé daims of his own son safe to eat. They can thus be used (and are in- throughthé mushroom route, you need mnumerablevital organicproducts. some societies, were, in fact fit to be as his heir. Yet he deeply loved thé Let us see more of their positive deed being used) to improve health not worry about présent day calamities presentedeven to thé King. Uses of son. However, Agrippina, with her side! conditions of millions of individuals such as mad-cow diseasesand birth-flu poisonous species were also known to tricks, managedto hâve her son by Once you know for sure that thé who are afBicted by some of thé most épidémies. occur.Indeed ugly historical accounts an earlier marriage (who took thé fleshy mushroomsat your disposaiare horrendousand psychologicallymost Thé polysaccharidesbiosynthesized are documented in thé literature, name,Nero) declaredby thé Emperor safe, don't hesitate to enjoy them, or to devastatingincurable diseasesof our by mushrooms are most commonly whereby individuals destroyedtheir as his heir. With her manoeuvres usetheir products.Indeed, millions of time. Chronic wounds hâve been cured built of glucoseand galactosemono- enemies using mushrooms as exter- successfully accomplished, Julia thé world's inhabitants regularly enjoy through thé use of some mushroom mers.Some of thé polysaccharidesare minators. Thé death cap mushroom, Agrippina,mthlessly, mixed poisonous awide spectrumofmushroom species, products.Extracts fi-om other species of componentsof fungal hyphal walls. Amanita phalloïdes, is reported to be mushrooms with Amanita caesarea, and also many mushroom products. mushroomshâve restored good health Othersare constituentsof fungal pro- responsiblefor 90%of fatal poisonings and served it to Emperor Claudius. Since times immémorial, thé peuples to many despondentcancer and other toplasmic membranes. Some occur

Fig.l. Différentstages offruiting bodies of théStraw caused by fùngi {Thé Guinness Book She poisoned him fatally. He died. ofA£rica, Asia, Europe, Latin America, patients,e. g., Ganodermamusïiroovas as storagepolysaccharides e. g., gly- mushroom(Volmriella volvacea) of Records,2000, p. 141). Its toxins Then Nero (37-68 AD), succeededto NorthAmerica, etc., men and women, that can be either collected from field cogen(also found in animal tissues).

