course: Business and Technology in the U.S. America Conquers Space

Author: Anton Panov

On a sunny September morning in 1962, Rice University was buzzing with excitement. Students, professors, and the simply curious were awaiting the arrival of the president, who was scheduled to deliver a speech at the stadium. More than 40,000 people came to hear what the young, handsome, confident John F. Kennedy had to say. At the beginning of his speech, the president asked his audience to imagine that all of human history could be condensed into just half a century. Man only came out of his cave in the last decade, Christianity appeared just two years ago, cars and planes came into general use last week, and nuclear power was developed yesterday. On space, the new frontier, the president added: “… if America’s new spacecraft succeeds in reaching Venus, we will have literally reached the stars before midnight tonight.”

John F. Kennedy © Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA

Americans have always yearned for adventure, said the president; this is one of the traits that sets the country apart. The settlers strove to explore new horizons and fought to acquire new knowledge: “Those who came before us made certain that this country rode the first waves of the industrial revolutions, the first waves of modern invention, and the first wave of nuclear power, and this generation does not intend to founder in the backwash of the coming age of space. We mean to be a part of it--we mean to lead it. For the eyes of the world now look into space, to the moon and to the planets beyond, and we have vowed that we shall not see it governed by a hostile flag of conquest, but by a banner of freedom and peace. We have vowed that we shall not see space filled with weapons of mass destruction, but with instruments of knowledge and understanding. Yet the vows of this Nation can only be fulfilled if we in this Nation are first, and, therefore, we intend to be first. In short, our leadership in science and in industry, our hopes for peace and security, our obligations to ourselves as well as others, all require us to make this effort, to solve these mysteries, to solve them for the good of all men, and to become the world’s leading space-faring nation. <…> “We choose to go to the Moon. We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard, because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills, because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one which we intend to win, and the others, too.” The crowd went wild! Going to the moon – now there was a goal worthy of real heroes. According to Kennedy, the budget for the space program would reach $5.4 billion per year, “a staggering sum,” as he put it, part of which Americans would have to pay out of their own pockets. The increase in the tax burden was justified, he insisted, because the U.S. would be able to call itself the winner of the . This was a race that, in 1962, the Americans were losing to the U.S.S.R. On October 4, 1957, the sent Sputnik-1 into Earth orbit, which signaled the beginning of the space age. For the U.S., the Russians’ launch of the first artificial was an unexpected defeat, a catastrophe that no one could have foreseen, and which could not be countered quickly. Influential economist Bernard Baruch, alarmed by the event, wrote an open letter that was published in the New York Herald Tribune: “While we devote our industrial and technological power to producing new model automobiles and more gadgets, the Soviet Union is conquering space. While America grumbles over taxes and cuts the cloak of its defense to the cloth of its budget, Russia is launching intercontinental missiles. Suddenly, rudely, we are awakened to the fact that the Russians have outdistanced us in a race which we thought we were winning. It is Russia, not the United States, who has had the imagination to hitch its wagon to the stars and the skill to reach for the moon and all but grasp it. America is worried. It should be.” America had skill and imagination enough, however. At that time, Americans had been dreaming of space flights for nearly a century and had been trying to create machines that would allow man to fly to the stars. One of these dreamers was Robert Goddard of Massachusetts. After reading H.G. Wells’ War of the Worlds, he decided to devote his life to building . By his own admission, Goddard was seized by the idea of space on October 19, 1899, at the age of 17: “On this day I climbed a tall cherry tree at the back of the barn… and as I looked toward the fields at the east, I imagined how wonderful it would be to make some device that had even the possibility of ascending to Mars, and how it would look upon a small scale, if sent up from the meadow at my feet... It seemed to me then that a weight whirling around a horizontal shaft, moving more rapidly above than below, could furnish lift by virtue of the greater centrifugal force at the top of the path. I was a different boy when I descended the tree from when I ascended. Existence at last seemed very purposive.” Many years later, Goddard really did begin to create rockets as a hobby. In his work hours he taught physics at Clark University, where he had received his doctorate, and in his spare time he dreamed of going to Mars. When Goddard published a monograph of his research, “A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes” in 1919, with support from the Smithsonian, it was widely criticized. The reviewers took the author to task for his wild fantasies, which had nothing to do with reality. Goddard was upset, but he did not forsake his hobby; he intended to prove to his critics that his ideas could become reality. Robert Goddard Charles Lindbergh Bain News Service Harris & Ewing © Library of Congress Prints and Photographs © Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA

