Norman J. Penny

Pictish Symbol Stones Deciphered - their role in the Mysteries of Mithras

Norman J. Penny

June 2010

Photograph – across the Moray Firth from Burghead – the author

Deciphering the secrets in the Pictish Symbol Stones has challenged many people over many years.

As reported in the Press & Journal on 6 April 2010, I would like to propose a new solution by bringing together two lines of study and investigation – Pictish Symbol Stones and the Mysteries of Mithras.

Norman J Penny FCMI FIET FRSA Birchington, Kent 9 June 2010

Contents

1 Pictish Symbol Stones - Why So Intriguing?

2 Pict, Pictland, Pictish – Simple Definitions

3 Mitra, Mithra, Mithras – “Who’s Who”?

4 Mithraeum, Mithraea – What are They?

5 Mithraic Astronomy & Astrology - Introduction

6 Mithraic Statues & Symbols

7 Mithraeum Outdoors – the “Open-Air” Mithraeum

8 Pictish Mithraea - Builders & Worshippers

9 Pictish Stones Deciphered – the Mithraic Connection

10 Pictish Stones – other Roman Influences

11 Pictish Mithraism - Proposition

Acknowledgements & Bibliography

1 Pictish Symbol Stones - Why so intriguing? The so-called Pictish Symbol Stones have been in existence for about 1,500 years. What makes them so intriguing?

 They are called “Pictish” but who erected them?

 “Picts” is the name supposedly given to the supposedly indigenous population of the, generally, North East part of Scotland by the Roman invaders around the late 3rd Century CE. So why is there a gap between this naming of the Picts and the erection of the Stones?

 Did the existing population erect the Stones – or was it by incomers?

 Who had the skills to carve the Stones; and why onto a material that was destined to endure for so long?

 What do the symbols mean – assuming they do have a specific purpose and give a particular message? Are they for worship, markers of some description, used to educate – or maybe just decorative?

 Are the Stones in significant locations?

 Why did the symbols on the seemingly older Stones carry forward to the newer ones with Christian crosses?

 Despite all the research and proposing by academics and others, why has it taken so long to determine what they were really meant for – and are we still unsure?

 Of the people who erected them – where did they go, are their ancestors still around?

These, and many more, are the reasons why they are intriguing. In some ways it would be a shame to have a definitive explanation!

2 Pict, Pictland, Pictish – Some Definitions It is useful to draw a brief distinction between these words. Several relevant texts are mentioned in the Acknowledgements.

“Pict” is a label given apparently by Roman invaders in the 3rd century CE to the people who lived, broadly, in the North East of Scotland (historically recorded as 297 AD). It is uncertain whether these “locals” gave themselves a specific name, whether they were a single “people” or were a conglomerate of communities. Their origin is uncertain. What is certain is that no-one would have been living in the north of Scotland until about 11,500 years ago – once the ice had substantially cleared. The effects of glaciation rendered the non-coastal areas inhospitable to settlers but the coastal areas have the attributes for sustenance – land to cultivate, material for fire for warmth, rivers and seas to fish, animals to hunt for food and clothing, dwelling opportunities (caves, woodland and trees for construction). They are accessible across water, along coastal stretches and, in early (just post-glaciation) settlement times, via land bridges to other parts of what we now call mainland Europe. So descriptors such as indigenous (Latin indigen – original inhabitant) are limited – they may have been original inhabitants of the geographic area but, unlike, a non-glaciated area, their start point is a lot later. They most definitely came from somewhere else. This “somewhere else” has relevance in this investigation. Where are they now? A subject for further investigation.

“Pictland” is the term generally used in referring to where the Picts lived. Mainly the North East of Scotland but varying in size over time to other parts of Scotland – depending on acquired boundary changes.

“Pictish” can be the adjectival or possessive version of “Pict”. It can mean Pictish person, Pictish place, Pictish time period, Pictish country, Pictish xxx. Hence the title of this web site - “Pictish Mithraism” – which embraces several meanings (all valid and intended):- the form of mystery cult brought into a geographic area of Scotland and practiced by people some of whom may be “indigenous” others incomers.

“Pictish Symbol Stones” also known as “Pictish Standing Stones” are Stones with coded markings that have been categorised by J Romilly Allen and Joseph Anderson in The Early Christian Monuments of Scotland (1903) as:-

Class 1 – incised symbols on upright undressed stones with no Christian cross. Class 2 – relief carved symbols on upright dressed stones with a large Christian cross. Class 3 – stones with no Pictish symbols originating in the same period as Class 2.

3 Mitra / Mithra / Mithras – “Who’s Who”?

A short “Who’s Who” is offered to understand chronology and location of Mitra, Mithra and Mithras. Several relevant texts are mentioned in the Acknowledgements.

If the words “Mithraic” and “Mithraism” are used to cover individually and collectively Mitra, Mithra and Mithras it can be stated that there is more than one Mithraic period, that Mithraism is not continuous and that the Mithraic periods need not be continuous.

The geographical and chronological origins are Mithra (Persian within the Zoroastrian beliefs), Mitra (Indian within the pantheon of Vedic Hinduism) and Mithras (the Graeco-Roman version followed about the time of the Roman presence in what is now called Britain). The latter is familiarly referred to as Roman Mithraism. Currently there is a revival which uses the term Mithras.

Information from a number of sources suggests an approximate timeline:-

Mithra was deemed the son of Ahura-Mazda, the divine God of the heavens. Independent worship of Mithra declined with Zoroastrianism. The original Persian Mithra worship branched out into India where Mithra was known as Mitra. Mithras was based on Mithra but was elevated from a son of God to God himself.

David Ulansey argues that the God Mithras originated as the personification of the force responsible for the phenomenon of the precession of the equinoxes. Also he has been depicted as Kronos (personification of infinite time) or as the light conquering the darkness. In Tauroctony statues he is shown as young, fresh-faced, with no specific racial or birth place identity.

The Mystery of Mithras became a cult following during the time of the expansion of the Roman Empire. It is based on the previous Persian version and was practiced across the Empire, being

particularly popular within the army. Roman Mithraism started to decline with Christianity becoming the “state” religion in the 4th century CE. Central to Roman Mithraism is the God called Mithras (Sol Invictus – the Invincible Sun) who had the power to move the universe. This power was ascribed to him from the discovery by Hipparchus (a Greek astronomer living in the 2nd century BCE) of the precession of the equinoxes whereby the earth has a slight wobble on its axis. The God who could effect this was a powerful God indeed!

Much of the Mithraic Mysteries are related to the astronomy and astrology of the time (with the earth as the centre of the universe) utilising the planets, Zodiac and constellations as prime constituents. Coupled with a hierarchy of initiation with associated symbolism, a complex interaction between “hold” over initiates and progressively gaining more understanding of what the Mysteries held must have enticed and retained membership.

Whilst the originating centre of Roman Mithraism may well have been Rome the term “Roman” in the context of this writing should not be thought of as just Rome the place but more the period of the Empire. The “Roman” army, for example, did not all hail from Rome or even Italy.

4 Mithraeum (singular) & Mithraea (plural) –What are They? The Mithraeum was the meeting place for pursuing the Mysteries of Mithras. Remains of Mithraea can be seen across many parts of the early first millennium CE Roman Empire – several websites are referenced in the Acknowledgments section. The nearest Mithraea to Pictland were by Hadrian’s Wall.

The Mithraeum (or temple) would have been suitably laid out and decorated with statues and paintings to enable the followers to gather, to worship, to be talked through (and probably walked through) the iconography to understand the Mysteries of Mithras and to progress through the Grades. From remains particularly in Italy, Germany and England there is evidence of structure and contents and a regard for compass orientation which has huge significance when considering the relationship of the Mysteries with astrological and astronomical aspects. These are temples – places of spiritual devotion and for instruction. The Mithraeum was created and constructed as a “virtual universe”.

The temples generally are underground or partially underground, sometimes beneath other buildings. Some have also been in caves. For the built temples the structure can be likened to a cave (of significance as Mithras was said to have been borne from rock in a cave) but also a model of the macrocosm (the universe as a whole). Having a semi-circular vertical profile, the structure then also becomes cave-like. On either side of the long centre line of the Mithraeum (they were rectangular) there are benches and at one end the iconography of the Tauroctony – the portrayal of the bull slaying by Mithras (see Chapter 6). Being enclosed they were private but something must have enticed people to want to understand the Mysteries (more on this in Chapter 6); nothing external “advertising” the temple is apparent from excavations so far. A detail in several of these temples is niches for statues particularly for Cautes & Cautopates (Mithras’s associates) and for other Gods.

Tauroctony showing Mithras with his associates – Cautes & Cautopates.

Mithraea may just be the plural of Mithraeum but maybe there is some significance where several are located nearby one another. Perhaps challenging the description above which tends to suggest a standard Mithraeum, could they perhaps have been grouped by location each serving a differing but complementary purpose? Could there be a hierarchical structure to Mithraea in a particular location (explaining the high number in Ostia, for example) – like Christian churches and cathedrals? Maybe not all Mithraea catered for all grades. Something under further investigation.

The House of the Mithraeum of the Painted Walls, Ostia, Italy – photo courtesy of Jan Theo Bakker.