INTERNATIONALJOURNAL0F ISLAND AFFAIRS 45 Thé fungal polysaccharidescan form Some species of mushrooms are mushrooms occurring in nature are food for humanconsumption: natural, Although poisonous mushrooms Island Communities enjoy one of complexeswith polypeptide chains, particularly effective in promoting subjectedto beingidentified by experts nutritious and healthy; (2) Mushroom representless than 1% of théworld's thé greatest wealth in biodiversity in someofwhich are increasinglybeing thé body's général fitness, when for poisonousproblems as mentioned cultivation utilizes and upgrades a known mushrooms, with some are thé world and its generative capacity shownto bemedicinally patent against used as dietary suppléments.Thèse above.They are also limited by quan- wide variety of waste materials; (3) deadlypoisonous, we shouldnot ignore as prime agricultural producer. Thé some cancers. substances extracted will enhance thé tity and quality because thé climate Mushroom cultivation represents them. Scientists believe those danger- Communities are endowed with an Thélipids foundin fùngalbiomass body's immuno-regulatory balance. cannotbe maintainedconstantly year a low technology industry; and (4) ously fatal mushroomspecies will outstanding photosynthetic System, arecharacterized by a highpercentage Extracts from such mushrooms, which by yearto ensurecontinuous produc- Mushroom cultivation offers a short- daim more lives unless local authori- which not only générâtesabundant of unsaturatedfatty acids. In fact, in hâve both médicinal and nutritional tion. In orderto hâvea constantsupply term retum compared with many other ties work together to raise public crops and fruits, but also générâtes some cases,up to 78% of their fatty attributes,and which are packagedas for demandin bothquantity and qual- crops important to thé économiesof awareness. Therefore, if you are not massive amounts of lignocellulosic acidsare unsaturated, largely due to a capsules,or as tablets, and regularly ity, mushroom farming in thé Island thé Island Communities,e. g. palms, absolutely sure whether a mushroom biomass, which are thé raw materials high level oflinoleic acid: an essential used as a tonic, are referred to as Communitiesbas developedrapidly fmit trees, etc. is edible or otherwise, l re-emphasize, for mushroom cultivation. However, fatty acid.Animal tissues, in contrast, nutriceuticals (Chang and Buswell, in récentdécades, for example,in thé Despite thèse obvious benefits, don't touch it and leave it alone. thé mushroomcultivation speciesand contain high levels of saturatedfatty 1996). Where medicinally patent or Philippinesand Indonesia. especially to developing countries, When we examine thé positive methods must be tailored in accord- acids: a harmfùl attribute. nutritionally valuable mushrooms are Mushroom cultivation can be a rela- mushroom cultivation bas not been side of fungi in général,thé tmth that ancewith thé prevailingunique natural Mushrooms,and fungi in général, consumeddirectly as part of thénormal tively primitive type of farming, or a as successful or as widely adopted cornesto light enormously humbles resources,héritage, local climate, and are a good sourceof severalvitamins, diet, and as functional foods,they are highly sophisticatedagricultural activ- as might hâve been expected in thé us, since,aver thé years,we hâvenot socio-cultural conditions of thé farm- aseloquently elaborated by Miles and referredto as nutraceuticals(Brower, ity requiring a sizeablecapital outlay Island Communities. Thé reasons accorded mushrooms thé attention ing communities.Therefore, thé train- Chang(1997). Thèse include thiamine 1988,Zeisel, 1999). for machinery equipment.Thé straw can be briefly identified: (l) in some that they deserve. Think about thé ing activitiesofmushroom cultivation (VitaminBl), riboflavin(Vitamin B2), mushroom,Volvariella volvacea,is a Communities there is no appréciation shouldbe continuouslysupported and niacin (nicotinic acid),biotin (Vitamin tropical mushroomand is commonly among thé généralpopulace that thé strengthened. Governments of thé B7, and ascorbicacid (Vitamin C). grown in SoutheastAsian countries on mushroomrepresents a delicious and varions régional localities and their Regularuse of mushroomsas dietary small,family-type farms(Figs 5, 6). In highly nutritive food source,or of thé developmentassistance partners need supplémentsthus protects thé body contrast, cultivation of thé Agaricus mushroom's health and tonic qualities; to build upon thé foundation already from thé commonvitamin deficiency mushrooms, thé common white button (2) mushroomsare unpopular in some started during thé pilot phase of thé diseases,such as béribéri,pellagra, mushrooms,may be highly industrial- Communitiesfor a variety ofgenerally UNESCO Mushroom Training Project and scurvy. ized with a few farms producing a minor social and religious reasons. A initiative in 1977in Hong Kong, 1980 Valueas dietarysuppléments: When disproportionatelylarge percentage traditional négative association with in Philippines and 1982 in Indonesia usedas dietarysuppléments, mush- of a country's output as is thé casein poisonousspecies