Ten years later Goddard met Charles Lindbergh, the famous American pilot, the first to fly non- stop from New York to Paris, in 1927. This was a significant meeting for both men. Lindbergh, like Goddard, was obsessed with flight and dreamed of man traveling into space. This pair quickly found a common language. Using Lindbergh’s connections, Goddard obtained support from the wealthy Guggenheim family, which had made its fortune in mining. He received the necessary financing and moved to New Mexico, where a laboratory had been outfitted especially for him. In the ensuing years, Goddard built and tested dozens of prototypes. One of them reached an altitude of 2.6 kilometers, and a speed of 885 kilometers per hour. While not all his launches were successful, he was able to show his critics that space flight was no fantasy, but a very real possibility. One man who appreciated Goddard’s talent was the German engineer , who during World War II created the V-2, the first rocket in history to achieve suborbital flight. Von Braun based much of his work on Goddard’s, designs, so, when Goddard saw the V-2 in 1945, he decided that the German had simply stolen his ideas. Goddard was not being fair: The German rocket was much more technically advanced than even the most successful prototypes Goddard had created. After the War, von Braun was brought to the United States as part of the secret “,” along with thousands of other German specialists. With von Braun’s help, the United States was able to build a whole series of ballistic missiles in the 1950s, such as the “Atlas,” the “Titan,” and the “Delta.” Their key technological solutions were used in the construction of military rockets as well as launch vehicles for carrying payloads into Earth orbit and beyond. In 1950, American physicist Lloyd Berkner proposed the International Geophysical Year, which was to be conducted from July 1, 1957 through December 31, 1958. The IGY would allow researchers from all over the world to coordinate their efforts in studying Earth. This initiative soon gained popularity, and 67 countries signed up to participate, including the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. It was within the framework of the IGY that the Soviet Union and the U.S. were supposed to launch the first artificial Earth , but in the U.S., work on the Vanguard project was proceeding very slowly. First, the Americans thought that the Soviets were far behind in their space program, and, secondly, the U.S. was devoting most of its attention to creating intercontinental ballistic missiles. Wernher von Braun © National Aeronautics and Space Administration

The Soviet launch of Sputnik-1 on October 4, 1957 was an unpleasant surprise. The U.S. hastily launched a rocket with the Vanguard TV3 satellite, but the rocket was unable to gain altitude and exploded seconds after the start. This failure led to the wholesale mobilization of the space program in the U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower adopted a series of measures to deal with the general panic caused by the “,” designed to stabilize the situation and give a powerful boost to the development of the space program. In 1958, a special government department was created with broad powers to coordinate the actions of various teams working on the design of flight vehicles and to research space. This department grew into the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). At the beginning of its existence NASA had just 8,000 employees, with a budget of $100 million. Soon several laboratories and agencies came under its jurisdiction, including the one that Wernher von Braun was heading. In 1958, he launched the first American artificial satellite, “Explorer-1.” NASA’s main short-term goal was the development of a manned spaceship for low Earth orbit. In October 1958, NASA began selecting candidates for the astronaut program. The selection criteria were quite strict: candidates had to be graduates of test-pilot schools, with higher education, more than 1,500 hours of flight time, be under 40 years old and under 180 centimeters, or 5’11” tall. The selection process took six months, and finally, on April 9, 1959 NASA presented its ideal astronauts to the press. There were seven: John Glenn, Virgil Grissom, Scott Carpenter, Gordon Cooper, Donald Slayton, Alan Shepard, and Walter Shirra. All of them were experienced pilots, and they were also fearless. The journalists portrayed them as ideal Americans, embodying the best qualities of the nation. When the seven were asked at the press conference whether they wanted to go into space, they all immediately raised their right hands. Walter Shirra and John Glenn raised both hands. The astronauts prepared for their first flight at the NASA base in Florida, far from the constant attention of the media. Life was difficult for the astronauts nonetheless: It was a great responsibility, and too much money had been spent on the space program. The fact that the U.S.S.R. was still winning the space race was an added source of tension. When Yuri Gagarin became the first man in space on April 12, 1961, Americans could only respond with a suborbital flight by Alan Shepard, on May 5, 1961. Born in New Hampshire, Shepard was the son of a military man, and was considered a workaholic and a perfectionist. Remembering his flight aboard the Freedom-7, Shepard wrote: “I had some idea of the huge variety of color and land masses and cloud cover which I would see from 100 miles up there. But no one could be briefed well enough to be completely prepared for the astonishing view that I got. My exclamation back to Deke [Slayton] about the beautiful site was completely spontaneous. It was breathtaking. To the south I could see where the cloud cover stopped at about Fort Lauderdale, and that the weather was clear all the way down past the Florida Keys. To the north I could see up the coast of the Carolinas to where the clouds just obscured Cape Hatteras. Across Florida to the west I could spot Lake Okeechobee, Tampa Bay and even Pensacola. . . . It was really stunning.”