The Mithraeum of the Seven Gates, Ostia, Italy – photo courtesy of www.ostia-antica.org

The Mithraeum at Carrawburgh, Hadrian’s Wall, Northumberland – photo courtesy of www.odysseyadvetbures.ca

5 Mithraic Astronomy & Astrology - Introduction The following is just a glimpse into related, all important, astronomy and astrology.

The Mysteries of Mithras are indelibly linked to the astronomy and astrology as understood and in use at the time. The earth was considered to be at the centre of the universe with the planets (including the sun and moon) rotating around the earth in one direction and the firmament (celestial sphere) rotating in the opposite direction. This is easy to represent in two dimensions as a dot and two concentric circles. A three dimensional view would still have the earth at the centre but with a more sophisticated representation of the planets and firmament as two open structured spheres complete with the zodiac, both ecliptic and celestial equators and tilt on the axis. The planets know at the time were Jupiter, Mars, Venus, Mercury and Saturn. Combined with the Sun and Moon the seven “planets” are associated with the seven steps in the ladder of initiation grades in the Roman Mithraic cult.

With the belief that part of the importance of Mithras was due to his being able to rotate the entire universe (centred on the Earth), the position of planets and constellations is very important. The ability to cause, or be deemed to be able to cause, this precession - the movement of the universe through time - must have given Mithras an extremely high profile in a polytheistic time.

It must be remembered that the position of constellations in our timeframe (2010) is not relevant (unless it were coincidentally the same); nor, according to David Ulansey, is the position in the early part of the first millennium CE relevant to the Mysteries of Mithras either. Allowing for apparent constellation locations for a specific Tauroctony alignment involving the Constellation Taurus, the significant timeframe is 2000 years before Roman Mithraism i.e. what the sky looked like about 4000 years ago. This is very important to understanding the relative positions of several constellations such that the Tauroctony occurred at a particular time of the year and has in its component constellations both the bull (Taurus) and Mithras (seen as Perseus above Taurus). So, for the Tauroctony to occur at the spring equinox the astronomical and astrological alignments need to apply to the so-called Age of Taurus (we currently are in the Age of Pisces).

Each component of the Tauroctony has a celestial counterpart: Bull - Taurus; Dog - Canis Minor & Canis Major; Snake – Hydra, Serpens, Draco; Raven – Corvus; Scorpion – Scorpius; Wheat ears on bull’s tail – Spica; Cautes & Cautopates – Gemini; Lion – Leo; Crater (cup) – Crater; Sol – Sun; Luna – Moon; Cave – Universe.

Mithras is shown in the Tauroctony with a figure on either side. Looking towards the Tauroctony to the viewers left is Cautes (representing the morning star and spring equinox) and to the right Cautopates (representing the evening star and autumn equinox).

Other astronomical and astrological linkages can be made to Mithraism. For example, Taurus and Scorpius are in opposing sectors (around 180° apart) as, in effect, are Cautes and Cautopates who represent the equinoxes (which are 180° apart). The equinoxes in the past would have been in Taurus and Scorpius – which are represented in the Tauroctony by the bull’s head and the scorpion.

The number “7” features in Mithraism in several aspects. There are (as known at the time) 7 planets. There are 7 steps as the progression grades in Mithraism; each of these 7 grades has an associated planet. The Plough has 7 stars – the bear which moves and turns the heavens around.

6 Mithraic Statues & Symbols The Mysteries of Mithras are deeply embedded in symbolism such that viewing statues tends not to be straightforward – they need to be deciphered. The range of statues and symbols in the current investigation will be sufficient to define what one might expect to see in an Open-Air Mithraeum (which is explored in Chapter 7).

Five broad areas appear – Enticement, the Tauroctony, associated statues & paintings, other images of Mithras and the Initiation Grades.

Enticement Roman Mithraism was a mystery cult with the teaching, initiation and religion being well concealed. Its buildings were less easy to hide but entry is restricted. None of this would have encouraged involvement – quite the opposite – but for the cult to exist prospective members needed to know something about it to want to become involved. There arguably needed to be some form of enticement - at minimum giving a taster, at best a realisation of a spiritual home for life. Perhaps handed down knowledge (from an established initiate) or more general public knowledge of what the cult might offer may have attracted a new member. An expectation of membership – for example the cult was reportedly popular within the military – could also have been a draw. The hope of a hereafter could have been an enticement. None of these is statue or symbol as such – the physical presence of a Mithraeum (with a supposition of what it might contain or what those contents might represent) could have been the nearest there was to visible enticement.

Tauroctony This “bull-slaying” scene (real or symbolic) was central to (and in) the design of a Mithraeum positioned to clearly be seen by those in the building – it was not physically hidden but interpretation would have required guidance. The contents always featured the cloaked, Phrygian capped Mithras stabbing the bull with, variously, his associates - Cautes & Cautopates, snake, dog, scorpion, cup, sun, moon, zodiac, representation of four winds, stars on Mithras’ cloak, ears of corn and other carvings.

Photo Courtesy of Museum of London

Associated Statues & Paintings Either in Mithraea or nearby wide ranges of statues have been found including Magna Mater / Cybele, Attis, Hercules, Venus, Mercury, Minerva, Serapis, Dionysius etc and paintings of Europa, Fortuna, Genius etc. Some of these may have been associated directly with initiation grades, others incidental to the core of the Mithras mysteries, still others unrelated to the Mithras cult but associated to facilitate acceptance of Mithraism or they may have belonged to belief sets that were running in parallel. Whichever category applied, all required some form of deciphering for meaning and relevance. The Great North Museum in Newcastle houses, from Hadrian’s Wall, statues of Apollo, Jupiter, Minerva etc – a choice of Gods - and there are altars to Mithras dedicated by Legion personnel dating from the first century CE.

Other Images of Mithras Although Mithras is generally seen within the Tauroctony, there are statues with him hunting on horseback, catching the bull, at birth with the globe in his hand, riding a bull, on foot with bow and arrow, being born from the rock etc.

Mithraic Grades These grades or rites and associated symbols can clearly be seen in Mithraea in Ostia, Italy. In summary they are:-

Grade Associated Planet Symbols

1 Corax (raven) Mercury Raven, caduceus, small beaker

2 Nymphus (male bride) Venus Oil lamp, diadem, torch, veil, mirror, bee

3 Miles (soldier) Mars Lance, helmet, soldier’s bag

4 Leo (lion) Jupiter Fire shovel, rattle, thunderbolt, honey

5 Perses (Persian) Moon Harpe (curved sword), Persian dagger, sickle, scythe, crescent moon with star, honey

6 Heliodromus Sun Torch, seven-rayed crown, whip (Courier of the sun)

7 Pater (Father) Saturn Libation bowl, sickle of Saturn, staff and ring, Phrygian cap

A complete ladder can be considered to start from a base of “0” rising in seven steps (the Mithraic Grades) to the eighth – the Celestial Sphere, the Milky Way, the home of the soul. All told nine levels from “enticement” at “0” to “soul return” at “9”.

7 Mithraeum Outdoors – the “Open-Air” Mithraeum The statues and symbols to be found in Mithraea are mentioned in Chapter 6. The assumption is that they or their meanings need to be reflected into the hypothetical Open-Air Mithraeum – but in a different context – outside rather than inside.

The first key difference, then, between the typical Mithraeum used in the cult of the Mysteries of Mithras and the proposed “Open-Air Mithraeum” is that the former is constructed mainly underground or makes use of a natural cave and the latter needs neither.

The second key difference is that the “indoor” Mithraeum has iconography on its internal surfaces (floor, walls, ceiling) the Open-Air version does not; but it does need an alternative. Substitution of what usually is seen in an indoor mithraeum is that alternative.

The third key difference is that the access to the indoor Mithraeum is secured by a door or other barrier whilst an Open-Air one, from its name, is completely visible. Gaining understanding of what is contained in, on or around the Open-Air mithraeum needs to be “hidden” somehow. Despite having decided to concentrate on the Open-Air Mithraeum, the prospect of indoor ones in Pictland has not been dismissed. On the contrary looking at what arguably is an indoor Mithraeum in Burghead, Moray (the so-called Roman well) gives contrast to the outdoor variety.

The design, to include what can be seen in a typical indoor Mithraeum, can make use of physical surfaces on which symbols can be affixed (the terrestrial component) and, as it is outside, the view of everything “as far as the eye can see”. It is suggested that the latter may to an extent replace the “sky” elements of an indoor Mithraeum (for example the components of the Zodiac).

To retain obscurity there is, arguably, a need to further encode or depict differently from the equivalent indoor symbol (which usually is rendered physically inaccessible except to those who are intended to see it). Most indoor symbols are recognisable but their context and application is not – but they are not seen by all. The outdoor version can be seen by all hence the suggestion for some more involved encryption. Physical privacy afforded by the indoor Mithraeum needs to be replaced by obscuring the symbols in the terrestrial part of the outdoor version.

Construction Materials Indoor symbols have the benefit of enclosure to protect them from the weather. Not so for Open-Air ones. If the intent was to have durable monuments then the material they were placed on or made from would need to be weather-resistant. This then rules out painting.

In selecting suitable surfaces, external attachment to buildings does not seem to be a first choice when a prospective alternative may be to use the inside of the building which, presumably, has been eliminated as space might be at a premium (other strictly practical needs may take precedence). Attachment to buildings also reduces independence – there is a reliance on the longevity of the structure and there is a restriction in terms of privacy.