still existsin many (Ten Years Review of thé Activities rooms also supply thé body with Fig.5. Strawmushrooms, K volvacea, grown on Fig.6. Strawmushrooms grown on paddy straw bed of thé UNESCO Régional Network bananaleave bed in Philippines. Indonesia.Detailed descriptions of thé régions and consequentlythere is a coveredwith plastic sheets and held up by bamboo arches appréciable levels ofessential minéral varionsmethods adopted thé culti- lack trust thé safetyofmushrooms to fonna growthchamber in orderto maintainsuitable for Microbiology in SoutheastAsia, l for of in ça humidityand température conditions for mushroom éléments,such as potassium, phospho- vationof tropicalmushrooms are given as a food source even though they 1984). ce. development(Indonesia). u ms,sodium and calcium. Additionally, Mushroom cultivation in thé Food and Agriculture Organi- are widely cultivated and consumed they provide valuable fibres, which Southeast Asian Island Communities zation (FAO) Plant Protection and elsewhere; and (3) thé absence of Références l Brower,V. 1988.Nutraouticals: poised for a healthy hâve significanthealth benefits.Thus hâvea wide rangeof climates.They ProductionPaper No. 106: "Technical expandingfield forestry and agro systematic government support for, of slice of thé healthcaremarket? Nature Biotechnology whentaken regularly, mushrooms help hâve equatorial rainforests, which Guidelinesfor MushroomGrowing in and promotionof, a viable mushroom forestry where mycorrhizal fungi, 16:728-731. us to maintain good health, and, in thé are characterizedby heavy rainfall thé Tropics" by Quimio, Chang and cultivation programme. which display symbioticrelationships Chang,S. T. and J. A.Buswell. 1996. Mushroom nutriceu- ticals.World J. Microb.Biotechnol. 1:139-146. process,to keep thé doctor away. In and high températuresail year round. Royse, 1990and will not be repeated with pinesand various agricultural and Chang,S. T.and P. G. Miles.1992. Mushroom biology thé process,we keepthé moneywe They also hâve mountainous and hère.Choice of technologiesfor grow- Conclusion forestcrop plants, hâve gréât potential - a newdiscipline. Mycologist 6:64-65. Miles,P. G. and S. T. Chang. 1997. Mushroom Biology: wouldotherwise pay to hospitals,and misty forests, located in thé various Southeast Asian Island Communi- to flourish. Thèsemushrooms represent ing mushrooms usually dépendson Concise basics and current developments.World use it for other vital économie advance- scattered various highlandrégions, in Personalpréférence, and on thé avail- ties hâve a wide range of climates. untappedresources in thétropical and Scientific,Singapore. 194 pp. Quimio,T. H., S. T. Changand D. J. Royse.1990. ment activities;and, in thé processwe communities,some of which experi- ability ofsubstratesand thé amountof Mushrooms(and other fungi) ubiqui- subtropical communities. There are Technicalguidelines for mushroomgrowing in thé maintainour dignity. Ifyou hâvegone ence a summer everyday, and a winter resources available. While thé more tously occur in ail thèse climate types, lessthan 5% of tropical native mush- tropics.FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper to hospitals,you know what we mean. every night. They also harbourexten- sophisticated indoor technology is especially during thé raining season. room speciesknown to science.Many 106.Rome, 155 pp. Ten Years Review of thé Activities of thé UNESCO Théhospital personnel command you to sive woodlandsand grasslands,with recommeaded for thé industrial-scale Unfortunately, however, mush- mysteries remain unresolved in thé thé RégionalNetwork for Microbiologyin Southeast Asia, takeoffyour shoes; to removeyour tie, distinct rainy and dry seasons.Thèse productionof thé mushroom,most of room biota, one of natural resources Kingdom of thé Fungi and Southeast 1984,Department of Biology, Thé Chinese University yourjacket, your shirt, your pants,and climatescatalyse thé générationof an thé othertechnologies are low-cost and of thé Communitiesare very poorly Asian Island Communities located in of HongKong. Wishart,D. 1996. Nero. Hodderand Stoughton, London. more; to removeyour brassière,your enormousquantity of ligno-cellulosic appropriateof rural areadevelopment, researched and documented. Yet we thé tropics and subtropicscan hâve a 273pp. skirt...and more. They pierce your skin biomassevery year.Mushrooms (and especiallywhen production is estab- know, their biota is extremely rich and big rôle to play in helpingto unravel Zeisel,S. H. 1999. Régulation of'Nutraceuticals". Science 285:1853-1855. with their syringesand needles; they other fungi) ubiquitously occur, in ail lished at thé community level. of gréât diversity. them. In addition, Southeast Asian subjectyou to x-rays, and more.And thèseclimatic types,especially during To summarizesome of thé important theydo this regardless ofyour seniority thé rainy season. Yes, indeed, while positive factors associated with mush- andrank in society.Yes, eat mushrooms rain follows thé san, mushrooms room cultivation: (l) Mushrooms fulfil regularly,and keep fit andhealthy! follow thé rain. However, those wild thé threemajor criteria requiredof

