Biblical Studies 1

LEARNING STRAND: SCRIPTURE AND TRADITION

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION PROGRAMME

FOR CATHOLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND 12E TEACHER GUIDE THE LOGO The logo is an attempt to express Faith as an inward and outward journey.

This faith journey takes us into our own hearts, into the heart of the world and into the heart of Christ who is God’s love revealed.

In Christ, God transforms our lives. We can respond to his love for us by reaching out and loving one another.

The circle represents our world. White, the colour of light, represents God. Red is for the suffering of Christ. Red also represents the Holy Spirit. Yellow represents the risen Christ.

The direction of the lines is inwards except for the cross, which stretches outwards.

Our lives are embedded in and dependent upon our environment (green and blue) and our cultures (patterns and textures).

Mary, the Mother of Jesus Christ, is represented by the blue and white pattern.

The blue also represents the Pacific…

Annette Hanrahan RSCJ

Cover: St. Luke the Evangelist. Fresco detail. BIGSTOCKPHOTO.COM

UNDERSTANDING FAITH

YEAR 12

This book is the Teacher Guide to the following topic in the UNDERSTANDING FAITH series

12E BIBLICAL STUDIES I

TEACHER GUIDE

Copyright 2005 by National Centre for Religious Studies

No part of this document may be reproduced in any way, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means, without prior permission of the publishers.

Imprimatur: † Colin D Campbell DD Bishop of Dunedin Conference Deputy for Religious Studies March 2005

Authorised by the New Zealand Catholic Bishops’ Conference

Published by: National Centre for Religious Studies Catholic Centre P O Box 1937 Wellington New Zealand

Printed by: Printlink 33-43 Jackson Street Petone Private Bag 39996 Wellington Mail Centre Lower Hutt 5045

Māori terms are italicised in the text. The first time a Māori term occurs its English meaning appears in brackets after it. A Māori glossary at the back of the book gives a more detailed explanation of these terms and provides a guide for their pronunciation. CONTENTS

Introduction to the Topic ...... 2

Part One: God’s Revelation ...... 19

Part Two: What is the Bible? ...... 23

Part Three: What is in the Bible? ...... 40

Part Four: Interpreting the Bible ...... 59

Part Five: Introduction to the Gospel According to Luke ...... 70

Part Six: Infancy Narratives in the Gospel According to Luke ...... 83

Part Seven: Some Important Themes in the Gospel According to Luke (I) ...... 99

Part Eight: Some Important Themes in the Gospel According to Luke (II) ....108

Part Nine: Some Important Themes in the Gospel According to Luke (III)... 114

Part Ten: An Introduction to Apocalyptic Literature ...... 120

Part Eleven: An Introduction to the Book of Revelation ...... 128

Part Twelve: Symbols in the Book of Revelation ...... 145

Part Thirteen: The Meaning of the Book of Revelation Today ...... 156

Glossary of General Terms ...... 167

Glossary of Māori Terms ...... 177

Acknowledgements ...... 180 TOPIC 12E: BIBLICAL STUDIES I

LEARNING STRAND: SCRIPTURE AND TRADITION

INTRODUCTION TO THE TOPIC

This book contains teacher material and resources for classroom use – including OHT masters and supplementary articles, as well as activities and tasks that can be photocopied – for Topic 12E “Biblical Studies I” which is included in the Scripture and Tradition Strand of the Understanding Faith programme at year twelve.

The study of topics in the Scripture and Tradition Strand is intended to enhance students’ understanding of the nature and significance of sacred Scripture and the living Tradition of the Church in passing on God’s self- revelation in Hehu Karaiti (Jesus Christ).

The material in this guide should be read alongside the following:

• The Religious Education Curriculum Statement for Catholic Secondary Schools in Aotearoa New Zealand • The student resource book for Topic 12E “Biblical Studies I” • The supplementary material and activities on the website

Throughout the ages, the Church has always regarded the Bible as a unique meeting place between God and people, an unfailing source of nourishment and strength for believers:

In Sacred Scripture, the Church constantly finds her nourishment and her strength, for she welcomes it not as a human word, “but as what it really is, the word of God”. “In the sacred books, the Father who is in heaven comes lovingly to meet his children, and talks with them.” (Catechism of the Catholic Church 104)

Central to any understanding and appreciation of the unique place that writings of the Bible have within the Jewish and Christian traditions is the recognition that Scripture is Te Kupu a Te Ariki (the Word of God) written in human words:

God is the author of Sacred Scripture. “The divinely revealed realities, which are contained and presented in the text of Sacred Scripture, have been written down under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit.”

“For Holy Mother Church, relying on the faith of the apostolic age, accepts as sacred and canonical the books of the Old and the New Testaments, whole and entire, with all their parts, on the grounds that, written under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, they have God as their author, and have been handed on as such to the Church herself.” (Catechism of the Catholic Church 105)

2 God inspired the human authors of the sacred books. “To compose the sacred books, God chose certain men who, all the while he employed them in this task, made full use of their own faculties and powers so that, though he acted in them and by them, it was as true authors that they consigned to writing whatever he wanted written, and no more. (Catechism of the Catholic Church 106)

The Catholic Church stresses the importance of interpreting Scripture according to its authors’ intentions and in the light of the various contexts – religious, social, cultural, and literary – in which it was written:

In order to discover the sacred authors' intention, the reader must take into account the conditions of their time and culture, the literary genres in use at that time, and the modes of feeling, speaking and narrating then current. “For the fact is that truth is differently presented and expressed in the various types of historical writing, in prophetical and poetical texts, and in other forms of literary expression.” (Catechism of the Catholic Church 110)

An important intention of the present topic is to enable students to recognise that the Bible is God’s book, since its writers were inspired by Te Atua (God) to use their own human talents to present the Word of God. It also seeks to develop in students an understanding of how God used these human authors to convey the message of salvation.

The topic begins, therefore, by providing a general background to various aspects of Scripture that are related to this broad theme – the meaning of divine Revelation, the relationship between Scripture and Church Tradition, the processes which over time produced the various scriptural writings, the literary genre found in Scripture, and the nature of biblical truth.

During the course of this topic it is important that teachers emphasise with students the need for a correct understanding of the nature of Biblical truth. For the inability to accept that the Bible – God’s inspired Word expressed in human language – is also the product of human authors who wrote according to their own personal understandings and within the framework of the particular cultures and periods of time in which they lived, leads some Christians to adopt a fundamentalist stance towards Scripture. The Catholic approach, however, recognises that the Bible is concerned primarily with religious and moral truth and that a correct understanding of its message should not to be tied to the literal. The Church readily acknowledges that in matters of historical, scientific and geographical detail the Bible is often inaccurate.

At the heart of this topic is the study of two sacred texts, the Gospel According to Luke and the Book of Revelation, also known as the Book of the Apocalypse. These are examined in some depth and serve as models for the study of other biblical texts. Each of these works possesses its own intrinsic worth, but also poses serious challenges to contemporary readers – for

3 example, the interpretation of the infancy narratives in Luke’s Gospel or the apocalyptic vision presented in the Book of Revelation.

LINKS WITH OTHER TOPICS IN UNDERSTANDING FAITH

Clearly, the present topic does not attempt to cover all aspects of Scripture. It builds on material studied and understandings gained in previous topics of the Understanding Faith programme, leading on directly from Topic 11F “Understanding the Gospel Story” which dealt with literary genre and biblical truth in relation to the New Testament, particularly the formation of the Gospels. Some of the material and ideas presented in the year eleven topics are repeated in a different form in the early sections of the present topic.

Topic 12E “Biblical Studies I” is closely linked to Topic 13C “Biblical Studies II” which goes on to examine other important themes in the Bible by focusing on chapters 1 to 11 of the Book of Genesis, the Prophets in Israel (especially Amos, Hosea and Micah), the Book of Job, the Book of Ruth, and aspects of biblical spirituality. Components of topic 12E and 13C are designed to be interchangeable.

ACHIEVEMENT AIMS

In this topic students will gain and apply knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to understand:

1. That the Bible has a unique significance within the Jewish and Christian traditions. 2. That the Bible is both the Word of God and the work of human authors. 3. That the Bible was formed out of various contexts and is made up of different literary genre. 4. That Scripture applies to society and life today.

ACHIEVEMENT OBJECTIVES

Students will be able to:

1. Recognise that the Bible is both the inspired Word of God and the work of human authors who used their own faculties and powers to compose the sacred books. 2. Develop an understanding of the contexts and processes which over time led to the formation and production of Scripture. 3. Explore various literary forms found in Scripture. 4. Investigate the background and context, and the distinctive characteristics and themes of the Gospel of Luke. 5. Investigate the background and context, and the distinctive characteristics and themes of the Book of Revelation.

4 CHURCH TEACHINGS AND LINKS WITH CHURCH DOCUMENTS

Underpinning the five achievement objectives for the topic are important teachings of the Church. Where possible, direct links with the Catechism of the Catholic Church have been established and quotations used to highlight the relationship between the various achievement objectives and the Church teachings that they embody. On occasions, other Church documents are referred to and quoted.

In all cases the official translations of Church documents have been used, but where necessary changes have been made so that the language is gender inclusive.

Achievement Objective 1

Students will be able to recognise that the Bible is both the inspired Word of God and the work of human authors who used their own faculties and powers to compose the sacred books.