Faced with restrictions on material and location some form of carving comes to mind. In the context of Pictland (which we currently are considering) stone is bountiful, very bountiful. Some is freestanding as boulders and naturally occurring monoliths, perhaps there is a re-use possibility for existing human erected monoliths alternatively stone could be quarried (from locations with varying degrees of extraction difficulty). Perhaps the selected location for the carved monument could determine what material should be used (e.g. immediately available), or vice-versa - the basic material might need to be moved. The carver and whoever is hiring the carver (although the carver could be the user) may need to compromise between desired location for the monument and availability of materials but over-riding factors may come into play; portability is unlikely to be one of them! If longevity is an objective stone is preferable to wood.

Having determined that stone would be a desirable material for carving symbols, two essential and very practical ingredients are needed – the carver and the symbols. Keeping with the Pictland context, stone masons / carvers with the ability either to learn how to carve or, preferably, with that ability would be needed. Even to achieve the first possibility – to learn how to carve –someone with the necessary skills would need to be the instructor. So where could this person or these persons have come from? This is explored in Chapter 8.

Components and Symbols There are two components to the Open-Air Mithraeum – terrestrial and “as far as the eye can see”. The latter can range from flora, fauna, fields, rivers, the sea, mountains, the sky and what can be seen in the sky – planets, constellations etc. The indoor Mithraeum’s representation of planets and constellations is not required – they can be seen in the outdoor version but astronomical and astrological knowledge would be needed to identify them.

Regarding the symbols, representation of Enticement, Tauroctony and Initiation Grades plus inclusion of associated local customs / cults / religions or forms of adaptation (Mithraism to “other” and/or vice versa) would be a start point in designing the terrestrial part of an Open-Air Mithraeum. Adaptation - taking one symbol and modifying it to become another - would generally need to be obscure; to decipher a symbol would require a knowledge of both Mithraism and the local item.

Constituent symbols could include:-  Enticement – attracting a target audience e.g. military, to prospects of life after death, a hereafter, gaining “secret” knowledge etc.  Tauroctony – Mithras himself (or a representation of what Mithras stands for); animals – dog, snake, scorpion (or a representation of them in “sky” terms or otherwise); the zodiac & constellations (seen in the sky) but maybe needing a form of indicator and most certainly an explanation; Mithras’s associates (or what they represent); water container; bull; knife; winds; elements (earth, wind, fire, air) etc.  Grades – planets (visible in the sky) but again maybe needing a form of indicator or pointer; grade names (raven, male bride, soldier, lion, Persian, courier of the sun, father) and their related symbols.  Local customs / cults / religions – Celtic Gods; symbols of local customs; non-Mithraic symbols etc.  Purely decorative – to be just that, decorative, or to further confuse overall deciphering.

Looking Skywards Through the day (clear day) the sun is the most visible planet (it was considered to be a planet in time frame of Roman Mithraism) followed by the moon, then on occasion, other planets (such as Venus) and brighter stars. Through the night (clear night) the zodiac and a much wider set of stars is visible – in fact, broadly a hemisphere of the universe. This sky component replaces much of the iconography of the indoor mithraeum quite simply as it is not needed. In the night sky the relevant constellations can be seen – dependent on the time of year. The plough will point to the pole star. Any other star - indeed galaxy - formations, otherwise represented in the indoor mithraeum (including the Milky Way), will be seen outdoors by the observer on Earth.

Therefore, in designing the terrestrial part of the Open-Air Mithraeum there is arguably no need to include the planets and stars as such – maybe just their relationship within the mystery and/or indicators towards their location. However, there may be aspects of the view skywards, otherwise depicted but obscured in the Mithraeum, which are visible to anyone (Mithraist or not) that need to have their context made unclear e.g. through astrological references.

The symbols on the Stones might then need to obscure something that may be deduced directly from looking at the sky or, conversely, Stone based symbols could rely on the sky view to complete the symbol. Nothing should be obvious to the uninitiated. Furthermore, a Stone based symbol could be used as an indicator to use part of the sky view to decipher the symbol or, simply, to be a pointer. The big difficulty, then, in designing the Open-Air Mithraeum Stone is what to include because the sky (at night in particular) contains elements that are in the indoor Mithraeum and what to exclude from the design – an icon may not be needed when the real thing is visible.

Orientation and Location If the intent is to mimic the indoor Mithraeum then replication of layout, orientation and location is necessary. The indoor Mithraea seem to have specific East/West orientation; good examples are those in Ostia. The Tauroctony is at the East end; the benches are set on the North side facing South and the South side facing North; the entrance is at the West end so anyone entering faces towards the Tauroctony. All this gives orientation along a specific axis and facilitates observing where the sun and moon rise and set plus gives a reference point for knowing the equinox and solstice locations.

Indoor Mithraea are located close to running water – partly, probably, for practical purposes but maybe to ensure all elements are present and visible – earth, air, fire and water.

In some places several Mithraea are built in close proximity to one another – maybe providing different but complementary functions.

Conclusion We now have the rationale and elements for the “Open-Air” Mithraeum. Now we need to see if such places exist – Pictish Symbol Stones seem to be a contender.

8 Pictish Mithraea - Builders & Worshippers Maybe the Pictish Symbol Stones are the terrestrial part of the “Open-Air” Mithraea. So who built them and who used them?

Perhaps Builders and Worshippers were one and the same people; maybe the builders of the Stones were different from those who used them. Someone had to cause them to be built; someone had to organise their planning and creation. There are questions of timing – when were they built; and timescale – over what period were they used?

By builders I am thinking of the people who carved and erected the Stones (or took existing Standing stones and carved onto them). By worshippers I am deliberately using a very wide application of the term – to avoid digression into theology but assuming they were used for some form of worship, teaching or initiation (or all three - or more!) – in fact, pursuing the Mysteries of Mithras.

Christian Influence Many texts consider the Stones were built from the 4th Century CE with relevance into the 9th. The classification into incised (Class 1) and relief (Class 2) almost has an implied sequence which might suggest different builders and timeframes. The change in design came about from the arrival of Christianity. Timing wise this might be related to St Columba’s visit to Inverness in the 6th century CE (around 570). But was this the first exposure of the builders to Christianity? Certainly St Ninian is attributed with introducing Christianity to the Southern Picts in the early 5th century CE (supposedly about 420). To add to the options, the Irish and Northumbrian forms of Christianity differed so any associated, influential design cues could be different. This timing is after the initial carving period (assuming Class 1 precedes Class 2) as it is the Christian crosses that have the more complex artistic style. Perhaps there were other arrival routes with Christianity coming to people in Pictland but not necessarily to the pre-existing Picts. Maybe the people who built the first phase of Pictish Stones were influenced by Christianity and built the second phase with Christian symbols as well as the first phase ones (a compressed time frame). Maybe, if the builders and worshippers were “incomers” the path that took Christianity to them was different than via the Saints.

Arguably the earliest start point is just after Constantine who caused Christianity to become the dominant religion in the Roman Empire – around the mid 4th century CE. In Scotland the Pictish missions of Kentigern, Drostan, Buitte and Columba took place between around 520 to 580 - a long time after Emperor Gratian encouraged Christianity as the official religion of the Empire in 380 shortly after which tolerance of non-Christian religions rapidly expired. Mithraism had a relatively long lease of life beyond this turning point. In this period Mithraism must have been running in parallel.

Timing & Location A great part of the “intrigue” is why, when these are called “Pictish” Symbol Stones, was there such a gap between when the Picts were named Picts (late 3rd Century CE) and the first Stones being dated as around the 4th / 5th Century CE. This suggests an external trigger for this happening – there cannot be an assumption that when the Picts came to be known as Picts there were Pictish Symbol Stones. This reinforces the point that it is useful to consider “Pictish” as the era not just the people. Topographically where the existing population lived and where the incomers came to may not be

one and the same. The Stones in Moray and Aberdeenshire tend to be in locations near rivers but more inland than close to their outlets. There is no reason to doubt that the existing population lived around all of the fertile valley areas not just locations upstream. This leads to wondering why the Stones were built where they were / are. If incomers did, indeed, build the Stones and if they were part of the Roman invasion then they probably would not have set up fort or camp in the middle of the existing population and would have set up camps of limited distances apart for ease of travelling. Maybe the Stones were not erected at invasion times which might explain the time gap between the alleged start point for Class 1 Stones and the earlier days of the arrival of the Romans in the first century CE and the later Severan campaign of around 210 CE (still around 200 years before the supposed erection of the earliest Symbol Stones). It is likely that the locations of the fixed community and that of the incomers may have a shallow correlation unless there was a more complex (and amenable) relationship between the incomers and the locals such as pre-existing trade.

Capability & Skills Someone with visual knowledge of the symbols (to have carved then in the first place) and with the ability to carve in Stone must have been the builder. “Someone” is meant in the plural and not necessarily in a single time frame – it is clear these Stones were carved over several hundred years (maybe with gaps). By “familiar with the symbols” it is not necessarily suggested that the builder “knew” what the symbols meant but knew what to carve. Maybe the builder did know (so could also have been a worshipper) but conversely could have been commissioned by another (necessarily one who knew what the symbols meant). Either way the Stones complete with symbols must have had a specific purpose. Possibly the Stones were carved by a small number of people with the required skills moving around from site to site – so far there seems little evidence to choose between the carving activities being performed over long, continuous periods or in bursts.