INTERNATIONALJOURNAL0F ISUND AFFAIRS 47 Strategy,and of thé MauritiusDeclara- disastersand their increasing impact, as On climate change, thé Strategy tion, a political déclarationthat recog- unfortunatelyhighlighted by thé tragic indicatesthat "adaptationto adverse nizes thé importanceof international économie, social and environmental impacts of climate change and sea- Plant genetic resources of ^a.ofii- phic^ l ù-adein building resilienceand achiev- conséquencesof thé 26 December level riseremains a majorpriority" and ing sustainabledevelopment. Indian Océan Tsunami and thé latest alsopromûtes eaergy efficiency and thé : nd "other" M nds This five-day International Meeting cyclonic seasonin thé Pacifieand thé increased use ofrenewable energy. hostedby thé Republic of Mauritius Caribbean. On thé otherhand, and among other washeld in an impressivenew confer- Regardingtrade issues, thé Mauritms things,thé Mauritius Déclarationcalls ence centre where gatherednot less Strategyrecognizes that "mostSmall uponail thé internationalinstitutions to than 18 Présidents, Vice-Presidents Island Developing States,as a result "pay appropriateattention to thé stmc- and Prime Ministers, more than 60 oftheir smallness,persistent stmctural tural disadvantages"of Small Islands ministers and nearly 2000 delegates disadvantagesand vulnerabilities, face Developing States.