Church Teachings

God’s Revelation

• God’s aroha (love), which fills life with meaning and purpose, is revealed to humankind. • People can come to know Te Atua in many ways – through the work of creation, through natural reason, and also through various aspects of the different religions of the world. • The mystery of God’s great goodness and his loving plan for humankind is revealed most completely in Hehu Karaiti. • We come to know Jesus Christ most fully through the Scriptures and the Church.

Scripture and Tradition

• God’s revelation is made known to us through Scripture and Christian Tradition. • Scripture and Tradition together make up the Te Kupu a Te Ariki and are both honoured by the Church as God’s single Revelation.

Sacred Scripture – God’s Revelation in Human Language

• God communicates to us through Sacred Scripture, the Word of God put down in writing through the inspiration of Te Wairua Tapu (the Holy Spirit). • The Scriptures, which were written in human language by human authors, are inspired to express the truth about God. • Christ lives in Scripture and opens our minds to its meaning.

5 Catechism and Church Document Links

God’s Revelation

By love, God has revealed himself and given himself to humankind. He has thus provided the definitive, superabundant answer to the questions that people ask themselves about the meaning and purpose of life. (CCC 68)

God speaks to humankind through the visible creation. The material cosmos is so presented to people’s intelligence that they can read there traces of their Creator. Light and darkness, wind and fire, water and earth, the tree and its fruit speak of God and symbolise both his greatness and his nearness. (CCC 1147)

Throughout history, to the present day, there is found among different peoples a certain awareness of a hidden power, which lies beyond the course of nature and the events of human life. At times, there is present even an awareness of a supreme being, or still more of a Father. This awareness and recognition results in a way of life that is imbued with a deep religious sense. (Declaration on the Relation of the Church to Non-Christian Religions 2)

By natural reason men and women can know God with certainty, on the basis of his works. But there is another order of knowledge, which people cannot possibly arrive at by their own powers: the order of divine Revelation. Through an utterly free decision, God has revealed himself and given himself to humankind. This he does by revealing the mystery, his plan of loving goodness, formed from all eternity in Christ, for the benefit of all people. God has fully revealed this plan by sending us his beloved Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit. (CCC 50)

God has revealed himself fully by sending his own Son, in whom he has established his covenant forever. The Son is his Father's definitive Word; so there will be no further Revelation after him. (CCC 73)

Scripture and Tradition

Sacred Tradition and Sacred Scripture, then, are bound closely together, and communicate one with the other. For both of them, flowing out from the same divine well-spring, come together in some fashion to form one thing, and move towards the same goal. Each of them makes present and fruitful in the Church the mystery of Christ, who promised to remain with his own always, to the close of the age. (CCC 80)

As a result the Church, to whom the transmission and interpretation of Revelation is entrusted, does not derive her certainty about all revealed truths from the Holy Scriptures alone. Both Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honoured with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence. (CCC 82)

6 “Sacred Tradition and Sacred Scripture make up a single sacred deposit of the Word of God” (Constitution on Divine Revelation 10) in which, as in a mirror, the pilgrim Church contemplates God, the source of all her riches. (CCC 97)

Sacred Scripture – God’s Revelation in Human Language

Sacred Scripture is the speech of God as it is put down in writing under the breath of the Holy Spirit. (CCC 81)

God is the author of Sacred Scripture. "The divinely revealed realities, which are contained and presented in the text of Sacred Scripture, have been written down under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit.” See Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation 11. (CCC 105)

God inspired the human authors of the sacred books. "To compose the sacred books, God chose certain people who, all the while they were employed in this task, made full use of their own faculties and powers so that, though God acted in them and by them, it was as true authors that they consigned to writing whatever God wanted written, and no more.” See Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation 11. (CCC 106)

The inspired books teach the truth. "Since therefore all that the inspired authors or sacred writers affirm should be regarded as affirmed by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly, faithfully, and without error teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures.” See Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation 11. (CCC 107)

Still, the Christian faith is not a "religion of the book." Christianity is the religion of the "Word" of God, a word which is "not a written and mute word, but the Word is incarnate and living". If the Scriptures are not to remain a dead letter, Christ, the eternal Word of the living God, must, through the Holy Spirit, "open [our] minds to understand the Scriptures.” (CCC 108)

Achievement Objective 2

Students will be able to develop an understanding of the contexts and processes which over time led to the formation and production of Scripture.

Church Teaching

The Canon of Scripture

• The Canon of Scripture, which was determined by the Church, consists of the forty-six books of the Old Testament and the twenty-seven books of the New Testament.

7 The Old Testament

• The writings of the Old Testament are indispensable and highly valued by the Church. • The Old Testament bears witness to God’s saving aroha, announcing and preparing the way for the coming of Christ. • Christians honour the Old Testament as the true Word of God.

The New Testament

• The central concern of the New Testament are the actions, teachings, Passion and glorification of Hehu Karaiti, and the beginnings of the Church, through the power of Te Wairua Tapu. • In the gospels, which are at the heart of the Scriptures, we discover most of what we know about the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. • The gospels were formed in three distinct stages – the life and teachings of Jesus, the oral tradition, and the written gospels.

The Unity of the Old and New Testaments

• The Old and New Testaments form a unity and should be read in the light of each other – the Old Testament prepares for the New and the New is the fulfilment of the Old.

Catechism and Church Document Links

The Canon of Scripture

It was by the apostolic Tradition that the Church discerned which writings are to be included in the list of the sacred books. This complete list is called the canon of Scripture. It includes 46 books for the Old Testament (45 if we count Jeremiah and Lamentations as one) and 27 for the New.

The Old Testament: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings, 1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah, Tobit, Judith, Esther, 1 and 2 Maccabees, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, the Song of Songs, the Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Baruch, Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zachariah and Malachi.

The New Testament: the Gospels according to Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, the Acts of the Apostles, the Letters of St. Paul to the Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon, the Letter to the Hebrews, the Letters of James, 1 and 2 Peter, 1, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and Revelation (the Apocalypse). (CCC 120)

8 The Old Testament

The Old Testament is an indispensable part of Sacred Scripture. Its books are divinely inspired and retain a permanent value, for the Old Covenant has never been revoked. (CCC 121)

Indeed, the economy of the Old Testament was deliberately so oriented that it should prepare for and declare in prophecy the coming of Christ, redeemer of all people. Even though they contain matters imperfect and provisional, the books of the Old Testament bear witness to the whole divine pedagogy of God’s saving love: these writings "are a storehouse of sublime teaching on God and of sound wisdom on human life, as well as a wonderful treasury of prayers; in them, too, the mystery of our salvation is present in a hidden way. (CCC 122)

Christians venerate the Old Testament as true Word of God. The Church has always vigorously opposed the idea of rejecting the Old Testament under the pretext that the New has rendered it void (Marcionism). (CCC 123)

The New Testament

"The Word of God, which is the power of God for salvation to everyone who has faith, is set forth and displays its power in a most wonderful way in the writings of the New Testament" which hand on the ultimate truth of God's Revelation. Their central object is Jesus Christ, God's incarnate Son: his acts, teachings, Passion and glorification, and his Church's beginnings under the Spirit's guidance. (CCC 124)

The Gospels are the heart of all the Scriptures "because they are our principal source for the life and teaching of the Incarnate Word, our Saviour” (CCC 125)

The four Gospels occupy a central place because Christ Jesus is their centre. (CCC 139)

We can distinguish three stages in the formation of the Gospels:

1. The life and teaching of Jesus. The Church holds firmly that the four Gospels, "whose historicity she unhesitatingly affirms, faithfully hand on what Jesus, the Son of God, while he lived among men, really did and taught for their eternal salvation, until the day when he was taken up."

2. The oral tradition. "For, after the ascension of the Lord, the apostles handed on to their hearers what he had said and done, but with that fuller understanding which they, instructed by the glorious events of Christ and enlightened by the Spirit of truth, now enjoyed."

3. The written Gospels. "The sacred authors, in writing the four Gospels, selected certain of the many elements which had been

9 handed on, either orally or already in written form; others they synthesised or explained with an eye to the situation of the churches, the while sustaining the form of preaching, but always in such a fashion that they have told us the honest truth about Jesus.” (CCC 126)

The Unity of the Old and New Testaments

The unity of the two Testaments proceeds from the unity of God's plan and his Revelation. The Old Testament prepares for the New and the New Testament fulfils the Old; the two shed light on each other; both are true Word of God. (CCC 140)

Achievement Objective 3

Students will be able to explore various literary forms found in Scripture.

Church Teaching

The Interpretation of Scripture

• To interpret Scripture correctly readers must be open to what the human authors intend to say and to what Te Atua wants. • An appreciation of the historical, cultural, social and literary contexts of the scriptural authors is necessary in order to understand their intentions. • Attention must be given to the literary genres / forms found in Scripture if it is to be interpreted appropriately. • Scripture is to be interpreted in the light of the canon as a whole, as part of the living tradition of the Church, and with faith in God’s plan of revelation.