So who had the carving skills at that time? For the so-called Class 1 Stones (i.e. those on boulders or undressed Stone with incised symbols) shaping and dressing skills were not required only an ability to chisel into the surface of the Stone. The so-called Class 2 Stones (i.e. with Christian motifs [especially crosses] and Pictish symbols) require more skills. The size of the Stones would mean transport from the source of the Stone material – close to (fortuitously) or distant from a quarry. The Stones are shaped basically as rectangles and the faces are prepared for carving – possibly needing a different set of tools than those used by the chiseller of Class 1 Stones. Then the complex and intricate act of carving in relief – this is much more exacting than for the Class 1 carver involving the removal of a lot more stone material so the symbols stand proud of the surface in relief. A third demand on carvers is the application of Ogham scripts – these are incised rather than relief. None of the carvings includes true likenesses e.g. faces. Could this indicate there was not such a demand from the commissioner of the carving nor a need from what the carving was required to represent or a restriction related to the carvers abilities? Another thought – could the incisions or the reliefs on the Stones have been painted, like more modern grave stones?

Prospectively what is needed in way of carving skills is relatively basic but good quality (especially for Class 2 Stones which are more intricate). What is carved must be quite clear and there probably was some order to the layout. This tends to suggest someone (singular and plural) with existing skills rather than self-taught. At the time the people with such skills were probably not within Pictland –

there is no suitable archaeological evidence – so they must have been incomers. The nearest would have been in the vicinity of Hadrian’s Wall (at the time the Antonine wall was either unmanned or scarcely manned). There is physical evidence (much in the Museum of the North in Newcastle) that carving skills had been employed – not least for Mithraea, Gods and altars. Perhaps the source of the carvers was within the Roman army or its associated trade’s people. Not only would the carvers have the carving skills they most likely would have seen the Mithraea first hand.

To give a balanced argument, views of other authors should be considered. For example attempts have been made to determine whether the source of the symbols is Scandinavia (e.g. Lord Southesk - 1893) with a possible conclusion that any similarity between symbols may not be due just to transfer from Scandinavia to Scotland but, rather, both from a common source. This prompts consideration of other “common source” prospects for any Mithraic influence. If the builder has seen a Mithraeum then there are some general options – for example on Hadrian’s Wall, London, Germany or Italy. This could link in with any similarity of artistic design between Scandinavia and Scotland – maybe a common source is carvings or statues in, say, Germany and maybe that common purpose is Mithraic. So the Pictish Stone builders might not have come from the Roman settlements around Hadrian’s Wall at all but other places where there are Mithraea. Or, maybe there is a chain of events – those who built the Hadrian’s Wall Mithraea may have seen other Mithraea; this is not unreasonable as it is know that the bulk of the personnel in Roman Legions and auxiliaries based in the UK came from the European mainland.

The foregoing – any of the options – makes sense when considering the creation of the terrestrial part of the Open-Air Mithraeum. The assumed content could be what one would see in a Mithraeum - a direct transfer; but that is not the case. Whilst it can be demonstrated (in Chapter 9) that there is a relationship between Mithraic and Pictish Stone symbols and symbolism something is missing – whoever decided on the design of the Pictish symbols. Maybe that can be ascribed to the Worshippers.

Turning now to the worshippers – the “users” and presumably “owners” of the Mithraea - who could have been the builders themselves or those who commissioned them. Having suggested the concept and the construct of an Open-Air Mithraeum in Chapter 7, the assumption is made that the Pictish Stones were used for some sort of worship rather than boundary markers or gravestones - for teaching, initiation, as an aide memoire etc. So who were the worshippers and where did they come from? With the “intrigue” of why there is a time gap between the people in Northern Scotland being labelled Picts by the Romans and the first Stones it is suggested that the worshippers (initial ones anyway) came from outside the geographic area of Pictland as it was around the 4th / 5th century CE. Making an association between the builders and the worshippers they could have hailed from the same place.

What is a distinct possibility is that the builders and the worshippers either came from around Hadrian’s Wall, were people with a Roman Army genealogy or were from Roman camps that might have existed at the time in Pict territory. The latter is less likely as there is currently no evidence of formal Roman presence or settlement in North East Scotland in our time period but there was in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE.

In pursuing the prospect of constructing an Open-Air Mithraeum in Pictland then amongst the best people to have been engaged would be those familiar with Mithraea elsewhere – better still, nearby. At least three Mithraea existed by Hadrian’s wall – maybe built outside the Pictland time period under consideration but maybe in use right up until the Roman army left Britain; maybe beyond.

The Roman army apparently “pensioned off” its soldiers (and also its auxiliaries). Part of the pensioning off was the opportunity to remain at an outpost which for someone already out-posted for a long period could almost equate to contentedly remaining in situ. This opens up several prospects for the ethnicity of potential builders and worshippers – they could be from other parts of the Roman Empire but residing in Britain, “British” people who had become accustomed to the Roman customs and adopting them (including religions) or merchants and traders maintaining an import/export base in Britain. Contrary to what in the past has been learnt at school, the Romans were not necessarily from Rome. In fact the British region was at times administered from beyond Rome e.g. at times from Germany. The Roman regime, in common with the Persian ones in the first half millennium BCE, had a habit of taking people from pacified acquisitions, placing them in their armies then dispatching them to other parts of the Empire or potential expanded Empire. So the prospect for people coming from places well remote from Pictland is high – and they could have come with their belief set or a susceptibility to one that they might be sympathetic towards. From statues around Hadrian’s Wall it is known that there were cohorts comprising Hamian archers from Syria, Dacians from north of the Danube around the Carpathian mountains, Batavians from around the Netherlands, Tungrians from the western Ardennes and others.

The pursuit of Mithraism allegedly went underground with Christianity becoming the Roman state religion. Maybe this is why NE Scotland, being relatively remote geographically, would have been considered a good location to practice Mithraism (motive and opportunity). Finally, the following of the cult ended beyond the establishment of Christianity in Britain and beyond the establishment of Islam in the Middle East – about the time of the 10th Century amalgamation of the Picts and Scots.

Coding of the Symbols A great intrigue indeed! Assuming the desire to pursue the Mithras Mystery cult, in potentially unfamiliar territory (although that might be debatable as there is an argument that the builders and users were “accepted” so they may not have been too unfamiliar with the locations where the Stones were built) with a high degree of “secrecy”, then someone had to decide on the coding. Familiarity with the symbols and their meaning in a Mithraeum seems a logical start point – this suggests and adept rather than an initiate. Then the jump would need to be made from indoor to outdoor Mithraeum with knowledge of the constellations and zodiac and planets as seen in the sky rather than relying on the depiction indoors. Conversely, as an aside, whoever designed the original indoor Mithraea must have had much knowledge of the “sky” and how to “read” it.

All this comes together in the Open-Air Mithraeum:-

“The Craw Stane” – Rhynie Photograph – the author

Aberlemno 2, Angus Photograph – the author

With some Mithraic knowledge, we can now go about deciphering the Pictish Stones.

9 Pictish Stones Deciphered – the Roman Mithraic Connection

To avoid introducing a new terminology, the symbol names used here are those popularly found in Pictish Symbol Stone texts and web-sites.

The Stones contain carvings which are either symbols without immediate clear meaning or items which on the surface may require no interpretation. In reality if there are “secrets” which obscure or protect “mysteries” then every symbol and other item will have a meaning, possibly several; and so require interpretation. Some of the shapes might be thought of as symbols but could be embellishments added at the discretion of the carver or, simply, errors. Deciphering 100% of the shapes may be overly ambitious – I will initially stick with the more abundant. Some bear resemblance to tamgas (Central Asian markings used to identify property or cattle and also with wider use to represent birds and other meanings) but none so far researched fit. Looking at Scandinavian symbols some similarities with Pictish symbols can be found but not with a high correlation. Often they are described as “unique” bearing no resemblance to symbols or marks or depictions seen anywhere else but this can be a way of dismissing further investigation. Overall they surely must “evoke” something.

A few examples of the “crescent” shape seen on Pictish Stones can be seen on Roman carvings – some taken from around Hadrian’s Wall now in the Great North Museum, Newcastle and from Cappuck, Roxburghshire now in the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. The Cappuck Roman carving also has a Boar – not dis-similar to the Knocknagael Stone (in the foyer of the Highland Council, Inverness) which is the symbol of the Roman Twentieth Legion further prompting a Roman connection.

Cappuck Stone – courtesy of NMS, Edinburgh (X.FR567)

In deciphering the symbols on the Stones there is always a need to consider context. The greatest over-riding difference between Pictish and other Mithraic symbolism is that, almost exclusively, the Pictish symbols are outside. Hence it might be deduced that the seeming lack of Tauroctony symbolism is due to the fact that the “bull killing” does not need to be represented – it can be seen in the night sky (Perseus representing Mithras over Taurus the bull).

Pictish Stone Symbols The clearly identifiable symbols are listed overleaf. The first four groupings account for two-thirds of the symbols. The additional, more obvious (maybe?) items include (in no particular order):-  Christian (Latin) Cross – often with squares or circles by the intersection.  A person or groups on foot - variously with axe, spear, shield.  A person or groups on horseback – variously with sword, shield, horn.  People holding boxes.  Bulls.  Bossed circles.  Decorative interlace patterns.

