African-Americans in the American Revolution As

Jennifer DePaoli EDUP&L 863 November 7, 2010 Curriculum Development Project: African-Americans in the American Revolution As the English colonies in the New World became more developed and populated, conflicts began to arise between England and the colonists. After providing troops and money for fighting of the French and Indian War, the British Parliament passed legislation to tax the colonies, but colonial leaders, unhappy with the idea of “taxation without representation,” began organizing around the idea of independence. As Britain attempted to enact laws to control the colonies, skirmishes broke out between British soldiers and colonists, and as tensions grew, Patriot leaders began to see the need for building a fighting force. Led by General George Washington, the Continental Army began forming regiments throughout the colonies, but many of its leaders, including Washington, struggled with including African-Americans – both freedmen and slaves – amongst the ranks of white soldiers. However, by the time the war was over and the colonies earned their independence, many African- Americans fought on both sides and played important roles both on and off the battlefield. African-Americans at the time of the Revolution In 1775, Britain and the American colonies were inching closer to war over independence, and at the same time there were approximately 450,000 Africans enslaved in all thirteen colonies (National Park Service [NPS], 2008). While the majority of slavery existed in the south, Africans were treated as second class citizens across the board, and in the discussion of colonial liberty, slaves were not included in the conversation. The irony of white colonists fighting for their freedom while simultaneously holding slaves was not completely lost on all Patriot leaders. Abigail Adams and Patrick Henry were amongst those who questioned the legitimacy of slavery while instigating a fight for freedom, and Benjamin Franklin, in an imagined speech between an Englishman and an American, said, “You Americans make a great Clamour upon every little imaginary Infringement of what you take to be your Liberties, and yet there are no People upon Earth such Enemies to Liberty, such absolute Tyrants” (Holton, 2009, p. 5). But despite the words of these respected men and women, few were willing to relinquish freedom to the enslaved especially as the plantation lifestyle became the norm in the south and the need for manual labor continued to grow. Africans as Soldiers in the Revolution While white colonists were divided on whether or not to wage war with Britain, Africans were united on one thing: the ideas of liberty and freedom. Those freedmen with knowledge of the looming insurrection began to pay attention to the language being used by Patriot leaders and saw the colonies’ fight for independence as a means toward ending slavery. Between 1773 and 1774, numerous Negro groups started petitions to the governor of Massachusetts describing their “intolerable” conditions – coined from the “Intolerable Acts” placed on Massachusetts by Britain – and asking that they be able to earn the money to buy their freedom (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). Both Governor Hutchinson and newly-appointed Governor Gage denied the petitions, but word began to spread that a “conspiracy” was arising amongst Negroes to fight for the British if they would grant them emancipation; however, when the first battles at Lexington and Concord broke out in April of 1775 and two months later at the Battle of Bunker Hill, the only black soldiers were on the side of the Patriots (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). The militias formed during these early skirmishes were not under the control of the Continental Congress, but later in 1775, when George Washington was named general of the Continental Army, he barred any further recruitment of black soldiers (PBS, n.d.). Washington, himself a slave owner, was amongst the majority of white men who believed that putting guns into the hands of black soldiers was more of a danger than being outmanned by the British Red Coats. Only five months later, the governor of Virginia, Lord Dunmore issued a proclamation declaring any Negro free if they were willing and able to fight for the British army. Colonists were outraged by the issuance of the proclamation because they feared a massive slave revolt, but whether due to increased patrols or fear of retribution, the number of slaves who joined Lord Dunmore’s “Ethiopian regime” was limited. However, the offer of freedom that continued to come from the British inspired slaves throughout the colonies to join their side as the war progressed (Quarles, 1961). The British use of black soldiers, along with a depleted army, forced Washington to reconsider his original refusal to allow black soldiers into the Patriot ranks. By 1776, any black man with prior battle experience was allowed to enlist, and by 1777, the Continental Army accepted any black man, free or slave (PBS, n.d.). Washington and his fellow Patriots followed