Alan Shepard © National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Shepard spent 15 minutes in space and was even able to conduct a successful maneuver. Ten months after Shepard’s flight, on February 20, 1962, NASA managed to conduct its first orbital flight, piloted by John Glenn, a former military pilot, who had fought in World War II and the Korean War. The oldest of the Mercury-7 astronauts, Glenn was 37 when he made his famous flight. The mission had several unexpected and dangerous moments. At first Glenn lost contact with Ground Control at Cape Canaveral. Although he was prepared for such incidents, this was extremely dangerous. Glenn was finally able to establish contact using an additional control bridge deployed in Nigeria. The plan was for Glenn to complete three orbits around the Earth. When the astronaut was approaching his second pass, a light flashed on the panel at Ground Control indicating a malfunction of the heat shield and the landing gear. This was immensely worrying, since, if the heat shield malfunctioned Glenn could literally burn up upon re-entry into earth’s atmosphere. Ground Control asked the astronaut whether everything was normal in the capsule. Glenn did not understand the question and began to worry. At that moment the temperature in his flight suit began to rise rapidly, and Glenn had to do three things at the same time: retain control of the ship, carry out the necessary measurements, and regulate the temperature. When the astronaut was in his third orbit he asked Alan Shepard, who was observing the flight from Ground Control, whether he would be able to get back. By that time Glenn knew that something was wrong with the ship. The only hope left was that there was a fault in the sensor. Since he could not stay in orbit, the astronaut decided to tempt fate and try to land. Fortunately, the heat shield held. Glenn landed in the Pacific Ocean without any serious problems.

John Glenn © National Aeronautics and Space Administration

After Glenn’s successful mission Americans became obsessed with space. Glenn was a national hero, was awarded the presidential medal and became a real star, beginning his political career. The administration was convinced that the moment had arrived to put NASA’s mission into high gear. For that, they needed money and an appropriate goal. “We choose to go to the moon,” said Kennedy in his Rice Stadium speech, and the nation believed that mankind’s new frontier was now in space. In his address, the president emphasized that putting a man on the moon would demand significant financial resources, and an increase in taxes. This was a worthy goal, however, and Americans displayed a willingness to shoulder the burden. October 1962 was the start of America’s moon mission. The first stage was to be the design of space maneuvers, a method of linking space capsules, and space walks. The program was called “Gemini,” and nine astronauts were chosen to take part. This time the selection criteria were slightly different: the second generation of spaceship pilots had to know more about the construction of their aircraft and be ready for engineering tasks. Preparations for the moon mission were complicated by three factors. First, the public felt that the Soviets were winning the space race. On October 11, 1964, the USSR launched a completely new type of ship into space: the Voskhod, which held three cosmonauts, while America’s Gemini could only take two. Besides this, the Americans had been late getting their astronauts out into open space. On March 18, 1965, Aleksei Leonov became the first person to perform a spacewalk. It was another two months before Edward White, pilot on Gemini-4, repeated this feat. On June 3, 1965, he spent 20 minutes outside the spaceship. Even though this was a tremendous accomplishment, the leadership at NASA understood that in the eyes of the world they were once again No. 2. The pressure from the media and the administration made life difficult for the astronauts and the engineers. Second, NASA was under constant criticism over funding. At a time when the country was facing a serious budget crisis, huge amounts of money were being spent on space exploration. The Vietnam War was eating up government resources. By the end of the 1960s, the war seemed senseless and endless, and a powerful antiwar movement was taking shape within the United States. At the same time the civil rights movement was becoming radicalized. Its spiritual leader, Martin Luther King, Jr., was assassinated on April 5, 1968, which united all the social movements that were demanding changes in the political system and in the law.