The Pictish Symbols are firstly grouped by order of incidence (1 to 12) then by dominance within groupings (based on data used by W A Cummins):-

1 V-Rod / Crescent 2 Z-Rod / Double Disc 3 Mirror / Mirror Case / Comb V-Rod & Crescent Z-Rod & Double Disc Mirror Crescent alone Z-Rod & Serpent Comb Double Crescent Z-Rod & Divided Rectangle Mirror Case V-Rod & Horseshoe (arch) Double Disc alone Notched Mirror Case

4 Pictish Beast 5 Rounded Shape 6 Angular Shape Pictish Beast Horseshoe Rectangle Triple Disc Tuning Fork Disc Divided Rectangle Triple Oval Step Ogee Square Twin Discs Vertical Rectangle Arch Step with Handles L-shaped Figure

7 Fish 8 Bird 9 Animal Fish Eagle Deer’s Head Fish Monster Goose Boar Extended Fish Monster Raven Beast Stag Wolf Horse Bull’s Head Dog’s Head

10 Serpent 11 Implement 12 Plant Serpent Hammer Flower Serpent & Straight Rod Anvil Extended Serpent Pincers or Tongs Shears Crosier Helmet

In Chapter 6, Mithraic Symbols and Grades (or rites) were considered. It is timely now to see if there is any correlation between the two sets of symbols – Mithraic and Pictish Stones. Account needs to be taken of multiple uses i.e. symbols with more than one meaning. Correlation is not necessarily symbol to symbol but from meaning to symbol. The Mithraic symbols need to be understood before the Pictish ones can be “deconstructed” or interpreted in the context of Roman Mithraism.

V-Rod & Crescent This is the popular description name for what historically has been determined as two symbols that look like a bent rod and a crescent (particularly influenced, seemingly, by the shape of the crescent moon).

This is the most prolifically used symbol set on Class 1 and Class 2 Stones and is not restricted to any specific geographic area.

The shape is undoubtedly like a crescent moon but is never seen in a correct “sky” orientation.

These are examples of Stones with both V- Rod & Crescent and Z-Rod with Double Disc:-

Inverneen Stone Fiscivaig Stone - courtesy of NMS, Edinburgh (X.IB227) - courtesy of NMS, Edinburgh (X.IB213)

In deciphering symbols used in Mithraism there reasonably would be identification of a bull – the crescent shape looks like bull horns. The bull was slain by Mithras – maybe the V-Rod shape is a sword or Persian harpe. The two (bull horns and sword) would amply fit as a Tauroctony symbol.

As part of the Mysteries of Mithras the moon figures prominently, not least as an initiation grade (Perses) which has the Moon as its planet with the harpe (sickle and scythe) and crescent moon with star as associated symbols.

A suggestion is that the crescent shape looks like a view of the sky and beyond. The infill on some crescents looks like stylised clouds such as the Stone at Kinblethmont, near Arbroath.

The V-Rod shape is never seen on its own, it is never combined with another symbol – it is always with the crescent shape; maybe this confers a specific, singular meaning to this combination.

Maybe the V-Rod is not a rod at all! As with the Z-Rod there have been suggestions that it is a broken spear signifying death and/or burial. The “rod” has also been referred to as a sceptre (carried by people in authority – monarchs, for example) so this might lead to the V-Rod and Crescent being somehow linked to a King (but why a broken sceptre?). If the V-Rod is not a single rod at all but two items then an alternative view emerges. Perhaps these are two lines representing something coming to a focal or common point. Many of the “lines” on the Stones have finials; taken with the line these add direction (in other words directional arrows).

With the need when interpreting the Mysteries of Mithras to think of several levels – practical, instructional, devotional, spiritual – the same thought process should be given to deciphering the Pictish Symbols placed in the context of Mithraism. Also multiple meanings should not be dismissed.

Whilst multiple meanings including the Moon and Tauroctony might be included for the V-Rod and Crescent, the author proposes that the V-Rod is not a rod but two arrows (left down, right up) and the crescent is the firmament. Together these represent the soul travelling from the celestial sphere at birth and returning to the celestial sphere on death; in effect into mortality and later into immortality. The symbolism is structured in such a way that the observer can consider himself to be at the focal point looking out to the sky (universe, celestial sphere) and imaging the soul’s travel. The suggestion of elapsing time is made by the distance between the “V” lines passing across the crescent shape. The symbolism should be spiritually comforting as the returning arrow is suggesting there is not absolute finality on death – this is an enticement to follow Mithraism.

Z-Rod & Double Disc This is the popular description name for what historically has been determined as two (or more) shapes that look like a Z shaped rod and, in the main, two separate but inter-connected circles or discs. In fact, most Z-Rods comprise a reverse-Z but the description is convenient. Some double discs appear alone – more on these later.

The Z-Rod is never seen on its own (just like the V-Rod) - it is combined with either the double disc formation or with a serpent or a divided rectangle. Maybe this confers a particular meaning to the “Z” or its components which is not adversely modified (or lost) when combined with other symbols.

This is the second most prolifically used symbol set on Class 1 and Class 2 Stones and, like V-Rods & Crescents, not restricted to any specific geographic area. Several Stones have both V-Rod and Z-Rod symbol sets on them, often juxtaposed – this positioning is discussed in this Chapter’s section on Symbol Groups.

Most examples of this symbol set have the above orientation. A few are rotated 90 degrees counter- clockwise and only one (discovered so far) is rotated 45 degrees counter-clockwise. What they all have in common is symmetry about the axis at right angles to the circles and lines connecting the circles that are almost always curved into their centre line. This could be stylistic, even decoratively stylistic but is consistent. Unless there was a “standard” for the symbols or pure coincidence the alternative is that each engraver understood a common method of showing whatever the circles or discs were intended to depict. Generally the carving on the Stones is pictorially two dimensional (albeit “raised” in relief) not using projections such as orthogonal or other techniques to imply depth or distance. Could the two-dimensional circles / discs associated with the Z-Rod be different? With the centre line symmetry etc these circles look like a bisected solid annulus (a cut though dough-ring whereby both exposed cross sections are the same but left / right handed). That applies only to those double discs with the same content in each disc (which is the majority).

To try to decipher this composite set of symbols it is useful to disassemble into components. Just as the V-Rod is arguably not a rod at all but directional arrows, maybe the “arms of the Z” are directional arrows. In many instances it looks as if there are directional finials but generally they are more elaborate compared with the V-Rods – in fact, more floriated. Suggestions have been made that these might represent lightning and that does have a Mithraic context with the Leo Grade. Alternatively, these shapes may have multiple meanings.

If the Stones are indeed the terrestrial part of the Open-Air Mithraeum described in Chapter 7 then the Z-Rod combinations are very significant. Mithras in known paintings and sculptures (most especially the Tauroctony) is accompanied by Cautes and Cautopates. In Mithraism Cautes represents the morning star and Cautopates the evening star. The morning star is associated with the east (bringing dawn and light at the beginning of the day). The evening star is associated with the west (bringing dusk and night at the end of the day). In pictures and sculptures Cautes and Cautopates are holding torches (they are often called the torch bearers). Cautes typically to the right of Mithras holds a lit torch upwards, Cautopates to Mithras’s left holds an extinguishing torch downwards – again reinforcing the symbolism as morning and evening. 24

Close study of the symbols on the Pictish Symbol Stones shows several examples where the seemingly floriated ends of the upper part of the Z-Rod could appear to be flames from torches.

Between the ends of the day the sun shines. So the inner ends of the torches are connected by the joining line of the “Z”. Typically, this connection lies across the centre line of the circles or discs. Several suggestions have been made about the circles – sun and moon, other paired items in harmony or tension (like ying/yang), heaven and hell, decorative. An alternative could be the Sun (Sol) with Mithras (Sol Invictus) – in Mithraism there is a distinct difference. The Sun is one of the planets being, in some interpretations, located halfway between the Earth and Celestial Sphere giving equitable illumination (and heat) to the planets on either side of its circular path. Sol Invictus, more specifically recorded as Deus Sol Invictus – the unconquerable Sun God, is the creator of the universe, the Mithras who knows about the precession of the equinoxes. He is in balance with the Sun hence the two are shown together. In the pre-Roman versions of Mithras – Mithra – he is the God of contracts; in the Roman version he, Mithras, can be considered to be in contract with the God Sol, the Sun. Alternatively, or in parallel, the discs could be the universe (especially in concentric-circle or so-called “circle and dot” versions) with the Earth at the centre.

Cautes – courtesy of Wikipedia commons Cautopates – courtesy of Wikipedia commons

Cautes and Cautopates have further symbolism. In addition to their representing the beginning and end of the day (during which the sun shines) they also signify the spring and autumn equinoxes. In the Tauroctony pictures and sculptures they are usually shown with their legs crossed – Cautes left over right with the left pointing away from Mithras; Cautopates right over left with the right pointing away from Mithras. The crossed legs could symbolise the crossing of the celestial and ecliptic equators at the time of the equinoxes; the different crossing formats distinguishing the two equinoxes. This is arguably an additional symbolism for the arrow parts of the “Z” giving this symbol grouping a daily meaning (morning and evening) plus a 6-monthly meaning at the equinoxes. Additionally, making a zodiac relationship, Cautes is in Taurus and Cautopates is in Scorpio – as mentioned in Chapter 5.