Catechism and Church Document Links

The Interpretation of Scripture

In Sacred Scripture, God speaks to us in a human way. To interpret Scripture correctly, the reader must be attentive to what the human authors truly wanted to affirm, and to what God wanted to reveal to us by their words. See Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation 12. (CCC 109)

In order to discover the sacred authors' intention, the reader must take into account the conditions of their time and culture, the literary genres in use at that time, and the modes of feeling, speaking and narrating then current. "For the fact is that truth is differently presented and expressed in the various types of historical writing, in prophetical and poetical texts, and in other forms of literary expression.” See Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation 12. (CCC 110)

10 Seeing that, in Sacred Scripture, God speaks through human beings in human fashion, it follows that the interpreters of Sacred Scripture, if they are to ascertain what God has wished to communicate to us, should carefully search out the meaning which the sacred writers really had in mind, that meaning which God had thought well to manifest through the meaning of their words.

In determining the intention of the sacred writers, attention must be paid, among other things, to "literary genres."

The fact is that truth is differently presented and expressed in the various types of historical writing, in prophetical and poetical texts, and in other forms of literary expression. The interpreter must look for that meaning which the sacred writers, in given situations and granted the circumstances of their time and culture, intended to express and did in fact express, through the medium of a contemporary literary form. Rightly to understand what the sacred authors wanted to affirm in their work, due attention must be paid both to the customary and characteristic patterns of perception, speech and narrative which prevailed in their time, and to the conventions which people observed in their dealings with one another. (Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation 12)

The Second Vatican Council indicates three criteria for interpreting Scripture in accordance with the Spirit who inspired it. (CCC 111)

1. Be especially attentive “to the content and unity of the whole Scripture”. Different as the books which compose it may be, Scripture is a unity by reason of the unity of God's plan, of which Christ Jesus is the centre and heart, open since his Passover. (CCC 112)

2. Read the Scripture within “the living Tradition of the whole Church”. According to a saying of the Fathers, Sacred Scripture is written principally in the Church's heart rather than in documents and records, for the Church carries in her Tradition the living memorial of God's Word, and it is the Holy Spirit who gives her the spiritual interpretation of the Scripture (". . . according to the spiritual meaning which the Spirit grants to the Church"). (CCC 113)

3. Be attentive to the analogy of faith. By "analogy of faith" we mean the coherence of the truths of faith among themselves and within the whole plan of Revelation. (CCC 114)

Achievement Objective 4

Students will be able to investigate the background and context, and the distinctive characteristics and themes of the Gospel of Luke.

11 Church Teachings

The Four Gospels

• The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John hold a unique position in the Church as a testimony to the life and teaching, and to the passion, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. • The authors of the four gospels proclaim the truth about Hehu Karaiti in their own distinctive ways, depending on the sources they were drawing on and the situations in the communities they were writing for.

Catechism and Church Document Links

The Four Gospels

The fourfold Gospel holds a unique place in the Church, as is evident both in the veneration which the liturgy accords it and in the surpassing attraction it has exercised on the saints at all times. (CCC 127)

It is common knowledge that among all the inspired writings, including those of the New Testament, the Gospels have a special place, and rightly so, because they are our principal source for the life and teaching of the incarnate Word, our Saviour.

The Church has always and everywhere maintained, and continues to maintain, the apostolic origin of the four Gospels. The Apostles preached, as Christ had charged them to do, and then, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, they and others of the apostolic age handed on to us in writing the same message they had preached, the foundation of our faith: the fourfold Gospel, according to Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. (Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation 18)

The sacred authors wrote the four Gospels, selecting some things from the many which had been handed on by word of mouth or in writing, reducing some of them to a synthesis, explaining some things in view of the situation of their churches and preserving the form of proclamation but always in such fashion that they told us the honest truth about Jesus. For their intention in writing was that either from their own memory and recollections, or from the witness of those who "themselves from the beginning were eyewitnesses and ministers of the Word" we might know "the truth" concerning those matters about which we have been instructed (see Luke 1:2-4). (Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation 19)

Achievement Objective 5

Students will be able to investigate the background and context, and the distinctive characteristics and themes of the Book of Revelation.

12 Church Teachings

Apocalyptic

• Hehu Karaiti is Lord of the cosmos and of all history. • Christ’s reign of tika (justice), aroha and peace will be fulfilled with his return to earth when all evil powers will become subject to him. • Before Christ’s reign is established at the end of time, the Church will experience trial and distress. • At all times, Christians must live in expectation of Christ’s coming. • The trials, including persecution, that the Church must pass through before Christ’s coming will shake the faith of many believers and lead them away from the truth. • The Church rejects claims of millenarianism, based on false readings of the Book of Revelation, which hold that Christ and the saints will return to establish a thousand-year reign in this world before the end of time. • The Last Judgement marks God's final triumph over evil which throughout history has existed alongside good. • At the end of time the righteous will reign with Christ forever in glory and all creation will be renewed.

The Assumption of the Virgin Mary

• Mary, the Mother of God, dwells body and soul in the glory of heaven.

The Saints in Heaven

• God’s faithful witnesses, who have already gone before us into heaven, contemplate and praise Te Atua, and constantly care for those whom they have left on earth through their intercession.

The Heavenly Liturgy

• The Book of Revelation reveals the worship of Te Atua which takes place in heaven. • By joining in the hākarameta (sacraments) we are able to participate in this heavenly liturgy.

13 Catechism ad Church Document Links

Apocalyptic

“Christ died and lived again, that he might be Lord both of the dead and of the living.” Christ's Ascension into heaven signifies his participation, in his humanity, in God's power and authority. Jesus Christ is Lord: he possesses all power in heaven and on earth. He is “far above all rule and authority and power and dominion”, for the Father “has put all things under his feet.” Christ is Lord of the cosmos and of history. In him human history and indeed all creation are “set forth” and transcendently fulfilled. (CCC 668)

Though already present in his Church, Christ's reign is nevertheless yet to be fulfilled “with power and great glory” by the King's return to earth. This reign is still under attack by the evil powers, even though they have been defeated definitively by Christ's Passover. Until everything is subject to him, “until there be realised new heavens and a new earth in which justice dwells, the pilgrim Church, in her sacraments and institutions, which belong to this present age, carries the mark of this world which will pass, and she herself takes her place among the creatures which groan and travail yet and await the revelation of the sons of God.” That is why Christians pray, above all in the Eucharist, to hasten Christ's return by saying to him: Marana tha! “Our Lord, come!” (CCC 671)

Before his Ascension Christ affirmed that the hour had not yet come for the glorious establishment of the messianic kingdom awaited by Israel which, according to the prophets, was to bring all people the definitive order of justice, love and peace. According to the Lord, the present time is the time of the Spirit and of witness, but also a time still marked by “distress” and the trial of evil which does not spare the Church and ushers in the struggles of the last days. It is a time of waiting and watching. (CCC 672)

Since the Ascension Christ's coming in glory has been imminent, even though “it is not for you to know times or seasons which the Father has fixed by his own authority.” This eschatological coming could be accomplished at any moment, even if both it and the final trial that will precede it are “delayed”. (CCC 673)

Before Christ's second coming the Church must pass through a final trial that will shake the faith of many believers. The persecution that accompanies her pilgrimage on earth will unveil the “mystery of iniquity” in the form of a religious deception offering people an apparent solution to their problems at the price of apostasy from the truth. The supreme religious deception is that of the Antichrist, a pseudo-messianism by which man glorifies himself in place of God and of his Messiah come in the flesh. (CCC 675)

The Antichrist's deception already begins to take shape in the world every time the claim is made to realise within history that messianic hope which can only be realised beyond history through the eschatological judgment. The Church has rejected even modified forms of this falsification of the kingdom to

14 come under the name of millenarianism, especially the “intrinsically perverse” political form of a secular messianism. (CCC 676)

The Church will enter the glory of the kingdom only through this final Passover, when she will follow her Lord in his death and Resurrection. The kingdom will be fulfilled, then, not by a historic triumph of the Church through a progressive ascendancy, but only by God's victory over the final unleashing of evil, which will cause his Bride to come down from heaven. God's triumph over the revolt of evil will take the form of the Last Judgment after the final cosmic upheaval of this passing world. (CCC 677)

On Judgment Day at the end of the world, Christ will come in glory to achieve the definitive triumph of good over evil which, like the wheat and the tares, have grown up together in the course of history. (CCC 681)

At the end of time, the Kingdom of God will come in its fullness. After the universal judgment, the righteous will reign forever with Christ, glorified in body and soul. The universe itself will be renewed:

The Church . . . will receive her perfection only in the glory of heaven, when will come the time of the renewal of all things. At that time, together with the human race, the universe itself, which is so closely related to humanity and which attains its destiny through it, will be perfectly re-established in Christ. (CCC 1042)

At the end of time, the Kingdom of God will come in its fullness. Then the just will reign with Christ forever, glorified in body and soul, and the material universe itself will be transformed. God will then be “all in all” (1 Cor 15:28), in eternal life. (CCC 1060)

The Assumption of the Virgin Mary

“Finally the Immaculate Virgin, preserved free from all stain of original sin, when the course of her earthly life was finished, was taken up body and soul into heavenly glory, and exalted by the Lord as Queen over all things, so that she might be the more fully conformed to her Son, the Lord of lords and conqueror of sin and death.” The Assumption of the Blessed Virgin is a singular participation in her Son's Resurrection and an anticipation of the resurrection of other Christians:

In giving birth you kept your virginity; in your Dormition you did not leave the world, O Mother of God, but were joined to the source of Life. You conceived the living God and, by your prayers, will deliver our souls from death. (CCC 966)