Panoramic view ofCastelsardo: but also civil society représentatives spécifiedif&culties in mtegratingmto By thé adoptionof thèsetwo Docu- onthé top Doria Castle, site of théMeeting andjoumalistsfrom 114countries and thé globaleconomy. " Thé paperalso ments Thé Mauritius Conférence 15 UN or multilatéral agencies. acknowledges "thé importance of confirmedthé strongwillingness of ail théparticipants go ahead Pro- FromMarch 30 throughApril 2, thé resourcesfrom both géographieand Théscientific program was organised Thé Mauritius Strategy draws atten- intensifyingefforts to facilitatethé full to with thé gramme Actions for thé Sustainable Meeting "Plant GeneticResources of non-geographic islands. Thé latter into thé four sessions:I) "Thé impor- tion to thé vulnerability ofsmall island andeffective participation" of Small of geographicaland 'other' islands (Con- incorporate such "islands" as areas tance of islands for thé conservation nationsand emphasizesthat SIDS are IslandDeveloping States "in thé delib- DevelopmentofSmall IslandDevelop- servation,évaluation and use for plant isolated from intensive farming, tra- of plant geneticresources", II) "Case part of thé mostexposed régions in thé erations and decision-making process ing Statesand in this way ensurethem a sustainableand promising future. breeding)" was held in Castelsardo, ditional cropping areasof neglected studiesof exploitationof plant genetic world in relation to thé intensity and of thé Worid TradeOrganization." Sardinia,Italy. Thé Meeting was organ- landraces, crops related to cultural resources of Geographical islands: frequencyofnatural and enviromnental ised in thé Hall XI of thé Doria Castle and ethnietraditions ofisolated areas, Mediterranean,Atlantic, Nordic, Euro- Références http://www.un.org/smallislands2005/ by thé Genetic ResourcesSection of protected areas and nature réserves. peanoverseas and exotic islands",III) http://portal.unesco.org/ EUCARPIA (European Association Thémeeting also provided an oppor- "Casestudies of exploitationof plant for Researchon PlantBreeding) and tunity to review andupdate knowledge genetic resourcesof non-geographic théCNR (National Research Council) of this réservoir of under-exploited islands": (areas isolated from inten- Institute ISPAAM section of Sassari genetic resources. Thé following sive farming, traditional cropping (Italy). nations were represented: Albania, areas of neglected landraces, crops Thé meeting was focused on thé Belgium, Czech Republic, Hungary, related to cultural and ethnie traditions importance ofislands for thé conserva- Kosovo, France, Germany, Israël, ofisolated areas)";IV) "Plant genetic tion of plant geneticresources. It was Italy, Japon,Poland, Romania, Slovak resources in protected areas" examined thé conservation, évaluation Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, anduse for plantbreeding of genetic Tunisia, USA. Swami Vivekananda International Conférence Centre (courtesyofUnited Nations) Jh(B M^wMm Small i^ ndSsbi stakes. 10 years after Barbados, JVIauritiushas

InApril 1994,thé Global Conférence ing States(SIDS) listed priority areas In January2005 this Programmeof on thé SustainableDevelopment of for spécifieaction such as biodiversity, Actionsfor thé SustainableDevelop- SmallIsland Developing States held climate change and sea-level rise, ment ofSIDS was reviewed within thé in Barbadosaddressed thé challenge coastaland marine resources,energy Framework of thé Mauritius Confer- of translatingAgenda 21 into spe- resources,freshwaterresources, human encewhere efforts to recognizesmall cific policies, actions and measures resource development, monitoring, islands'vulnerabilities and support to to be taken at thé régional, national management of wastes, natural and their sustainabledevelopmentreceived andinternational level. Thé resulting environmentaldisasters, régional insti- a solid encouragementafter thé unani- Déclaration ofBarbados and thé Pro- tutions,technical coopération, science mous adoption of both a pro-active gramme of Action for thé Sustainable andtechnology, tourism resources and Strategyto further implementthis DevelopmentofSmall Island Develop- transport and communication. programme of action, called Mauritius