Aleksei Leonov Edward White © National Aeronautics and Space © National Aeronautics and Space Administration Administration

All of this has its effect: President Lyndon B. Johnson refused to run for a second term, which made Robert F. Kennedy, JFK’s younger brother, the favorite in the 1968 election. But on June 6, 1968, he, too, was assassinated, like his brother before him. In November, Richard M. Nixon was elected president. No one doubted that his victory was due in part to the protests over voting in general. Many young Americans did not go to the polls, not seeing any candidate that measured up to their expectations. The social and political tension within the U.S. affected NASA directly, since the space program depended on Congress for funding. With so many young people protesting the fantastic amounts of money being spent on lunar exploration, Congressmen hesitated to sign the appropriations bills. They wanted American astronauts to always be first, to overtake the U.S.S.R. Political factors affected NASA’s work almost as much as scientific ones. Third, the problems intensified every time there were breakdowns or accidents at NASA. Two incidents stand out. The first occurred in 1966, during the Gemini-8 mission, which was supposed to dock manually with the Agena target vehicle in Earth orbit. This went more or less as expected, but then the Agena began to execute a turn command that had been stored in its memory, which caused the Gemini-8 and the target vehicle to begin an uncontrolled roll that reached 1 revolution per second. The Gemini-8 team – Neil Armstrong and David Scott – experienced an overload of 3.5 gs, but they were able to retain control of the situation. When they disengaged from the target vehicle, Armstrong deactivated the Orbit Altitude Maneuver Systems (OAMS) and stabilized the ship. The mission was a failure, however. During the investigation into the causes, it was discovered that the uncontrolled rolling had been caused by a short circuit. Armstrong acted according to instructions, and it was only thanks to the crew’s courage that they survived. Another serious incident which did, unfortunately, end in tragedy was the accident during the last trial of the new Apollo-1 spaceship, in 1967. The Apollo mission was to open the lunar program. While the spacecraft was still on Earth, a short circuit caused a flashfire in the cabin where the astronauts were. All three crew members died — Virgil I. Grissom, Edward H. White, and Roger B. Chaffee. An investigation showed that the fire and the ensuing events were caused by several problems: the cabin was full of oxygen under high pressure, which accelerated the spread of the fire; part of the astronauts’ space suits was flammable; and the hatch was not designed to enable it to be opened quickly from inside the cabin. The commission established that the astronauts never had a chance. They died, suffocated by the fumes, within 14 seconds after the fire’s outbreak. The Apollo-1 tragedy set the whole space program back eighteen months. The next piloted flight did not occur until October 1968. The crew commander was Walter Shirra, for whom this was already the third space flight. He was the last remaining astronaut from the first group of seven selected for the Mercury program. Fortunately, Shirra and his crew were able to complete all of their mission assignments, which gave the green light for a flight directly to the moon. On July 16, 1969, the Apollo-11 mission launched from Cape Canaveral to the moon, powered by the powerful Saturn rocket designed by Wernher von Braun. It carried a three-man crew: The captain, Neil Armstrong, was well known as one of the most unflappable and knowledgeable astronauts in the entire program. His deputy was Edwin E. Aldrin, known as “Buzz,” famous for his difficult personality and his tendency to talk too much. He worked well with Armstrong, however, each complementing the other. The pilot of the ship was Michael Collins, who had the hardest task of all: waiting in solitude while his teammates were in lunar orbit. All three astronauts on board the Apollo-11 were experienced pilots, and the lunar mission was not their first space flight. Armstrong had been the captain of the Gemini-8 mission, Aldrin held the record for the longest Extra-Vehicular Activity (time spent in open space), and Collins had flown on the Gemini-10, as well as having experience in extra-vehicular activity.

Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, Edwin E. Aldrin © National Aeronautics and Space Administration

During the lunar mission, which lasted three days, the astronauts were constantly in contact with Ground Control, and also had several teleconferences which were transmitted live to Earth. More than 11 million people followed the flight of Apollo-11. The rocket reached the moon on Day 4. Armstrong and Aldrin transferred to the Lunar Landing Module, called the “Eagle,” and descended to the surface of the moon. Collins had to wait for them in the command module, in orbit. The first words spoken by a man on the moon were Armstrong’s: “Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed.” Before the astronauts stepped onto the surface of the moon, they spent three hours making preparations and carrying out their final checks. Armstrong was supposed to be the first to land, but he was further from the exit than Aldrin. In an impossibly tight space he had to squeeze past his assistant to get out of the spacecraft. When he finally stepped on the Moon, he uttered the now famous phrase: “That’s one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.” The eyes of millions of people on Earth were trained on the astronauts. The landing was broadcast live on all continents, and in the U.S. the commentary was given by the chief anchor of CBS News Walter Cronkite, and astronaut Walter Shirra. The spectacle amazed the world and demonstrated not only the technological superiority of the U.S., but also the fact that there was no limit to man’s abilities. After Armstrong and Aldrin had completed all their assigned tasks, they climbed back into the Eagle and returned to lunar orbit, where Collins was waiting. The rest was a matter of technology. On July 24, the astronauts returned to Earth, where they were met by President Richard Nixon on board the aircraft carrier USS Hornet. The moon landing had enormous influence on world culture. For several hours people all over the world were watching Armstrong and Aldrin, amazed by technology and the strength of the human spirit. Inspired by the space flights in general and by Apollo-11 in particular, people were now able to dream of even further goals and bigger missions. Television serials and movies made at the end of the 1960s helped with this. Lost in Space, told about a family of space colonists. Star Trek was devoted to the scientific research mission of the USS Enterprise headed by Captain James T. Kirk and his assistant, Mr. Spock. The most influential space film was 2001: A Space Odyssey, which came out in 1968. In his chef d’oeuvre, director Stanley Kubrick pondered progress, evolution and the clash of innovative technology with primitive human emotion. Space exploration not only influenced the culture, it also changed people’s lives in a significant way. Some technology and equipment that were originally designed for NASA became popular in everyday life. We’ll look at just a few of them. Memory foam was first developed by NASA in 1966. The task was to create custom seating for the astronauts that would soften the impact of overload during takeoff and landing. Engineers soon realized that the difference in astronauts’ body types could complicate the job. In addition, they had already noticed that people’s bodies change, not only under G-force, but during normal physical stress. It became necessary to create an individual seat for each astronaut, which was expensive and not very practical. The engineers began to look for other solutions. They wanted to develop a material that could adapt to the form of the person sitting on it, but which would then revert to its original form. That’s where the name comes from – foam with a “memory.” This material was put into mass production in the 1980s, but it was too expensive for general consumption. Over time, as the price fell, it was used in everything from mattresses to shoes to linings in sports helmets, etc. Today there are many different types of memory foam. In general, it is made of polyurethane with several additives, which vary according to the application. Some manufacturers prefer to keep their formulas secret, saying that they are better than their competitors’. There is another NASA design that has had a direct effect on modern baby food. Looking into the possibility of using algae for food, scientists working in the space program discovered that it contained many valuable nutrients. The oil that they later developed using alga as a base is now a widely used food additive called “Formulaid.” It is considered to be very good for a child’s mental development, as well as eyesight, since it has two substances necessary for the human organism: docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid. Both of these fatty acids are in mother’s milk, but they were not used in baby formula until “Formulaid” was developed. Among NASA’s well-known designs were complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)- sensors, the “camera-on-a-chip” used in smart phones and the GoPro camera. At the beginning of the 1990s, engineer Eric Fossum, who was working in NASA’s jet propulsion lab, discovered that CMOS-sensors were energy efficient, resistant to radiation and convenient for use in microcircuits. They also took better pictures than the charge-coupled device (CCD) that had been used up until then. All of this together led to the widespread use of CMOS-sensors. In addition to the products listed above, NASA engineers had a hand in the creation of the “Dustbuster” hand-held vacuum cleaners, the space blanket, water-repellant creams, pampers, hearing implants, aural infrared thermometers, invisible braces, water pistols and Speedo swimsuits. This list could go on forever. It is also clear that without NASA there would be no GPS or other navigational systems, as well as embedded web technology, used today in the creation of programs for digital devices. To a large extent, today’s information world is a direct result of space exploration in the second half of the 20th century. As for man’s conquest of worlds outside his own, after Armstrong’s and Aldrin’s landing on the moon NASA did not get as much attention as it had in the 1960s. On one hand, this was a result of the successful completion of the mission – overtaking the U.S.S.R. in the space race. On the other hand, Americans were focused on other problems, such as the Vietnam War, the Watergate scandal and the environmental protection movement. The lowering of political tensions also allowed NASA to turn to more academic and pragmatic pursuits. Another factor that changed NASA’s policies was the global economic crisis that began in 1973 and significantly raised fuel prices. As a result, the U.S. government decreased funding for the space program. NASA completed another six successful missions to the Moon, then closed down the lunar program because the scientific results were not commensurate with the expense. Much of NASA’s research in later years involved a search for a less expensive way to travel into space. In 1973, America launched Skylab into low earth orbit. This allowed astronauts to remain in orbit for extended periods, carry out more intensive research in biology and astrophysics, and also to study the effects of zero gravity on the human body.