“We believe that the Holy Mother of God, the new Eve, Mother of the Church, continues in heaven to exercise her maternal role on behalf of the members of Christ” (Paul VI, Credo of the People of God 15). (CCC 975)

15 The Saints in Heaven

The witnesses who have preceded us into the kingdom, especially those whom the Church recognises as saints, share in the living tradition of prayer by the example of their lives, the transmission of their writings, and their prayer today. They contemplate God, praise him and constantly care for those whom they have left on earth. When they entered into the joy of their Master, they were “put in charge of many things.” Their intercession is their most exalted service to God's plan. We can and should ask them to intercede for us and for the whole world. (CCC 2683)

The Heavenly Liturgy

The book of Revelation of St. John, read in the Church's liturgy, first reveals to us, “A throne stood in heaven, with one seated on the throne”: “the Lord God.” It then shows the Lamb, “standing, as though it had been slain”: Christ crucified and risen, the one high priest of the true sanctuary, the same one “who offers and is offered, who gives and is given.” Finally it presents “the river of the water of life . . . flowing from the throne of God and of the Lamb,” one of most beautiful symbols of the Holy Spirit. (CCC 1137)

“Recapitulated in Christ,” these are the ones who take part in the service of the praise of God and the fulfilment of his plan: the heavenly powers, all creation (the four living beings), the servants of the Old and New Covenants (the twenty-four elders), the new People of God (the one hundred and forty- four thousand), especially the martyrs “slain for the word of God,” and the all- holy Mother of God (the Woman), the Bride of the Lamb, and finally “a great multitude which no one could number, from every nation, from all tribes, and peoples and tongues.” (CCC 1138)

It is in this eternal liturgy that the Spirit and the Church enable us to participate whenever we celebrate the mystery of salvation in the sacraments. (CCC 1139)

ORGANISATION OF THE TOPIC

For teaching purposes the material in this topic is organised into thirteen sections each of which is linked to one of the achievement objectives:

Part One: God’s Revelation Achievement Objective 1

Part Two: What is the Bible? Achievement Objective 2

Part Three: What is in the Bible? Achievement Objective 3

Part Four: Interpreting the Bible Achievement Objective 3

Part Five: Introduction to the Gospel According to Luke Achievement Objective 4

16 Part Six: Infancy Narratives in the Gospel According to Luke Achievement Objective 4

Part Seven: Some Important Themes in the Gospel According to Luke (I) Achievement Objective 4

Part Eight: Some Important Themes in the Gospel According to Luke (II) Achievement Objective 4

Part Nine: Some Important Themes in the Gospel According to Luke (III) Achievement Objective 4

Part Ten: An Introduction to Apocalyptic Literature Achievement Objective 5

Part Eleven: An Introduction to the Book of Revelation Achievement Objective 5

Part Twelve: Symbols in the Book of Revelation Achievement Objective 5

Part Thirteen: The Meaning of the Book of Revelation Today Achievement Objective 5

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Each learning outcome for the topic is derived from one of the achievement objectives. The learning outcomes identify what students are expected to learn as they work through each section of the topic.

While teachers must ensure that the learning outcomes for the topic are covered so that all of the achievement objectives for the topic are met, it is not intended that students work through every task or activity, nor that every achievement objective is assessed.

Teachers should select a range of tasks appropriate for their students’ interests and abilities and well-matched to their own teaching style.

Learning outcomes for each of the thirteen sections of the topic are listed at the beginning of the appropriate part.

17 MĀORI SPIRITUALITY IN THE RELIGIOUS EDUCATION CURRICULUM

In Aotearoa New Zealand Māori spirituality is an essential dimension of the Religious Education Curriculum.

Māori students in Catholic schools have a right, supported by Church teaching, to have the faith explained to them in a culturally relevant way, using those traditional Māori concepts, beliefs and values which are still part of the life of Māori today. For example, te ao wairua (the spiritual world), Atua, tapu, mana, noa (free from tapu restrictions), hohou rongo (the restoring of tapu and mana), whānau, te wā (time). It is not sufficient to present the faith to them in wholly European terms while ignoring the riches of the Māori religious traditions and their belief system - this would be an alienating experience for Māori. Pope John Paul II himself affirmed the authenticity and integrity of Māori spirituality when speaking to tangata whenua (the people of the land) during his visit to this country in 1986:

“It is as Māori that the Lord calls you, it is as Māori that you belong to the Church, the one body of Christ.”

Since 1840 we have been a nation with two streams of culture as expressed in our founding document, Te Tiriti o Waitangi – the Treaty of Waitangi. The partnership, communication and mutual respect implied in the Treaty can only exist if there is mutual understanding. For Pakeha, such an understanding is impossible without an appreciation of the Māori culture’s underlying spirituality. There is also great potential for the enrichment of the spirituality of Pakeha young people when they are given the chance to develop an awareness and understanding of the Māori faith vision and belief system. All young people in Catholic schools, therefore, should be given the opportunity to understand key aspects of the culture and spirituality of Māori.

THE USE OF MĀORI LANGUAGE IN THIS PROGRAMME

The first time a Māori word or phrase appears in a particular topic, either in the teacher material or the student texts, it is followed by its English equivalent which is placed inside brackets. In most cases the meaning of the Māori terms can be worked out from the context in which they appear.

A glossary which gathers together all the Māori terms used in a particular topic is provided. This glossary often explores the Māori concepts in greater depth than is possible in the brief descriptions that appear in the teacher material and student texts.

18 PART ONE: GOD’S REVELATION

Achievement Objective 1

Students will be able to recognise that the Bible is both the inspired Word of God and the work of human authors who used their own faculties and powers to compose the sacred books.

Church Teachings

God’s Revelation

• God’s aroha, which fills life with meaning and purpose, is revealed to humankind. • He tangata (people) can come to know Te Atua in many ways – through the work of creation, through natural reason, and also through various aspects of the different religions of the world. • The mystery of God’s great goodness and loving plan for humankind is revealed most completely in Hehu Karaiti. • We come to know Jesus Christ most fully through the Scriptures and the Church.

Scripture and Tradition

• God’s revelation is made known to us through Scripture and Christian Tradition. • Scripture and Tradition together make up Te Kupu a Te Ariki and are both honoured by the Church as God’s single Revelation.

Sacred Scripture – God’s Revelation in Human Language

• God communicates to us through Sacred Scripture, the Word of God put down in writing through the inspiration of Te Wairua Tapu. • The Scriptures, which were written in human language by human authors, are inspired to express the truth about Te Atua. • Christ lives in Scripture and opens our minds to its meaning.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Present ideas about key Catholic teachings in regard to Revelation.

19 Teacher Background

God’s Self-Disclosure The Holy Spirit works through our daily lives to enlighten and inspire us, enabling us to know God’s loving will and wisdom. Through activity and experience, through curiosity and discovery, through reflection, conversation and community, people are able to come to an awareness of God’s presence, both within the natural world and within their own human relationships. The world’s different religions and faiths express, to varying degrees, an awareness of God – their very existence affirms that humankind has a capacity for God that is written into our very nature.

The term revelation which comes from the Latin word revelare meaning “to draw back the curtain or veil” is used to describe the way in which God becomes known to men and women through the events of human history. The term is used to explain those aspects of God’s nature or plan for humankind that would otherwise be hidden – unable to be discovered by human reason or experience alone – but which men and women have been able to come to know only through God’s willingness to communicate them to us.

Christians, while recognising that God’s revelation or self-disclosure comes to us in a great many ways, acknowledge that the primary means by which God is revealed to humankind is through Jesus Christ, who is made known to us especially in the Scriptures and in the Tradition of the Church – the official media of Christian revelation. Scripture and Church Tradition carry forward the deep currents of beliefs, rituals, and ethics that form the deep river of Christian Faith.

God’s revelation to humanity started with creation, the first workings of God’s Spirit in the world, where from the beginning, God’s revelation found an echo in the human heart. The writings of the Old Testament show that God’s special self-disclosure to the Hebrew people began with the call of Abraham and Sarah, about two thousand years before the birth of Christ. The New Testament establishes that God’s revelation culminated in the person and mission of Jesus Christ.

Jesus Christ is the Son of God, the “Word made flesh” within history (John 1:14). Because Jesus is both fully God and fully human, people of faith are able to recognise in Jesus what God is really like and relate that understanding to their own lives. Jesus is the most complete revelation of God – because he is God – and apart from him there is no need for further revelation.

Philip said to him, ‘Lord, show us the Father, and we will be satisfied.’ Jesus said to him, ‘Have I been with you all this time, Philip, and you still do not know me? Whoever has seen me has seen the Father.’ (John 14:8-9)

20 As God incarnate, Jesus Christ reveals God to us and us to ourselves – the human face of God and the divine face of humanity.

Scripture and Tradition The Gospel of Jesus Christ was preached long before it was written. After their experience of Jesus’ life, death and resurrection, the first disciples set about living their faith, expecting the risen Christ to return soon in glory. They eagerly followed Jesus’ instruction to teach all nations, confident that the Holy Spirit given by Jesus would assist them to remember and understand everything that he taught them.

In the early Church, the oral tradition of proclaiming the Good News came ahead of any written scriptures. The faith of the early Christian communities, focusing as it did on the person of Jesus of Nazareth, was preached rather than written down. An oral tradition of his words and deeds was carefully passed on and later written down, eventually in the form of the Gospels that we know today. Only gradually did these Christian writings come to have the status of Scripture, and even then the oral tradition remained important.