INTERNATIONAIJOURNAL0F ISUND AFFMRS NSULA'Spage NESCO'Spage

Ad memoriam Union's policy in thé région and to lg0( rancesco di Castri facilitate technology transfer to this ^ m région. Leaded by thé Spanish Institute GI)agln8lslamls-CI»nai«9W«Ms for thé Diversification and Saving of

Energy, INSULA and a consortium MapofUtwe Biosphère Réserve (Courtesy ofMaB) of 15 European experts in relevant community approach. Jeju isiand core areas technologiesput their skills togetherin Bfe'-iea Marine 9th Meeting of thé East Asian orderto achieve thé set objectives. Thé protect economically BiosphèreRéserve Network project, which started on thé Ist Janu- important crab, fish "Conservation and Sustainable ary 2004,completed successfully at thé and clam species.First Useof Insular Biosphère declared in 1999, thé endofFebmary 2005. Valuable results Réserves" deeply regrets unex- environment. More than 30 countries INSULA thé were obtainedin areassuch as project NgaremeduuConserva- pected death Francesco Castri, throughoutthé worid wererepresented. tion Area is one of thé Thé 9th Meeting of thé East Asian of di promotion and investment; science eminent ecologist, director thé Conférence présentations covered areas in Micronesia that BiosphèreRéserve Network (EABRN- first of and technology co-operation between diversetopics suchas climate change, 9) "Conservationand SustainableUse MaB Programme, later coordinator organisations and professionals in has thé most important cultural and natural resource conser- of UNESCO's Environmental Pro- biodiversity and has of Insular Biosphère Réserves" was Europe and thé countries involved in UJ vation, globalization and biodiversity held from thé 30thofAugust to 3rdoî gramme.Francesco di Castri played thé project; dissémination oftechnol- 25 différent types of l but also social concerns, économie Septemberin Jeju, Republic ofKorea l w a créative and leading rôle in many ogy R&D activities; and thé identifica- ecosystemsincluding: w 3 international activities on environ- perspectives, vulnerability, tourism (ROK).Among others,thé objectiveof tion ofproblems and solutionsrelated Three new Biosphère upland forests, savan- l i and transport. this meetingwas to exchangeinforma- ment, at both non-govemmentaland to thé légal and institutional fi-amework réserves in islands during nah, mangroves,sea grass beds and governmental levels. In thé récent DSTSULAwasrepresented by its Vice- tion and expérience on conservation in each target country. This project thé year 2005 coral reefs.Ngaremeduu Bay features Chainnan, Professer Hiroshi Kakazu and sustainable use of thé insular years,he took a deepinterest in islands greatly strengthenedcapacity-build- someof thé highestzooplankton densi- sustainabledevelopment and thé fi-om Nihon University (Japan),who 2005 has seenthé approval of three ties Palau,ranking amongone biosphèreréserves and other protected in ing processes in energy & transport in it of spokeabout Networking Island Soci- new Biosphère Réservesin islands, areas in thé East Asian countries in contradictory issues opposing tour- organisations (both govemmental and thé most importantnurseries for many eties under thé Globalizing World amongwhich thé two first inscriptions light of thé Seville Strategyand multi- ism and environmental quality. He private) in LatinAmerica and thé Carib- speciesof fish and invertebrates.It collaborated thus with INSULA and and presentedthé Caseof thé Pacifie fi-om Small Island Statesin thé Pacifie, boasts Micronesia's largest côntinuous functions of thé biosphère réserve. bean countries, taking advantageof Islands. contributed to its International Jour- both located in thé Micronesian area: China,DPRK, Japan,Mongolia, ROK European expertise and RTD results in mangrovestand, representing 44 per- his Utwe and Ngaremeduu Biosphère cent Palau's total mangrove cover- and RussianFédération participated. nal of Island Affairs. Many of us, fields suchas energyaspects ofurban of companions, miss his Réserves. Other EABRN priority issuessuch as travelling will transport,clean fossil fuel technologies Palermo Conférence âge and is a vital habitat for several ThéUtwe BiosphèreRéserve, Feder- transboundarybiodiversity conserva- rigour,his creativityand also his smile. (natural gas), renewable sources of Towardsa Sustainableand Quality endangeredspecies such as thé dugong, ated States of Micronesia, bas a high saltwatercrocodile, and two speciesof tion, conservationpolicies, capacity energy,rational energy use, and energy Tourismin thé EuropeanIslands End OPET-OLA building and thé linkage between of thé from waste. biodiversity,with tropical rain forests, sea turtle. Project In October 2005, BSTSULAwasinvited mangroveforest, sea grassbeds and After La Palma, Lanzarote and El cultural and biological diversity hâve Taiwan Conférence to participate to thé INSULEUR coral reefs. Thé nomination was pre- Hierro, Gran Canariabecame thé fourth also been addressed. In addition, thé Thé aim of thé OLA project was to Forum, event organized in Palermo pared by Kosrae State communities, island of thé SpanishCanary Archi- year 2005 marks thé lOth anniversary promoteclean and efficient European In November 2004, INSULA par- by INSULEUR, thé Network of thé which hâve a long tradition ofnatural pelago to host a BiosphèreRéserve. of thé EABRN, which was ofRcially energy technologies and transport ticipated to thé eighth "Islands of thé Insular Chambers of Commerce and resource conservation through custom- Thé new BiosphèreRéserve of Gran launchedin May 1995.Therefore, thé applicationsin various parts of Latin world" conférence, which focussed on Industry of thé EuropeanUnion. Thé ary laws. Canaria covers some 40% of thé island meetingtook thé opportunityto iden- America and thé Caribbean. Thé thé thème"Changing Islands - Chang- topics approached during thé confer- Thé second one, Ngaremeduu Bio- includingentire water catchment areas tify past achievementsand designthé project was intended to respond to ing Worlds". Thé event was held on ence were dealing with sustainable sphèreRéserve, Palau, covers a large from thé top of thé island'smountains fiiture activity plan. concern regard- existing political Kinmen Island, Taiwan and gathered and quality tourism in thé European bay and coastalarea with denseman- throughvalleys usedby agricultureto renewable over 250 scholars, researchers and ing energy efficiency and Islands.DSFSULA was representedby grave swamps.Thé conservationarea beaches and finally to marine areas. energy sources,to identify areas of practitioners and covered most of thé its SecretaryGénéral, Dr. PierGiovanni is located in thé states of Aimeliik, Thé site is likely to be extendedto opportunity and market barriers in current island issues ranging from d'Ayala who spokeabçut thé uncertain Ngatpang and Ngaremlengui,which include additional areas in thé near eacharea in relation to thé European culture and arts to économies and sustainability of island tourism. onesprepared thé nominationusing a future.

INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0FISLAND AFR 51 ^O'-IIOA)^^

Belle-Ile becauseofits size. Sein for its create a platform of information ex- very rich andspécial imaginary, Bréhat changein order to define thé concept ^. PAW^0" thé very meditatedisland ; maybethé of sustainable communities in more readerwill considerit as regrettable, détail andto fosterthé implementation in thé Pacifie Sub-Region.To address someislands are less frequently evoked ENEHCV SUSTftiSABl.E ofthis conceptin Europeand in Cen- thé under-representationof thé Pacifie soMmunmES than someothers but thé geographyis tral and Eastem EuropeanCountries Région,World HéritageGlobal Strat- Expériences, Success Factors not équitable,and thé history enjoys and OppnrtunWcs in thé EU-Î5 (CEECs). egy meetings were held in thé Pacifie subjectivity. This comprehensiveguide of key- in July 1997in Fiji andin August l 999 In this book,thé "bridge-islands"are successfactors and compilation of in Vanuatu.As a result, many Pacifie discussedin détail.Was it necessaryto successstories of Energy Sustainable Islandcountries havejoined thé World include them in a larger division, not- Communities (ESCs) has been pre- Mexico from thé désertand thé surrounding Héritage Convention. However, thé withstandingthé conceptof insularity paredby expertsin théfield ofrenewa- Islands and ProtectedAreas turquoise waters. Thé site is home to PacifieRégion still remainsas highly that bas disappeared,or was it more blés. Thé outcomesof thé key-actor oftheGulfofCalifornia 695 vascularplant species,more than under-representedon thé World Herit- SustainabieCommunities relevant to highlight thé new stakes discussiongroups served as a basisfor in any marine and insular property âge List and most of thé Pacifie Island l onthé World Héritage List bom from permanentlinks? For w thé writing this guide.It informs aboutthé since2005 on thé World Héritage List. Equally Countrieslack capacityand resources, main islands such as Charentaises and technical,political andsocio-economic exceptionalis thé numberof fîsh spe- humanand fmancial to fully implement l Vendéennesislands, Ré island, Oléron aspectsof ESC. More importantly its Thé site comprises244 islands,islets cies: 891, ninety of them endémie. thé World HéritageConvention. Some Energy Sustainabie and Noinnoutier, thé editors decided ambitionis to be a guidefor communi- and coastal areasthat are located in Thé site, moreover, contains 39% of of thémain stratégie objectives of thé Communities that it was more judicious to hâve a ties that are on their way ofbecoming thé Gulf of California in north-east- thé world's total numberof species Programme are to ensure full member- doser look at thé singularities bom Expériences, Success Factors and an ESC. ern Mexico. Thé Sea of Cortez and of marine mammals and a third of thé ship of thé World HéritageConvention from their bridge-islaadstatute and to Oppportunities in thé EU-25 Thé first chapterprovides an over- its islandshâve been called a natural world's marinecetacean species. (WHC)in thé Pacifieto strengthen a evokethem in a spécialchapter. This guide is one of thé results of thé view of thé concept of Sustainable laboratoryfor thé investigationof collaborativesub-regional approach to Thé book has an exceptional ico- project "Définition of thé Character- Development and links thé évolution speciation.Moreover, almost ail major - Pacifie implementation and to raise awareness 'World Héritage nography: old photographsnot very istics of "Sustainable Communities". of thé concept (from thé Rio Confer- océanographieprocesses occurring about thé WHC in order to ensure thé 2009' Programme well known and amazingaerial views Identification of Success Factors and ence, to thé World Summit on Sustain- in thé planet'socéans are présent in représentation of thé Pacifie cultural allowing a good visual perceptionof Disséminationof thé Concept". This able Development in Johannesburg théproperty, giving it extraordinaryDespitethis extraordinarycultural and and natural héritage on thé World thé islands,a rare set of photographs FP5 project regroups seven partners, to today) with thé ESC approach.It Qi importancefor study.Thé site is one biological diversity and richness,thé Héritage List within thé framework is complemented with old and récent technical and non-technical experts secondlyprovides information about ofstrikingnatural beauty in a dramatic Pacifie is thé most under-represented of thé GlobalStrategy for a crédible, l cartographyfor a better appréhension from thé political and socio-economic thé characteristics of ESC, thé RES settingformed by mgged islandswith sub-regionon thé Worid HéritageList. balanced and représentative World of thé geographyof thé islandsof thé fields, as well as représentatives from technologies,their applicationcost and high clifFsand sandy beaches, which East Rennell in thé Solomon Islands Héritage List. West.Paintings, old engravings,news- islands, rural areas,régions, communi- their potentialin Europe. contrast with thé brilliant reflection is thé only World Héritage property paper extracts, complément this set of ties andwith a spécifiefocus on Centa-al Thé second,third andfourth chapters nearly 800 illustrative documents. and EasternEuropean Countries. Thé dealwith thétechnical, thé political and î . -n guide gives an overview of thé ben- thé socio-economicaspects of ESCand BO efîts and barriersto thé development are presented in short form on thé web ^ of Energy Sustainable Communities. pageof thé web partnerfomm. Designed as a helping tool, this guide Finally thé chapter Central and East- Les lies du Ponant: edgegathered in this university work aims at supporting local communities em European Countries' Characteris- tnuîs Brigand developingsustainable and highly Histoireset géographiedes couldbe accessible to mostpeople, by in tics analysesthé obstacles forRES and energy-efficient initiatives. îles et archipelsde la Manche synthesizingthé content and reducing RUE developmentin thèsecountries. et de l'Atlantique thé amount of highly scientific data. Thé publication can be downloaded Thé chapter however puts emphasis BYLOUIS BRIGAND However nothing has been removed Pubiisher: Editions Palantines from thé websiteof thé project,which on thé positive resultsachieved so far to thé rigour of thé research work [email protected] can be accessed at www. esc-fomm. not forgettingto alsostress thé replica- This work is thé editorial adaptation undertaken by thé author, to which 479p., Hardback,81 net. Thé web site combines informa- tion Potential in Central and Eastem of thé PHD thesispresented by Louis several well known specialistshâve ISBN 2-911434-22-6 tion about this guide, a partner fomm Europe. Brigand in January2000. It is also thé also contributed. containing a list of successful ESCs Partners invoived- EREC (co- yearsresearch insular result of 20 on Thé geographicalarea chosen, liter- Lectureringeography atthé University examples, and a feedback section. ordinator), 0.0. Energiesparverband, spacesand territories and more particu- ally speaking"thé islandsof thé West", ofWestern Brittany (UBO), Louis Brigand Energy CentreBratislava, Powys En- hasbeen carrying oui island research far larly those belonging to thé Channel ergy Agency, ESTSULA(International is detennining:it is thé first tim'e that morethan 20 years. Founding member of What is thé "Sustainable ScientificCouncil for Island Develop- and thé Atlantic French coast area. In thé English Channeland thé Atlantic INSULA,collaborator of UNESCO MaB Communities" initiative? PFograrnmeandof thé Littoral Academy, ment), ARMINES, Otto-von-Guericke agreement with thé author, thé first arediscussed simultaneously in a study Thé Sustainable Communities ini- he dkectedresearcb and published for thèseorganizations UniversitâtMagdeburg, National Tech- concem of thé éditer has been to ensure aboutthé insular environment. Perhaps severalstuiiiss about islands. He is also CBrator of iheNatursl tiative brings ail différent aspectsof nical University ofAthens (NTUA- Réserveof thé IroiseSea. that ail thé information and knowl- some islands will seem privileged: sustainable communities together to RENES).