the lead of the British and offered freedom to those who enlisted and served their full term which encouraged many black men to join the army, even going so far as to escape from their masters in the hopes of someday earning their freedom. The majority of black Patriot soldiers came from the northern colonies and served in integrated regiments where they served various roles from messengers, spies, and nurses, and cooks to sailors and soldiers. The First Rhode Island regiment, however, was comprised of 197 black men commanded by white officers; this unit saw action throughout the war and received high praise for its service (NPS, 2008). Black soldiers from New England could expect to be paid equally to their white counterparts, but there was no chance for them to be promoted in the military for their service. It is estimated that over 100,000 African-Americans escaped or were killed during the war, and although no accurate records were kept regarding the race of soldiers, over 5,000 black men are believed to have served in the Continental Army while around 20,000 served for Britain and the Loyalists (PBS, n.d.). Negroes served valiantly during the war despite having little loyalty to the cause of either side, and several of them have since been recognized for their efforts on the battlefield while others, like Prince Hall and Phillis Wheatley, contributed to the abolition movement that grew out of the war effort. The aftermath of the Revolutionary War had both positive and negative consequences for African-Americans. The idea that independence was being sought from England while slavery still existed for blacks created a sense of hypocrisy amongst top political minds and lead to the beginnings of the abolitionist movement. Almost immediately following the signing of the Treaty of Paris, the states of New England ended slavery while the middle colonies of New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey adopted gradual emancipation policies (NPS, 2008). Many Northerners believed that the South would give up on slavery, but as the rise of cotton production grew so too did the South’s need for slaves. The freedom promised to many Southern slaves by the Continental Army was denied, and the end of the war saw a large number of black men and women being sold back into slavery. The slaves who escaped to fight for the British faced a similar fate as many attempting to leave out of Southern ports were denied while many of those who got out of the colonies, were forced back into slavery in the Caribbean (PBS, n.d.). Those freed slaves who were fortunate enough to be given their freedom by Northern colonists or the British continued to face discrimination and unequal opportunities regardless of where they landed post-war. The Declaration of Independence and the spirit of fighting for freedom from oppression did spark abolitionist ideals amongst black men and women, both freed and enslaved, and became a model for civil rights leaders as they worked to end slavery for good (NPS, 2008). Famous African-Americans in the American Revolution Long before the Declaration of Independence was signed, the colonists of Boston were at odds with Britain and their stationing of soldiers in their city. On the night of March 5, 1770, a skirmish broke out between a group of these soldiers and colonists that resulted in the death of 5 men, and the first believed to have been shot by British soldiers was a freed slave by the name of Crispus Attucks. The Boston Massacre became a rallying point for the Patriot cause, and Attucks became regarded as a martyr in the revolution (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989; Library of Congress, 2010; PBS, n.d.). Attucks became the major figure of the early struggle for independence, both for the Patriots who felt wronged by the presence of British soldiers and for early abolitionists who saw him as a man who transcended race in dying for freedom. As war loomed closer, colonists in New England were encouraged to begin forming militias, and free blacks were allowed to join in order to fill out the ranks. One of the men who enlisted was Peter Salem, a slave who was freed by his owner so that he could fight, and who became a recognized hero of some major northern battles. Salem fought at Concord, one of the first battles, but he is most well-known for his service at the Battle of Bunker Hill where he is credited with shooting British Major Pitcairn as he commanded the colonists to surrender. The resulting confusion caused by the killing of one of the British leaders allowed the Americans to overtake the British and win the battle, which was an unheard of feat (O’Brien, 2009). Another black soldier, Salem Poor, is also credited with fighting valiantly at the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the numerous Patriot officers who were present at the battle submitted a petition in honor of Poor calling him an “excellent soldier” who “behaved like an Experienced officer” (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989; Quarles, 1961).

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