This understanding of the importance of the oral tradition is supported by Scripture. Saint Paul, in 1 Corinthians 11:23, states very forcefully that he is “handing on” what was “handed on” to him. This “handing on” is a term with a special meaning in the Jewish teaching of the time. It translates into Latin as traditio, from which our English word tradition arrives. Paul is convinced that the community of the faithful has a strong sense about what is important enough to be passed on to the next generation of believers. The Holy Spirit, he believes, will help the community understand what in its experience and customs should really be held on to. Paul carefully distinguishes between what he offers as his own opinion and what he sees to be the Tradition of the Church that has been handed on to him.

From the beginning of the Church, Tradition and Scripture have been intimately linked. Both play their part in communicating the fullness of the God’s revelation. Both are equally honoured and reverenced within the Church. The one throws light on the other.

The Church has the responsibility of safe-guarding and passing on through the generations what God has communicated in Jesus Christ, of explaining and developing what is revealed in Scripture. Thus, Christian Tradition continues to evolve as a medium of revelation down through the ages, with the Holy Spirit guiding the Church to discern and grow in its understanding of the original Christian revelation.

“The Tradition that comes from the apostles develops in the Church, with the help of the Holy Spirit. There is a growth in insight into the realities and words that are being passed on.” (Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation 8)

The Church, while never changing what is essential to the faith, has the responsibility of applying Christ’s teachings to the context of a particular time

21 and place. Thus, Church Tradition always requires interpretation. The Church’s magisterium – the pope and the bishops entrusted with the authority to teach – have the task of determining what is genuine Catholic belief and practice, what is authentic to Catholic Tradition. This requires an acknowledgement that not all Church traditions deserve a capital “T”. For as the Second Vatican Council explains, not all truths are of equal status in their relationship to the origins of Christianity:

… in Catholic doctrine there exists an order or “hierarchy” of truths, since they vary in their relation to the foundation of the Christian faith. (Decree on Ecumenism 11)

Catholicism emphasises that need to interpret Scripture and Tradition within the life of the Church. It maintains that Christians best discern their faith, not by themselves individually, but in conversation as a community of faith guided by the magisterium, the Church’s official teaching voice.

When today we seek to interpret the meaning of God’s revelation as it comes to us in Scripture and Tradition, we are attempting to bridge the gap between symbols of meaning that have been handed down to us by the Church and our present life-situations. This task of uncovering what God’s revelation means for us now involves three processes – understanding, evaluation and application.

Links with the Student Text

Task One Here students are asked to study a number of brief statements from the Catechism of the Catholic Church and the Constitution on Divine Revelation and use ideas from them to make a presentation on one of these themes:

Jesus Christ – God’s greatest revelation Scripture – the Word of God in human language Church Tradition – the guardian of God’s truth

The presentation could be in the form of:

• A collage or poster • A prayer or poem • A list of beliefs or statements • A mime or piece of scripted drama • A quiz

22 PART TWO: WHAT IS THE BIBLE?

Achievement Objective 2

Students will be able to develop an understanding of the contexts and processes which over time led to the formation and production of Scripture.

Church Teaching

The Canon of Scripture

• The Canon of Scripture, which was determined by the Church, consists of the forty-six books of the Old Testament and the twenty-seven books of the New Testament.

The Old Testament

• The writings of the Old Testament are indispensable and highly valued by the Church. • The Old Testament bears witness to God’s saving aroha, announcing and preparing the way for the coming of Christ. • Christians honour the Old Testament as the true Word of God.

The New Testament

• The central concern of the New Testament are the actions, teachings, Passion and glorification of Hehu Karaiti, and the beginnings of the Church, through the mana (power) of Te Wairua Tapu. • In nga Rongopai (the gospels), which are at the heart of the Scriptures, we discover most of what we know about the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. • Nga Rongopai were formed in three distinct stages – the life and teachings of Jesus, the oral tradition, and the written gospels.

The Unity of the Old and New Testaments

• The Old and New Testaments form a unity and should be read in the light of each other – the Old Testament prepares for the New and the New is the fulfilment of the Old.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Investigate reasons why people read the Bible. • Develop an understanding of the formation of the Bible as a record of Jewish and Christian culture. • Identify the criteria used to determine the Christian canon of Scripture • Recognise the differences between Catholic and Protestant Bibles.

23 Teacher Background

The Bible – A Collection of Books The Bible - from the Greek, ta biblia, a plural noun meaning “the books” – is the world’s most widely-distributed and widely-read book – or more accurately, collection of books.

Inside the Bible’s covers are the records of about two thousand years of Jewish and Christian culture – histories, stories, laws, poems, prayers, letters, visions, prophecies, and other kinds of writing. These works are the product of many authors, writing mainly in Hebrew and Greek, over a period of more than one thousand years. A few brief passages are also written in Aramaic, an ancient language closely related to Hebrew that was probably spoken by Jesus’ community in Galilee.

The Word of God People read the Bible for many reasons – some out of curiosity, some as part of a spiritual search, others because of its literary value, or its great cultural and historical significance. However, for Jews the Hebrew Scriptures are the Word of God set down in writing; for Christians, both the Old and the New Testaments are. The Bible contains sacred texts that are fundamental to their faith. Muslims also respect the Bible, believing that many of the important biblical figures, including Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, are great prophets of the one, true God.

The Old and New Testaments The writings in the Bible are arranged in two main groups, referred to by Christians as the Old and the New Testaments. The word “testament” comes from the Latin testamentum – a translation of the Hebrew word meaning “covenant”.

The Old Testament contains the original Hebrew Scriptures, the sacred writings of the Jewish faith. These tell of the covenant or agreement that God made with Israel through Moses. The books of the New Testament, written by Christians in the first century AD, present Jesus as the fulfilment of the covenant that God made with Israel and trace the story and faith of the early Christian Church. Because of this, the Old Testament is sometimes said to be the story of the old or first covenant and the New Testament of the new or second covenant.

Protestants generally consider that the Old and New Testaments combined contain sixty-seven books while Catholics hold that there are seventy-three books in total.

The Development of the Hebrew Scriptures The Hebrew Bible took shape slowly, over a period of more than one thousand years. Many writers, editors, scribes and others were involved in its making. Even before writing materials were invented, many stories included in the Hebrew Bible were handed down from generation to generation by word of mouth. The first stories to be passed on by this process known as the oral

24 tradition were most likely those of the creation and of the early days of Judaism.

Later, after the Hebrew alphabet had been developed, the ancient Israelites began to commit their community's stories to writing. The earliest written ones told about the deeds of the kings. Other stories, laws, prophecies and poetry were added to them. The people began to write down their songs (psalms) as far back as the tenth century BC. However, most stories were written down between the fifth and the third centuries BC.

Gradually, people of faith came to recognise these writings as the Word of God, the story of God’s involvement in human history. Eventually, the various sacred writings were revised and combined, and came to take on the form that is familiar to us today.

Events that Shaped the Writing of the Hebrew Scriptures Certain historical events – mostly involving threats to Hebrew identity – shaped the development of the Hebrew Scriptures.

In 721 BC, the Assyrians destroyed the northern kingdom of Israel. After this, the culture and religion of the Hebrews was preserved by the southern kingdom of Judah where the great prophets, Isaiah and Jeremiah, lived and preached. In 587 BC, the Babylonians conquered Judah and the city of Jerusalem was destroyed. Judah’s leading citizens were deported to Babylon, where they lived as servants and artisans until 539 BC. In that year, King Cyrus of Persia captured Babylon, freed the Hebrews and allowed them to return to rebuild Jerusalem. During this time in Babylon – known as the Exile – the prophet, Ezekiel, and the disciples of Isaiah kept alive the people’s faith in God.

By the time the Hebrews returned from exile, their leaders were aware of the urgent need to preserve those writings already compiled. Their identity as a people, the safe-guarding of their language, and the survival of their record of God’s dealings with them over the centuries were dependent on this. Many of the exiles had adopted Babylonian ways and some preferred to stay there. Oral traditions, memories and legends could no longer be relied upon. It was most likely the priests who gathered and organised the collections of writings that had already been made before the Exile. Around the year 400BC, the first five books of the Hebrew Scriptures, the Pentateuch were brought together,

For the next two hundred years the people of Israel were part of the Persian Empire and Jerusalem became an important part of imperial defences. Under King Ataxerxes I (464-424 BC) it became an independent prefecture. In 398 BC King Ataxerxes II sent Ezra to Jerusalem to settle differences between Jews and Samaritans and to resettle the country.

In 332 BC Alexander the Great conquered Babylon along with many other Middle-Eastern territories that had formed part of the Persian empire. Greek culture and koine, the common Greek language, spread rapidly. After

25 Alexander’s death, Palestine and Egypt came under the control of Ptolemy, Alexander’s great general. In turn, Ptolemy was succeeded by his son, Ptolemy II, who fostered learning. His capital at Alexandria became the chief centre of learning in the Mediterranean world, noted for its extensive library. By Ptolemy’s time, large numbers of Jews had left their home to work and study in foreign lands, including Egypt. These spoke the Greek language, received a Greek education, and adopted many Greek customs. Over time, these dispersed Jews, known as the Jews of the Diaspora (Greek for “dispersion”) lost the ability to read the Scriptures, which were written in Hebrew. Their translation into Greek became necessary.