INTERNATIONALJOURNAL0F ISLAND AFFAIRS 53 JOINAND SUPPORT INSULA

Thé International Scientific Council for thé protection of island environment and thé As a way ofconnecting ail those who consi- Island Development (INSULA) was forma- sustainable development of their resources. der islands as an important part of mankind's lly created in 1989 as a Non-Governmental Within such a context, INSULA coopérâtes héritage deserving major attention, INSULA Organisation (NGO) which aim is to contri- with UNESCO, thé European Commission publishes "Thé InternationalJournal of Island International Conférence bute to shape island awareness and develop and other international organisations, as well Affairs". Each issue focuses on a spécifie islands' common future, supporting necessary as institutions at thé national or régional level aspect of islands development and cultural coopération and information actions in thé sharingthé same goals and interests.Through life. scientific and technologicalfields. its international and multidisciplinary network Together with its journal and its various By its actions, INSULA contributes to thé of experts and researchers, INSULA contri- publications, INSULA also promotes thé économie, social and cultural progress of butes to sustainable development initiatives dialog among islander through its web site SUSB41 BLETOURIS islands throughout thé world, as well as ta undertakenby island peoples and authorities. (www.insula.org). WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ISLANDS AND SMALL STATES Application form for membership of .

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OBJECTIVES 0F THE CONFERENCE Pleaseprint and returnthis form by fax or mail to: Thé objectives of thé conférence are to: . Developand discuss orientations in tourismthat promote thé attainment of insula lastingéconomie and social development, giving due attention to environ- InternationalScientific Council for IslandDevelopment mental concerns. . Facilitateexchange of ideasbetween scholars and practitioners inthé field c/oMAB -UNESCO House oftourism 1, rue Miollis- 75732Paris Cedex 15 - France . Issue a statementfor policy-makersand others involvedin tourism, with Ph: 33 1 45 68 40 56 / Fax: 33 1 45 68 58 04 thé aim of promotingsustainable tourism. . E-mail: insula@unesco. org Publish a book on sustainable tourism Sustainable Islands - Sustainable Stratégies

July29-August4, 2006 Kahului, Maui, hlawai'i

Venue:University of hlawai'i- Maui CommunityCollège

Pre-Registration: July 28 Pre-Conference Excursions: July 29 & 30 Conférence Sessions: July 31 -August 2 Post-Conference Excursions: August 3 & 4

Website: http://maui. hawaii. edu/isisa2006/index. html

This international event will attract scholars and experts from around thé world to discuss co-responsi- bility and stratégies for sustainable island development. Thé organ- izers anticipate of a full cadre of participants from around thé world. Thé conférence will serve to show- case Maui's rich cultural héritage,

strong économie drivers, and diverse environment. Conférence participants will hâve thé opportunity to présent research papers and interact with, learn from and engage in dialogue with their international colleagueson pressingissues regarding island sustainability.

* . k*iî' * *. * à- ^

y ff ch Published by INSULA - thé International Scientific Council for Development with thé support of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)