«Скайлэб» © National Aeronautics and Space Administration Skylab hosted three missions, with the last one spending 84 days on the space station. In 1979, the station was no longer usable, and it was destroyed. By that time NASA was working on another project, called the Space Shuttle. This was supposed to cut expenses significantly, since the shuttle would be used multiple times. NASA was counting on using the Space Shuttle to send loads back and forth to orbiting space stations. NASA promised that the Shuttle could make 24 trips a year, but the reality was much less rosy. From the time the project began in 1981 until it was shut down in 2011, there were just 135 launches. Unfortunately, there were also tragedies: In 1986, after 73 seconds of flight, the Space Shuttle Challenger broke apart, killing seven astronauts on board. With the end of the , space exploration entered a new phase: cooperation was replacing the space race. Since 1998, the International Space Station has been in orbit; as of 2018 it had 15 modules. There are 14 countries taking part in the project, including Russia, the U.S., Canada, Japan, and several nations that are part of the European Space Agency. Aeronautics in the U.S. today is being developed by private agencies. SpaceX, founded by Elon Musk in 2002, has developed a series of Falcon rockets capable of landing back on Earth after delivering a spacecraft into orbit, which makes it possible to reuse them. SpaceX is also planning to launch the first Dragon V2 spacecraft, which is also designed to be reusable.

Falcon Dragon V2 © SpaceX © SpaceX In the century that began with Robert Goddard’s brochure on the possibility of sending a man into space, humankind has taken an enormous step into space exploration, and the U.S. has made a significant contribution to this effort. The American space program, begun at the end of the 1940s, was successful despite political and social pressures and the difficulty of the tasks it set itself. The key milestones were the launch of the first Explorer-1 satellite, the creation of NASA, the Mercury space program, Gemini, and, finally, Apollo. The space race with the U.S.S.R., which began at the end of the 1950s, ended when Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin stepped onto the moon in 1969. This really was a giant leap for mankind, just like the first space flight of Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin. Man’s desire to look at the Earth from space led to changes in our everyday lives. Today we use many technologies and items that were first designed by engineers at NASA. Even though the euphoria generated by the 1960s successes in space is long past, humankind continues to dream about distant cosmic worlds and forms of life different from our own. Space is still an important part of modern pop-culture, with films, books and music that have space as the main theme. Perhaps in the next decade humans will fly to Mars, which has always tempted professional researchers and ambitious dreamers like Elon Musk. The conquest of space has just begun. Basic and additional literature:

Golovanov, Ya., T”he Truth about the Apollo Program,” Yauza, 2000

Karash, Yu. Yu., “The Secrets of the Moon Race. The USSR and the US: Cooperation in Space,” Moscow, Olma-Press, 2005

Kluger J. “Apollo 8. The Thrilling Story of the First Mission to the Moon,” Henry Holt and Co., 2017

Chertok, B.E.,” Rockets and People” (in 4 volumes), Moscow, Mashinoctroenie, 1999

“A Companion to American Technology” / ed. by Carroll Pursell. Malden: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2008.

Crompton S.W. “Sputnik/Explorer I: The Race to Conquer Space,” Chelsea House, 2007.

Wolfe T. “The Right Stuff,” 1979, various editions.

Apollo 11: «First Moonwalk on TV» (Restored). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L9Go_j_i6o8

John F. Kennedy Moon Speech - Rice Stadium. Text: https://er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/ricetalk.htm Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WZyRbnpGyzQ