This translation into Greek took place in Alexandria. According to legend, seventy scribes all working independently arrived at exactly the same version – which was taken as an indication that their work was indeed inspired and blessed by God. This translation is known as the Septuagint, the Greek word for “seventy”. It is usually identified by the Roman numerals LXX, meaning seventy, and was the first translation of the Bible ever made.

Judaism, by now, had three main centres – one in Babylon, another in Alexandria, and a third in Palestine. Greek civilisation was seen as a threat to the racial and religious identity of the Jews. Books like Wisdom, Tobit, Sirach and Koheleth (Ecclesiastes) were composed to help maintain Jewish faith and culture.

By 198 BC the Seleucid king, Antiochus III conquered Egypt. He and his successor, Antiochus IV persecuted the Jews. In 167 BC the Temple was desecrated, the Sabbath and circumcision abolished, and Jewish customs and expressions of faith outlawed. Judas Maccabeus led the resistance and freed Jerusalem, restoring Temple worship in 164 BC. The Maccabee (or Hasmonean) dynasty generally filled key religious positions, including that of High Priest. Serious divisions appeared among the Jews. In 63 BC there were two rival kings and the Jews appealed to the Roman emperor for a settlement. The Romans swiftly asserted their power and ruled Jerusalem until the seventh century AD.

The whole period from 538 BC to 70AD is often called the time of the Second Temple – the building of a new Temple to replace the first, which had been destroyed by the Babylonians in 587 BC, had been completed by 515 BC. This era saw the development of Judaism. Aramaic, the international language of the Persian Empire, gradually replaced Hebrew. Leading scribes, such as Ezra, gathered together the books of the Hebrew Scriptures, including Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah. Others collected the Psalms, edited prophetical writings and added to them. Scholars produced books such as Ruth, Jonah, Proverbs and Job. In many ways these were reflections and meditations on the past history of Israel, its sorrows and joys. The persecution of the Jews gave rise to several books – Esther, Judith, Maccabees. The need to communicate secretly against oppression gave rise to a new literary style, the apocalyptic, represented in the Hebrew Scriptures by the Book of Daniel, and in the New Testament, by the Book of Revelation.

26 The Organisation of the Hebrew Scriptures Jews refer to their Scriptures as the Tanakh – a term which is an abbreviation of the principal letters of the words which stand for its three divisions:

• Torah (teachings or law) • Neviim (prophets) • Ketuvim (writings)

The Torah consists of the five books that, according to tradition, were revealed by God to Moses on Mount Sinai – Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. The Torah is acknowledged as the foundation document of Israel because of its association with Moses. In the fifth century BC Ezra is said to have brought it back from Babylonia to Jerusalem, in its written form and the whole community recognised it as “the book of the law of Moses” (Nehemiah 8:1).

The Neviim are arranged in two groups:

• The Former Prophets – the narrative sequence containing Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings • The Latter prophets – containing the major prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel) and the minor prophets (Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi)

The Ketuvim or writings consists of a variety of books – Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs (Solomon), Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and 1 and 2 Chronicles.

Establishing the Hebrew Canon Christians use the term “canon” to describe those writings that they accept as being the genuine Word of God and which they include in the Bible. Originally, a canon (from the Greek kanon) meant a rod or stick that was used to measure length – and hence a criterion or standard.

The earliest versions of the Old Testament were written in Hebrew. However, two hundred years before Christ they were translated into Greek in order to satisfy the increasing number of Jews who spoke Greek and wanted to read the sacred writings in their own language. This translation was known as the Septuagint (meaning “seventy”) after the seventy scholars who travelled from Jerusalem to Alexandria, spending seventy months there translating the Hebrew texts into Greek. Also some of the later books in the Old Testament, including the Book of Wisdom, were written at this time in Greek.

Until the Romans destroyed Jerusalem and its Temple in 70 AD having a Greek as well as a Hebrew version of the sacred books wasn't a problem. However, in the wake of this catastrophe, which caused Jews to flee their homeland, carrying their sacred scrolls with them, the Jewish religious leaders needed to restore some sort of cohesion to the Jewish community. In 90 AD, Jewish scholars gathered at Jamnia, where they decided upon a canon of

27 thirty-nine books of Scripture, chosen from the Hebrew collection. This created a problem for Greek-speaking Jews living in Alexandria because they wanted to include seven books originally written in Greek – Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch and 1 and 2 Maccabees.

Thus, two canons remained in circulation: the Jamnian (Hebrew) and the Alexandrian (Septuagint).

There are differences of opinion among Catholics and Protestants as to which books to include in the Old Testament. The early Christians, most of whom were Greek speakers, tended to rely on the Septuagint when they wanted to read the sacred Scriptures from their Jewish heritage. Because of this, during the early centuries, the Church came to accept the Septuagint as authoritative.

However, it wasn’t until 1546 at the Council of Trent that the Catholic Church made a final decision about which books it would include in the Old Testament canon. There, the bishops decided on forty-six Old Testament books, following what appeared to them to be a firm tradition of the Church from ancient times.

The leaders of the Protestant Reformation, however, rejected seven of the books agreed upon at Trent – those that were originally written in Greek: Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch and 1 and 2 Maccabees. Also, Protestants do not consider some sections of Esther and Daniel to be the inspired Word of God.

Thus, Protestants believe that only thirty-nine books, all of which were originally written in Hebrew, belong in the Old Testament. Catholics also include the seven books originally written in Greek. Catholics refer to these seven books as deutero-canonical, that is, as belonging to “the second canon”. Protestants call these same seven books apocryphal, from the Greek word meaning “hidden” or “not genuine”.

The Orthodox Churches include some writings in the Greek and Slavonic Bibles that are additional to the Roman Catholic canon.

The Development of the Christian Scriptures The New Testament writings are based on oral traditions within the early Church. They looked backwards to these traditions and forwards to the present and future needs of the various writers’ own communities.

The following are important steps in the process that resulted in the composition of the New Testament Scriptures:

• In the beginning was the person of Jesus Christ. • After the impact of the Resurrection, a belief in the risen Christ was born – “the story of Jesus” became the precious heritage of the “oral tradition” of the Church.

28 • Paul’s letters focused on Jesus’ death and Resurrection and their significance for us all. • The “traditional” stories were preached during Christian liturgical celebrations, retold in all sorts of settings, and some were eventually written down in documents that we no longer possess. • As time went by, and there were fewer people alive who had living contact with the man Jesus, the Church saw the need to preserve Jesus’ memory in the written forms that we call gospels.

The early Christian writings were put on scrolls made of papyrus, a type of early paper made from reeds that grew by the Nile River and some were put on parchment. The oldest surviving scrolls date from the century before Jesus was born. Known as the Dead Sea Scrolls, they were discovered in 1947 in caves near the Dead Sea. Although papyrus was not very durable, these had been preserved in sealed stone jars. On these scrolls, written between 180 BC and 70 AD, are many of the books of the Old Testament, each scroll containing one book.

Written in a language called koine, a version of Greek commonly spoken around the Mediterranean region at the time, the stories of Jesus and the apostles were also recorded on papyrus scrolls. The oldest copies of these scrolls – preserved in the monastery of Saint Catherine in the Sinai Desert – go back to the third century. However, one fragment from John's Gospel, which was found in Egypt, dates to about 130 BC. On it is written Pilate's question, “What is truth?”

The Establishment of the New Testament Canon For many centuries the Christian Church has cherished and read the twenty- seven different documents that make up the New Testament. Written over a period of about fifty years, and passing through several stages of editing or redaction before final versions were reached by about 200 AD, these were originally separate works and not part of a collection.

The term New Testament was not used to describe them as an entity until the second century AD, when a new way of making books was invented. The codex consisted of manuscript pages made of animal skins and held together by stitching. Several books could be bound together in this way.

Once people discovered how to collect the books of Scripture in a more lasting form, other issues arose. For example, many writings claiming to be “sacred” books were circulating in the centuries after Christ’s death and resurrection. Different writers from different communities wanted to tell the story of Jesus from their own perspective and with their own purpose in mind. Eventually authorities within the various Christian communities had to decide which of these works contained the authentic message of Scripture.

For a long time the canon was rather flexible, varying from group to group in the early Church. Irenaeus of Lyon insisted that only Matthew, Mark, Luke and John could be used, arguing that there could only be four Gospels because there were only four corners of the world and only four winds! The

29 Church in Syria happily used a compilation of the four Gospels. In Rome, Church leaders used the same four Gospels, but they also included other favourite writings such as the Wisdom of Solomon and the Letter of the Shepherd of Hermes.

Eventually the Church cleared up the resulting confusion and established a criterion or rule which determined the acceptance of a book into the canon based on:

• Apostolicity – it needed to be written by an apostle or someone closely associated. • Catholicity – it had to be relevant to the whole Church. • Tradition – there needed to be evidence that the book had always been used in the Church. • Orthodoxy – the book contained no errors or heresy.

By the end of the fourth century, only twenty-seven books had survived the test – the four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the Book of Revelation, the thirteen letters attributed to Paul, and eight other letters. These books came to be known as the New Testament.