The author proposes that the Z-Rod is not a rod but two inter-connected arrows representing the torches of Cautes and Cautopates (Mithras’s associates in the Tauroctony). One faces east towards the morning star the other west towards the evening star – one’s torch is alight the other extinguishing signifying the beginning and end of the day; they further depict the spring and autumn equinoxes. The connecting part of the “Z” is firstly the day, secondly the months between the equinoxes, thirdly time itself – the start is connected to the finish. The circles or discs are multi-depiction - the Earth in the middle, with the planets then the celestial sphere (shown as the cross-section of a ring); the Sun and Moon and other paired items in harmony or tension; the Sun (Sol) and Mithras (Deus Sol Invictus – the unconquerable Sun God, the creator of the universe) in balance. This symbol set acts as the platform for deeper explanation and understanding via the Mithraic Grades; for example some circles are infilled with seven circles, the number of planets (at the time). The symbolism is structured in such a way that the observer can use this solid part of the Open-Air Mithraeum to guide towards the truly open part i.e. the sky and beyond. His presence may be small but he is part of it; all the changes are happening around him – again, as with the V-Rod, he can become a focal point.

Circles or Discs Looking at the circles or discs in more detail there are many hidden symbolic details many of which link to Mithraism. Some are just plain discs (such as in the middle section of the Aberlemno Kirkyard Stone). The discs on the Dyce and Dunnicaer Stones are three concentric circles – arguably the Earth at the centre (the “dot”), the first circle being the Planets and the second the Celestial Sphere. On Stones at Inverurie Kirkyard and East Balhaggardy there is a dot and three concentric circles – perhaps the above three constituents are there (and no more) with the dot showing from the centre point of a compass with the next circle out being the Earth; the Keith Hall Stone is another good example of this configuration. In other words the Earth is being given a greater presence than just a dot. Overall all these circle / disc interpretations point to the purely symbolic – they most certainly are not scale realistic! Of the two circles on the Newton House Stone the left hand one has an, as yet, inexplicable indentation.

Occasionally the circles or discs are in-filled. On the Wantonwells, Insch Stone each circle has curved lines like a counter-clockwise rotating turbine. There is a dot with a close in inner circle and an outer circle. The seven curved lines are between the two circles. Seven is significant – the number of Planets and the number of Mithraic Grades. An Aberlemno Stone also has a “seven” connection – each of the circles contains seven small circles; the Glenferness Stone is likewise. Whilst the Nigg Stone also has small circles within a larger one it is highly stylised with an additional circle within the envelope of the larger circle and the space where the inner line of the “Z” crosses. The Dunnichen Stone has another variant on the theme – seven serially connected filigree style curls between the inner and outer circles; maybe the dot is a centre point, the Earth the inner circle, the Planets the middle curled circle and the outer the Celestial Sphere. Seven stars can be construed to be the Plough which is the bear which moves and turns the heavens around.

Z-Rods & Other Symbols Some “Zs” are associated with other symbols, firstly the serpent (such as the Brandsbutt Stone, Inverurie, Aberdeenshire; the Picardy Stone; St Vigeans; Drumbuie and Newton House examples). The serpent in the context of the constellations can be Hydra, Serpens or Draco. Hydra as one of the 88 modern constellations stretches from Libra to Canis Minor (over 90° of the celestial sphere) but in the period when the equinoxes were in Taurus and Scorpio (circa 4000 BCE to 2000 BCE) Hydra was considered to extend further by including Sextans, Crater and Corvus; more like 180°). The author proposes that the serpent representing Hydra connects the equinoxes represented by Cautes and Cautopates thus connecting the equinoxes together using a constellation.

Mirror / Mirror Case / Comb

On the assumption that these shapes are mirror-like the conclusion has tended to be that they have a female association. This has been reinforced by these symbols often been accompanied by a comb. Undoubtedly the shapes accord with Roman style mirrors in use not only in the first millennium CE but centuries before. Interpretation of the circles into astronomical bodies or their revolution has so far been inconclusive. Whilst it might be difficult to understand that in Mithraism there is a grade that has female attributes in an all-male cult – the author proposes that the mirror, mirror case and comb represent the Nymphus Grade. This is the second Grade in the seven step ladder whereby the initiate becomes the bride of Mithras. With the associated Planet being Venus which is the second planet from the Sun perhaps there is some significance in the circles?

Pictish Beast

As a stylised animal this one stands alone – by reason of its popularity on the Stones and by being different from all the other animals on the Stones whether zoomorphic or otherwise. Like the three foregoing sets of symbols it has a fairly well “standardised” design on the Stones – both Class 1 and Class 2 – so it, like them, endured in use about 300 years.

Various descriptions have been given for this symbol ranging from the non-committal Pictish Beast to the very specific Pictish Dolphin and less practical Pictish Elephant. Like the V-Rod & Crescent and Z-Rod & Double Disc the design is “standardised” and localised broadly to the North East of Scotland – but, unlike these there is a known similarity. In Assyrian history there is a beast called “mushhushshu” who was supposed to have protected many of the supreme Gods such as Marduk, the city God of Babylon. This may be a precursor to the “beast” of Pictish Stones which prospectively fits the Leontocephalous (a lion headed man often carrying keys and entwined by a snake), the serpent (whether Serpens or Hydra or, terrestrially, a snake) or the lion (as in the Roman Mithraic Leo Grade or as symbolising a powerful beast). Perhaps the key is in considering the Pictish Beast’s position related to other symbols in those cases where there are groups. On Class 1 Stones the beast is often next to the V-Rod & Crescent, usually beneath it, and next to the arch, usually below it. On Class 2 Stones the beast is more randomly placed, when on the cross side it is typically high up.

Mushhushshu

Timewise Marduk came to prominence around 1500 BCE – the same period as Persian Mithra and prior to the monotheism of Zoroastrianism. Mushhushshu had associations with other Gods; it is described as “crypto-zoological” made from a combination of animals that could never have existed in nature. Maybe too much of a coincidence or completely unconnected; maybe a design cue? If not a coincidence then this could suggest a linkage between the knowledge of the Stone Builders and a people who lived about 2,000 years before – in which case there is some difficulty in determining how that knowledge travelled – or that there was some form of continuum over two millennia. This needs more investigation not least to eliminate the possibility if no connection can be evidenced.

Turning to Roman / Pictish Mithraic related possibilities there are many options. What needs to be avoided is making a solution fit! It is tempting to think of the Pictish Beast shape prospectively fitting the Leontocephalous, the serpent or the lion.

The author proposes that the Pictish Beast has several representations the most prominent, as it often is associated with the V-Rod & Crescent (the soul travelling from and to the celestial sphere), being of a lion formation to represent the Leontocephalous which in turn represents Mithraic Kronos or endless time. This decipherment shows the degree and depth to which symbols have been encoded. In other words when the symbol is far removed from what it represents then a deeper drill down is needed because the representation is in layers – in this case, from endless time to Mithraic Kronos to Leontocephalous to lion form to Pictish Beast. Whoever decided on the Pictish Beast to depict endless time must have had a very advanced knowledge of Mithraism and a highly developed capability to layer concealment. If this hypothesis is correct then the mystery aspect of the cult is well exemplified and the need for teaching initiates reinforced.

Other Shapes There is not an attempt here to analyse every symbol – that will be the subject of another publication by the author. A selection of the more readily deciphered shapes follows.

Rounded Shape The Horseshoe and Arch can be deciphered (by taking the shape as an arc) as the arc of a planet’s orbit, the entrance to a cave or the Celestial Sphere or, as with most of the symbols, several of these and/or others. The author therefore proposes that the horseshoe and arch shapes are representations of and from the indoor Mithraeum. “Of” the Mithraeum in the sense of its arched shape; “from” in the sense that within the Mithraeum there are representations of the Celestial Sphere etc.

The circle and multiple circle shapes may be seen as containers (some with handles). In the Tauroctony there is a cup shape which represents the Crater Constellation. A small beaker is associated with the Corax Mithraic Grade; in the Nymphus Mithraic Grade rite, Venus can be offered a cup of water; a libation bowl is associated with the Pater Mithraic Grade.

Angular Shape Within this grouping the rectangle type shapes may be representations of the shape of indoor Mithraea. Others may be like steps – part of the Mithraeum design or steps as in ladder i.e. Grade progression. The “L” shape is like a key – a key is held by Leontocephalous as recorded by Franz Cumont.

The divided rectangle shapes typically have niches cut into them. On the Raven Stone (Tyrie, Aberdeenshire) and Birnie Stone (near Elgin) the overall rectangular footprint has what could be construed as the side (longitudinal) benches of a Mithraeum with statue niches (one on each side of the Mithraeum and near the Tauroctony end – possibly for Cautes and Cautopates). The Maiden Stone, in Aberdeenshire, is almost identical to the Raven Stone footprint except the proximity of the niches to the Tauroctony end is the opposite i.e. on the Raven Stone the left niche is nearer than the right and on the Maiden Stone the right niche is nearer than the left. The Tillypronie Stone is another variant on the theme – the niches are opposite one another; similar to the Inverallan Stone. The Ballintomb Stone has only one niche – on the left but shown as extending about two thirds of the way across the width of the rectangle. Ardnilly is slightly different again with semicircles cutting into the insides of the “benches”. As there is a high correlation between the Symbol Stone rectangle symbols and the footprints of Mithraea such as in Ostia, Italy, the author proposes that the divided rectangle shapes represent the shape and layout of a Roman Mithraeum, in some cases with indentations which represent niches which would have housed statues.

Z-Rod and Rectangle with niches. Part of Raven Stone (minus Raven) from an 1856 hand sketch.

Fish Some of the fish carvings have been identified as salmon. This fish was mystically revered (but to date not known in Mithraism) not least as it can live in both salt and fresh water. Scandinavians have a home for the salmon in their folk lore. Maybe some inscriptions, not just the fish ones, have been added to the Stones for the benefit of people with other belief sets in way of harmony, acceptance and tolerance.

Bird The eagle was commonly used on the standards of Roman Legions and possibly has an association with the Leo Mithraic Grade. The goose does not appear to have any Mithraic significance. However, it is referred to in Scandinavian folk lore so there may be an explanation similar to the fish above. The raven has a distinct place in Mithraism – on the Tauroctony, as the messenger of God, identification with a constellation named Corvus and as the Corax Mithraic Grade.

Animal The low incidence and geographic spread of animal figures makes pattern formulation difficult. Relationship with Mithraic aspects is even more difficult.

For example, the Knocknagael boar Stone may not have been in its original position when located at Knocknagael farm near Inverness; there is no significant running water immediately nearby but other streams are close by. Whether there was a Roman presence is not yet known. The purpose of the Stone is unclear save to say that the 20th Roman Legion ( XX Valeria Victrix ) was involved in the construction of Hadrian’s Wall and is believed to have been in Britain until wholesale Roman withdrawal in the early 5th century CE). Perhaps someone from the Legion had the Stone carved when in the vicinity – but why only one associated symbol?

Another example is the wolf which might be (as has been speculated) a less than accurate carving of a dog – an animal seen on the usual format of the Tauroctony.

Serpent Considering the profile of the serpent (snake, hydra etc) in the symbolism of Roman Mithraic statues and paintings it is surprising to see so few of these shapes on the Pictish Stones – or is it? Faced with the ability directly to see this shape in the Open-Air Mithraeum perhaps there is less of a need to depict it on the Stones. However, the serpent with the Z-Rod could link the Tauroctony with Cautes and Cautopates; on its own (as two snakes intertwined into a caduceus or singly as the rod of Asclepius) it might be deciphered as a symbol of the Corax Mithraic Grade whose associated planet is Mercury (Mercury the messenger is often depicted with the snake); the Leontocephalous is entwined by a snake; maybe it looks like the Mushhushshu (known as the furious snake).

Implement The set of hammer, anvil and tongs could allude to Vulcan. The Leo Mithraic Grade has been shown with a fire shovel; with Jupiter as planet and fire as the associated zodiacal element maybe there is a Mithraic connection.

Conclusion - Correlation between Pictish Symbols and Roman Mithraism Whilst a satisfactory explanation can be given to the Tauroctony related symbols thus achieving a high correlation this is much less so for the sequence of Mithraic Grades. The V-Rod, Z-Rod and Pictish Beast all contain Tauroctony and “cult” related symbols. The Mirror symbols can be translated to align with the second Grade – Nymphus. Generally, the first and second Grades have few interpretable or assignable symbols; more appear in the higher Grades. However, Stones with horses and riders may be deciphered as being linked to the third Grade - Miles (soldier). Maybe the Grade system was optional although there is a possibility of a number of alignments from symbols linked to “7”. Perhaps this suggests a particular form of Mithraism; one which does not fully match Roman Mithraism; one which is peculiar to the Northern Pictish area and era; hence the title – Pictish Mithraism. The author proposes that there is sufficient correlation between Pictish and Mithraic symbols to support the view that a form of Roman Mithraism existed in (predominantly) North East Scotland. The lack of symbols to associate with the full range of Roman Mithraic Grades suggests a variant of the cult was in use – Pictish Mithraism.

10 Pictish Stones – Other Roman Influences

Several other aspects reinforce the relationship between Pictish Symbol Stones and the Roman and Roman Mithraic influence.

This is an overall timeline for the period under consideration:-

Pictish Stones near Roman Forts & Camp Sites There are high concentrations of Pictish Stones near sites of Roman Forts and Marching Camps. Interestingly Glenmailen, Ythan Wells camps are considered to have been large but the nearest Stones are about 5 miles distant near the River Urie. Fort / Camp locations near rivers (not surprisingly as water was needed for troops and animals) include Balnageith near Forres - the Findhorn; Thomshill near Elgin – the Lossie; Bellie near Speymouth - the Spey; Kintore – the Don. But, all of these are close to Stones.

The difficulty in making a connection between Roman presence and Stones is timeframe. Despite a popular view that the North East of Scotland was unconquered and then “Roman free” the locals must have presented a threat or a strong desire not to be pacified over a long period (these were and are fertile lands all along the coast to the foothills of the Grampians and nearby ranges).

Typically the construction of Hadrian’s Wall is seen as the main “separator” but it was built after the Gask Ridge (broadly a north easterly line of fortifications from Dunblane towards the coast at Stonehaven. In sequence, the Gask Ridge fortifications were apparently constructed about 70 to 80 CE; Hadrian’s Wall about 122 to 130; and the Antonine Wall about 142 with repairs to Hadrian’s Wall around 208. The Romans therefore visited early in the expansion of their Empire.

Within the army there was a Mithraic following (as apparently there was with traders and merchants) and the construction of Mithraea by Hadrian’s Wall (at, Housesteads, Carrawburgh and Rudchester) date back to the late 2nd / 3rd century CE being out of use by the middle of the 4th century. The Roman army began to leave Britain in 388 CE supposedly completely withdrawing by 410. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476.

Attribution: Gask Ridge; Wikipedia

All of the Mithraea in Britain have been in Roman military contexts – there is no reason, therefore, to assume that the context in North East Scotland should be any different. The author proposes that the presence of Roman military establishments in North East Scotland has facilitated the establishment of Mithraism in a geographic area hitherto not considered.

Pictish Stones near Water Guy de la Bédoyère in “Gods with Thunderbolts” states that “a Mithraeum could be built anywhere so long as running water was available”. Isabel Henderson in “Origin Centre of the Pictish Symbol Stones” plotted the locations of the Class 1 Stones; the majority in Aberdeenshire and Moray are located by or near rivers in particular the Don, Urie, Deveron and Spey. Almost all the Sutherland Stones are coastal. The author proposes that the proximity of Pictish Stones to water and the building of Mithraea near water further tend to support a relationship between Mithraea and Pictish Stones.

Symbol Groups The symbols on Stones cannot be considered to be randomly distributed. Several have the V-Rod & Crescent and Z-Rod & Double Disc juxtaposed on the same Stone surface and this suggests some composite meaning or maybe a direct progression in revealing a meaning or meanings from one to the next.

Elgin Cathedral Stone (not original place). Photograph – the author. 33

A suggestion has been put forward (by W A Cummins) that combinations of symbols or symbol sets can be interpreted as components of names memorialising, for example, Pictish Kings. By applying the multiple meaning principle in the current writing it would be unreasonable to dismissively substitute one proposition with another. Therefore, the symbol groups could also be construed to represent names.

At minimum, in the context of Pictish Mithraism, some typical symbol groups show the Enticement (in the V-Rod), the explanation of Mithras, Cautes and Cautopates (in the Z-Rod) and one Mithraic Grade (Nymphus in the case of the Mirror symbols). Examples of groups of two are the Brandsbutt Stone, Aberdeenshire; Elgin Cathedral; Aberlemno: and of three are the Picardy Stone, Insch; Clach Ard, Skye.

Stone Groups The prospect of Stones being in sets or groups with specific geographic proximity is rather speculative, not least as we are only now considering the proposed Mithraic use of the Stones. However, if the users of the Stones used them to take initiates through the Mithraic Grades then maybe some Stones were used for, say, higher ladder grades. This is not dissimilar to the relationship of Christian parish churches to cathedrals. Stones are clustered in many areas for example Glamis / Eassie / Tealing / Wester Denoon / Kirriemuir; Craigton / Dunrobin / Golspie; Brandsbutt / Kintore / Drimmies / East Balhaggardy /Logie ElphinStone; Knocknagael / Lochardil / Torgorm.

A topic worthy of more exploration and deciphering which the author intends to pursue.

Christian Cross These should not be regarded only as being what they are and nothing else. There is the possibility of symbol concealment in the cross itself. For example where the vertical and horizontal parts of the cross intersect some Stones show a circle at each junctions – 4 in all. These could be an allusion to the 4 elements (air, water, sea, fire) or four “winds” of the Moon. These Class 2 Stones tend to have well executed and sometimes more stylised versions of the symbols seen on Class 1 Stones. The author proposes that the carving on the Class 2 Stones (with Christian Crosses) allowed for a transition between Pictish Mithraism and Christianity. This is similar to the way in which Christianity was transitioned as the state religion in the Roman Empire period.

Ogham Inscriptions Also known as Ogam or Oghams, these are inscribed on a few Pictish Stones – they are much less rare outside Pictland especially in Ireland, Wales and south west England. Clear examples are on Brandsbutt, Dyce, Newton, Brodie and Ackergill Stones.