By the third century, Latin had replaced Greek as the common language of the Roman Empire. In the fourth century, Saint Jerome translated the Scriptures into Latin in a version that became known as the Vulgate, meaning “the language of the people”. The Latin Vulgate was used throughout the Middle Ages, but as Christianity spread throughout Europe, fewer and fewer people understood Latin. Scholars started translating the Vulgate into the various local languages of the people.

It was not until the Council of Trent in 1546 that the final canon, a list of books accepted by the Church as inspired, was defined:

It has thought it proper, moreover, to insert in this decree a list of the sacred books, so that no doubt may remain which books are recognized by this Council . . . New Testament: the four Gospels, according to Matthew, Mark, Luke and John; the Acts of the Apostles written by Luke the Evangelist; fourteen epistles of the Apostle Paul – to the Romans, two to the Corinthians, to the Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, two to the Thessalonians, two to Timothy, to Titus, Philemon, and the Hebrews; two epistles of the Apostle Peter, three of the Apostle John, one of the Apostle James, one of the Apostle Jude, and the Apocalypse of the Apostle John. (Council of Trent, 1546)

No other works have since been added to the New Testament.

By the twentieth century, scholars had begun going back to original Hebrew and Greek manuscripts for new translations into modern languages. Today, there are many English translations based on these early manuscripts. A number of these new versions, including the Jerusalem Bible, the New

30 Jerusalem Bible, and the New Revised Standard Version, have been approved for liturgical use in the Catholic Church in New Zealand.

The following outline traces the steps in the development of the New Testament canon, beginning with the historical Jesus and ending with the application of the scriptural text for liturgical, moral, sacramental, and theological purposes:

Steps in the Development and Application of the Canon

1. The Historical Jesus – Jesus speaks and acts during his lifetime on earth.

2. Oral Tradition – traditions and beliefs about Jesus are developed and passed on by early Christian communities.

3. Written Sources – some of the miracles and/or sayings of Jesus are compiled and recorded in early written documents.

4. Written Texts – individual letters, full Gospels, etc., are written with particular messages for particular situations.

5. Distribution – some writings are copied and shared with other Christian communities throughout the Mediterranean.

6. Collection – certain Christians begin collecting the letters of Paul and gathering together several different Gospels.

7. Canonisation – four Gospels, several collections of letters, and a few other texts are accepted as authoritative scriptures.

8. Translation – biblical texts are translated into other ancient and modern languages: Latin, Syriac, Coptic, Armenian, etc.

9. Interpretation – the meaning of the scriptures is investigated on various levels: literal, spiritual, historical, social, etc.

10. Application – communities and individuals use the New Testament for practical purposes: liturgical, moral, sacramental, theological, etc.

The Organisation of the Christian Scriptures In terms of their arrangement in the Bible, the first four books of the New Testament collection are the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. These are followed by the Acts of the Apostles, the second part of Luke’s story, which tells how Jesus’ first followers spread the Good News from Jerusalem to the Greek East and the Roman Empire. After Acts come the letters or epistles. Thirteen of these have Paul’s name attached to them. The rest are by other close followers of Jesus. Most are written to the new groups of Christians in different places, answering questions, explaining more about what Jesus did, and showing them how to live out their new faith in practical

31 ways. The last work in the New Testament is the Book of Revelation. It looks forward to the final triumph of God as an encouragement to believers when times are especially hard.

Links with the Students Text

Something to Find Out Students are asked to interview someone they know who values the Bible and takes time to read it. Students should find out the reasons why the person they have chosen to interview values and reads the Bible.

It may be useful for the teacher to brainstorm / discuss with students some of the questions that it may be appropriate for them to ask in the course of the interview. For example:

• When did you first start reading the Bible? • Why did you start reading it? • What do you get out of reading the Bible? • What most interests you in the Bible? • What impact does reading the Bible have on the rest of your life? • What are some of your favourite Bible passages? • Do the words of Pope John Paul II about the Bible ring true for you? “The Bible presents to us the inexhaustible treasures of God's revelation and of his love for humanity.”

After the interviews, ask students to share their findings in small groups.

Something to Think About Following on from the previous activity, students are asked to reflect on their own attitudes to the Bible. The teacher could invite students to write their responses during a journaling activity.

Timeline of Bible History, Important Stages of Bible Formation, and the Deutero-Canonical Books The OHT masters of the timeline of Bible history, of the important stages of Bible formation, and of the Deutero-Canonical books, which appear on the following pages of the teacher guide, may assist the teacher in discussing with the class the material that appears in this section of the student text.

Task Two a) Here students are asked to list three or four pieces of information that they didn’t already know about how the Bible was formed or produced based on what they have read in the previous two pages of the student text. b) They are then asked to consider which piece of information they think is the most important and give a reason why.

Answers will vary from student to student.

32 Something to Discuss Here students are asked to consider what might have happened if any one of the four criteria had not been used as a criteria for determining the canon of Scripture. Possible responses include: If a piece of writing was not apostolic there was no guarantee that it contained the true teachings of Jesus. As Jesus’ closest followers, the apostles were entrusted with handing on what Jesus personally taught them.

If a piece of writing was not catholic there was a danger that it would only be relevant to certain sections of the Church and not to the whole community of Christ’s followers. Its presence might lead to division and conflict.

If a piece of writing did not belong to the Church’s unbroken tradition it was possible that it was not authentic but had been forged at some later date by a writer wanting to promote his own opinions. Arguments would continue to arise as to its status.

If a piece of writing was not orthodox but contained thoughts and ideas that were not consistent with Christ’s teaching, it would confuse people by contradicting and undermining what was in the authentic scriptures.

Something to Do Some Bibles (Catholic editions) contain seventy-three books, others have only sixty-six (Protestant versions).

a) Students are asked to investigate how many books there are in their Bibles. b) They are then required to identify which books their Bibles have / do not have that makes them different from some other Bibles. c) In a pair or small group students are asked to plan and perform a role- play that explains how this difference came about.

The seven additional books contained in Catholic Bibles come from the Septuagint. They originally appeared in Greek or survive only in Greek translations. They are: Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch and 1 and 2 Maccabees.

Task Three Here students are asked to complete the crossword Bible Background which appears on the photocopy master which follows in this teacher guide. The teacher will need to print off copies of the crossword for the class.

The answers to all the clues can be found in the material in section two of the student text. The answers to the crossword are as follows:

33 Clues Across 3. Testaments. 6. God. 7. Israel. 11. Aramaic. 12. Protestants. 13. oral. 14. human. 16. New. 17. kings. 18. Bible. 20. Apocrypha.

Down 1. Greek. 2. thousand. 4. Trent. 5. Hebrew. 8. Septuagint. 9. covenant. 10. seven. 13. orthodoxy. 15. Jewish. 19. canon.

An Alternative to Task Three As an alternative to task three teachers could organise students into groups, allocating each group one of the following sub-headings found in part two of the student text:

The Bible – A Collection of Books Two Testaments Determining the Canon Why are Catholic and Protestant Bibles Different?

Each group should then use the information that is provided in the student text under their given heading to put together a short test which they then use to check the knowledge of students in other groups about that particular aspect of the topic.

The test could make use of the following methods – and others:

• Comprehension questions • True / false statements • Multi-choice questions

34 OHT Master: Timeline of Bible History

35 OHT Master: Important Stages of Bible Formation

Important Stages of Bible Formation People and Events – God’s presence in the world is seen through the words and actions of men and women, and in the events of history. Oral Tradition – traditions and beliefs develop about God’s activity in the world and relationship with people and events. These are passed on by word of mouth and begin to be put into writing. The Writing Down – scribes start to gather together existing oral and written traditions and to record contemporary events. Editing and Publishing – written texts are copied, material is added, details changed, and the emphasis shifted. Canonisation – religious authorities determine which sacred writings are the Word of God and should be regarded as belonging to the canon of scripture.

The Bible was written over a period of more than one thousand years, beginning around 1000BC. The Old and New Testaments together record about two thousand years of Jewish and Christian culture.

It was not until the Council of Trent in 1546 that the final canon, a list of books accepted by the Catholic Church as inspired, was affirmed.

36 OHT Master: The Deutero-Canonical Books

The Deutero-Canonical Books

The word canon (meaning “rule” or “measuring rod”) refers to those books that the Church accepts as the Word of God and includes in the Bible.

The earliest versions of the Old Testament were written in Hebrew. But two hundred years before Christ they were translated into Greek in order to meet the needs of Greek- speaking Jews living outside Palestine who wanted to read the sacred writings in their own language. New writings were also produced in Greek.

Deutero-canonical (meaning, “belonging to the second canon”) is the Catholic name for seven books that are found in the Greek version of the Old Testament but not in the original Hebrew version:

• Tobit • Judith • Wisdom • Sirach • Baruch • 1 and 2 Maccabees

Catholics include these seven books in their Bibles. Protestants do not and call them the Apocrypha (meaning “hidden” or “not genuine”)

Check your Bible. Does it include the Deutero-canonical / apocryphal books?