Supposedly in use (especially around the Irish Sea) around the 5th and 6th centuries but reportedly inscribed on Pictish Stones in the 7th and 8th centuries there seems no reason to assume that the Oghams were inscribed in the same time period as the Class 1 Stones were built. The style and depth of the incisions is different from the early Pictish Stone carving style. The author proposes that the Oghams were added to the, then, existing Stones and may have no direct connection with the initial purpose of the Stones. This secondary use could be commemorative, burial headstone etc.

11 Pictish Mithraism - Proposition

The objective of this investigation is to see if there is a linkage between the symbols on Pictish Symbol Stones and some form of religious belief set.

An open mind and temporary parking of previous views is requested to give the proposition fair consideration. The author is non-partisan in terms of academic background so is not putting forward a view from a specific allegiance.

Based on thorough research into the Pictish Symbol Stones and the Mysteries of Mithras it is proposed that:-

I. The Stones are Religious in Context – pre-Christian then Christian

II. The Builders & Worshippers were “Incomers”

III. The “Mystery” Symbols are Mithraic

IV. “Pictish Mithraism” was Practiced

I. The Stones are Religious in Context – pre-Christian then Christian A process of elimination rules out the erection and use of the Stones as boundary markers or merely decorative – there would be no point in adorning them with complex symbols for a less significant purpose. They could have been commemorative but again why adorn them with symbols some of which require considerable deciphering.

The Pictish Symbol Stones have a religious belief set context. That context is in two phases – pre- Christian and Christian with a distinct overlap between the two. The Christian phase is evidenced by the carving of Christian (or Latin) crosses and symbols referring to Bible stories. The crosses have an art style that suggests a Northumbrian influence which in turn suggests, at the time, the adoption of the Roman rather than Celtic (or Irish) form of Christianity. This second phase is straightforward to decode both then and now with much historical material to assist. The real challenge is the earlier phase.

Continuing the proposition that from the first Stone the purpose has been religious, the author has eliminated several contenders (such as Manichaeism, a range of Celtic Gods, Persian and Indian versions of early Mithraism, Hinduism, a range of Assyrian Gods and Zoroastrianism) and settled on the pursuit of some form of the Mysteries of Mithras. The evidence is in the deciphering of the symbols in representing the theology of the Mithras cult, the initiation by grade and relating some symbols to the layouts of temples used by Mithraists.

II. The Builders & Worshippers were “Incomers” With the Stones being known for so long as the Pictish Symbol Stones combined with the general view that Pictish is basically interchangeable with Pict, the assumption has been (and tends to be) that the Picts created the Symbol Stones. The greater likelihood is that the existing population did not create or use (initially anyway) the Symbol Stones – “incomers” did. The thesis is that at the end of the Roman occupation a number of people from the Roman army stayed in North East Scotland and wished to pursue their belief set – the Mysteries of Mithras. It was not untypical for a retiring member of the Roman army to be pensioned off and given the opportunity to stay where he was based. The timing of the creation of the Stones coincides with the final Roman retreat – maybe more of the army’s members than those due to be pensioned off stayed on. With the broad mix of people from many countries in the Roman army there is no suggestion that those who stayed were in fact Roman or even from Italy. Perhaps there was either an affinity with the existing population or an acceptance of the incomers – maybe they were of similar origin. For example, with the mix in the Roman army, there could have been members from Germany (highly likely given the presence there and locations in Germany sometimes being headquarters for those who governed Britain) or from countries further east where there was knowledge of other forms of Mithraism. Whichever might be a source prospect, as members of the Roman army they would have been familiar with the cult and its practices.

If the thesis that the Stones were built and used (certainly initially) by people from the Roman army then that tends to explain why there is such a time gap between the existing population in North East Scotland being given the name Picts (end of 3rd century CE) and the Stones supposedly appearing from around the 4th / 5th century. The builders would have needed carving skills, for Class 1 to incise and for Class 2 to work in relief. These skills my well have been available in and from the Roman army. Timescale wise the case can be well made for Class1 Stones. Once they were established and Pictish Mithraism extended to the pre-existing population then the desire would have been to retain the cult and its symbols as Christianity was introduced. If the Class 2 Stones reflect a Northumbrian influence then the art style and the carvers may have arrived together with Pictish symbols being accommodated in the early stages of conversion.

The location of the Stones is of significance. A broad geographic pattern is of proximity to known Roman army forts and camps. Mithraic temples were known to be located by rivers – many Stones are located by or near rivers (or, in the case of Sutherland, near the sea).

III. The “Mystery” Symbols are Mithraic Having determined that the Stones were used in a religious context, being built and used by “incomers”, the primary function is set. Later there may have been secondary re-use functions such as grave markers or for commemoration. Researching non-Christian and pre-Christian belief sets narrowed down to the Mysteries of Mithras being the belief set that is portrayed on the Stones. The author’s interpretations are consistent with Mithraism.

The most prevalent symbols are the so-called V-Rod & Crescent; the Z-Rod & Double Disc; Mirror, Mirror Case & Comb; and the Pictish Beast. Collectively these account for two thirds of the symbols. Several other shapes have been deciphered but it is suggested that there is sufficient evidence in the examples above to amply demonstrate that the Pictish Symbol Stones were used within the practice of the cult of Mithraism.

IV. “Pictish Mithraism” was Practiced

“Pictish Mithraism” would have transitioned from the Roman variety probably, initially at least, being practiced by those incomers who had the Class 1 Stones carved, maybe later by a wider following.

Unlike the indoor, enclosed, Roman Mithraeum where the sky and celestial sphere were represented through statues, pictures and building shapes the practice in Pictland was different. The “Open-Air” Mithraeum was created with two components – the skyward view towards the planets and celestial sphere containing the constellations and zodiac and the Symbol Stone. The sky component replaces much of the iconography of the indoor Mithraeum quite simply as it is not needed but the openly accessible Stones needed much more encryption – achieved very successfully, it has taken a very long time to decipher them.

So far little has been deciphered regarding the Mithraic Grades – maybe fewer were used than is known for the Roman version.

Christianity did not immediately oust Mithraism – the Class 2 Stones are witness to a transition period of over 200 years.

The impact of Pictish Mithraism was significant – over a geographic area from the Shetlands to the Forth and the Hebrides to the Solway Firth but most densely in North East Scotland.

Brandsbutt Stone, Inverurie – V-Rod, Z-Rod with Snake and Ogham Photograph – the author

Acknowledgements & Bibliography The following texts, and their constituent references, have had been a learning resource and provoked thoughts towards deciphering the “intrigue”. I attest, however, that the Proposition and the arguments leading up to it are wholly my own and have not been plagiarised.

Pictish:

Origins of Pictish Symbolism – James Carnegie Southesk, 1893

The Picts and their Symbols – W A Cummins, 1999

The Pictish Symbol Stones of Scotland – Iain Fraser for RCHAMS, 2008

The Origin Centre of the Pictish Symbol Stones (Proc FSA(Scot)) – Isabel Henderson, 1957-58

The date and origin of Pictish symbols (Proc Soc Antiq Scot) – L Laing & J Laing, 1984

Beyond the edge of the empire – Caledonians, Picts & Romans - Fraser Hunter, 2007

Pictish & Norse Finds from the Brough of Birsay – C L Curle, 1982

Scotland Before History – Stuart Piggott, 1982

Mithraic:

The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire – Roger Beck, 2006

The Mysteries of Mithras – Payam Nabarz, 2005

The Mysteries of Mithra – Franz Cumont, 1903

The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries – David Ulansey, 1989

Mithras, the Secret God – M J Vermaseren, 1963

Gods with Thunderbolts – Guy de la Bédoyère, 2007

http://www.twmuseums.org.uk/archive/mithras/intro.htm http://www.roman-britain.org/places/brocolitia.htm http://www.ostia-antica.org/dict/34.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Mithraeum

Copyright The information contained in this publication is Copyright © Norman J Penny unless stated otherwise and is protected by international copyright laws. All Moral Rights are asserted under the terms of Section 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Permission to reproduce copyright material on this site does not extend to any material identified as being the copyright of a third party - authorisation to reproduce such material must be obtained from the copyright holders concerned.

Disclaimer - the author shall not be liable for any loss of any kind whatsoever in consequence of the use of contents of this publication.

About the author – an Invernessian in Kent Born in Inverness in 1948 in the early ‘50s I saw the Knocknagael Boar Stone – the beginning of the life-long “intrigue”. Working in Inverness enabled much travel around Pictland; subsequently, holidays in Moray have provided a great base for more looking at Symbol Stones. Frequent visits to museums in Edinburgh and London to research Scottish and Middle Eastern history and religions resulted in a few ideas falling into place prompting this wholly different proposition.

A background in engineering encouraged logical analysis and in management encouraged synthesis. A career in telecoms was paralleled by professional society activity most recently as chairman of Council of the Institution of Engineering & Technology and membership of many boards and committees. Early retirement has generated time for mentoring at a grammar school and for the Engineering Development Trust in Kent, Corporation Board membership of Thanet College and wide- ranging research. The author is a Fellow of the Institution of Engineering & Technology, Fellow of the Chartered Management Institute and Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts.

Contact Critique, correction to factual points, constructive comments, further detail and expansion are very much invited.

Please feel free to EMail the author, Norman J Penny, at [email protected]. The web site www.pictish-mithraism.com will be updated as necessary and acknowledgement will be given to contributions as appropriate.

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