37

Photocopy Master: Crossword – Bible Background

Bible Background

38 Across 3. The names given to the two main collections into which the writings of the Bible are organised. 6. The Bible tells of the presence and action of ______in ordinary situations and in the great events of history. 7. The Old Testament tells of the covenant that God made with ______through Abraham and Moses. 11. A few brief passages of Scripture are written in this ancient language. 12 .______hold that there are sixty-six books in the Bible. 13. Before the stories of the Bible were written down they were first handed on by this tradition. 14.The Bible is the Word of God in ______terms. 16.The books of the ______Testament are concerned with story and faith of the early Christian Church. 17.It is likely that the earliest written stories of the Bible told about these people. 18.This word’s literal meaning is “a little library or collection of books”. 20.The name given to the deutero-canonical Scriptures by Protestants.

Down 1. The language first-century Christians used to write the New Testament. 2. The Bible was written over a period of one ______years. 4. In 1546 this Church Council affirmed the Catholic canon. 5. Most of the Old Testament was originally written in this language. 8. The name given to the translation into Greek of the Hebrew Scriptures by seventy experts. 9. Testamentum is the Latin translation of this Hebrew term. 10. Catholics and Protestants disagree over the status of this number of books in the Old Testament. 13. Faithfulness to the Church's teaching and without error or heresy. 15. The Bible records a total of about two thousand years of ______and Christian culture. 19. Refers to those writings that have a rightful place in the Bible.

39 PART THREE: WHAT IS IN THE BIBLE?

Achievement Objective 3

Students will be able to explore various literary forms found in Scripture.

Church Teaching

The Interpretation of Scripture

• To interpret Scripture correctly readers must be open to what the human authors intend to say and to what Te Atua wants. • An appreciation of the historical, cultural, social and literary contexts of the scriptural authors is necessary in order to understand their intentions. • Attention must be given to the literary genres / forms found in Scripture if it is to be interpreted appropriately. • Scripture is to be interpreted in the light of the canon as a whole, as part of the living tradition of the Church, and with whakapono (faith) in God’s plan of revelation.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Develop an understanding of how the Old and New Testaments are organised. • Identify and find examples of the different literary genres or forms found in the Old and New Testaments. • Define literary form and explain why it is important to understand the literary forms in Scripture.

Teacher Background

Literary Forms or Genres Every written text is captured within a literary form or genre. Not knowing the intended form of a message can lead the reader to misunderstand the meaning and significance of any given text. For example, when a person reads a newspaper, they need to know whether they are reading an editorial, a news story, an advertisement, a letter to the editor, an obituary etc. if they are to make sense of the material in front of them. Only by recognising the literary forms they are dealing with are readers able to attribute value to them.

The collection of more than seventy books that makes up the Old and New Testaments present their own interpretative challenges. Although written by human authors, Christians believe these sacred writings to be inspired by God. Through them God’s plan of salvation for the human race is revealed. Difficulties in interpreting the meaning of these texts arise, in part from their

40 status as sacred Scripture, but also because of the many different literary forms that they contain. Thus, it is just as important for readers to be able to recognise the different literary forms that they meet when reading the Bible as it is for them when reading the newspaper.

Clearly, there is more of a risk of misinterpretation when readers are unfamiliar with ancient literary forms or genres. It is also more difficult to discover the intended meaning of the given text. During the twentieth century the Church became increasingly aware of the need to use the tools of history, archaeology, ethnology and the other sciences to establish the literary forms that were used in the production of the various scriptural texts.

Frequently the literal sense1 is not so obvious in the words and writings of ancient oriental authors as it is with the writers of today. For what they intended to signify by their writings is not determined only by the laws of grammar and philology nor merely by the context. It is absolutely necessary for the interpreter to go back in spirit to those remote centuries of the East and make proper use of the aids afforded by history, archaeology, ethnology and other sciences, in order to discover what literary forms the writers intended to use and did, de facto, employ. (Pius XlI, Divino Afflante, Spiritu – On Promoting Biblical Studies 35) Those who search out the intention of the sacred writers must, among other things, have regard for “literary forms”. For truth is proposed and expressed in a variety of ways, depending on whether a text is history of one kind or another, or whether its form is that of prophecy, poetry or some other type of speech. The interpreter must investigate what meaning the sacred writer intended to express and actually expressed in particular circumstances, as he used contemporary literary forms in accordance with the situation of his own time and culture. (Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation 12)

What are “Literary Forms”? Literary forms or genres are the categories in which we speak or write. While a dictionary or an encyclopaedia will establish the meaning of particular words or items of vocabulary, the true meaning of any statement cannot be evaluated unless the category of writing or speaking to which it belongs – its ‘literary form’ – is identified. Literary forms are generally classified according to three characteristics:

a. According to their contents A handbook on cooking, a railway guide and a book of poetry do not leave us long in doubt as to what category they belong to! One glance at the contents and we know!

1 Corresponding exactly to the meaning of the original.

41 b. According to their style Comparing a prayer book and a detective story, there is – apart from the contents – a marked difference in the style of the book. We instinctively recognise what kind of writing we are dealing with by the words used and by the style.

c. According to their context Each literary form arose in a particular situation in life. Since we know our school system, the typical school report immediately strikes us as something familiar. Since we sing in church, a hymnbook makes sense to us.

In short, a literary form is a category of speaking or writing that arose in a particular situation in life, that has its own peculiar contents, and that employs a distinctive vocabulary and style.

Literary Forms in Scripture When we approach Scripture we are entering a world far removed from our own. To us, for example, the psalms appear to belong to one category. However, Jews recognise that they include a dozen or more different literary forms – hymns of praise, pilgrim songs, supplications of individuals or of the whole people, ballads for instruction, prayers of thanksgiving etc. Lacking direct experience of traditional Jewish life and ways of thinking, the contemporary reader has to gradually to learn these various types of psalms.

The prophetic books also contain many examples of different literary forms. The paranetic sermon aims at driving home certain central truths about loyalty to God. Covenantal threats, prophetic promises, satirical songs of mourning are other categories that are phrased in highly technical language. An understanding of the prophetic oracles requires much knowledge about daily life in Israel – the legal system, ceremonies at court, market scenes, feasts, parties, covenantal renewals, rituals at burial and business contracts. Only with such knowledge are readers able to understand the literary forms and with them, the true message of the prophets.

Historical narration in the Old Testament is presented in many different literary forms. Readers’ difficulties regarding historicity are due to a failure to recognise these forms. For example, we tend to organise biblical narratives into categories that are known to us – eyewitness reports, historical treatises, biographies and so on. This is a mistake that leads to misunderstandings.

For example, Jewish narrators often explain how a place or a person received its name. In such accounts it is not the accuracy of the facts but the explanation of the name that matters. Similarly, prophetic legends of the type that grew up round Moses, Elijah and Elisha, exaggerate miracles to emphasise forcefully God’s direct action through these persons.

42 Literary Forms in the New Testament The New Testament books were written in Greek between circa 50 and circa 100 AD. They include the Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles or Letters and the Book of Revelation. The central theme of the New Testament is Jesus Christ – his person, his message, his passion, death and resurrection, his identity as the promised Messiah and his relationship to the followers he left behind, the Church.

Each book of the New Testament needs to be approached on its own terms. In a sense the New Testament is like an anthology containing a number of different kinds of literature, each of which must be read and studied in the light of the characteristics of its particular form. Ignoring the literary differences between Revelation, Philippians, Acts, Matthew or Hebrews leads to a misreading of them. The various writers chose a particular literary form or forms from what was available to them within their cultural context, according to their purpose.

The Letters or Epistles The author of many of the letters in the New Testament was Paul of Tarsus, a Pharisee who was converted to Jesus through a vision on the road to Damascus. Paul was highly educated, wrote Greek fluently and was deeply versed in the traditions of the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament).

These factors influenced his style of writing – so did his purpose in writing his letters, which was to keep in touch with the small Christian communities that he had founded during his travels. Paul used the epistle, an existing literary form; because he could not be physically present to his communities, he wrote to them. Probably at times he also used to dictate his letters to scribes or to his disciples, who would write the letters for him.

Other New Testament letter writers were Peter, Jude, John and James. They had the same purpose as Paul and used similar literary forms.

Within the letters of the New Testament are various sub-forms, including exhortation and confrontation.

Characteristics of the Epistolary Form Paul's letters are known by the names of the communities or persons to which they were written; the others bear the names of their authors. They begin and end with formal greetings and prayers. Written in the present tense, they deal with real current situations. They were not generally intended for general circulation but were regarded as being so valuable and spiritually helpful, that they were in fact handed around the different communities.

Their style is at times easy and familiar, at other times stern: they teach, advise, warn or praise. They contain personal details and information about the writers, but all have the purpose of keeping the message of Christ before the readers.

43 The images used in the letters, for example, 1 Corinthians 12: 12-27 where Paul speaks of the body of Christ, his Church, are based partly on cultural background but more on the spiritual truths the writer wishes to emphasise.

Apocalyptic Literature An unusual literary form found in parts of the Gospels of Mark, Matthew and Luke (for example, the end of the world narratives) and in the Book of Revelation is apocalyptic literature, an extended story form that has some of the characteristics of a secret code. Much use is made of visions, angels, fire, colour and demonic presence in quite extravagant imagery. The Book of Revelation may be regarded as protest literature, written in time of persecution, to maintain the hope of a people oppressed by evil governments, suffering for their faith but looking forward to divine vindication and redemption.

The Acts of Apostles These involve yet another literary form, the travel diary. The author, Luke, records the missionary journeys of Paul, their adventures and trials. The Acts show the development of the Church through the missionary communities. Again the story is based on a spiritual interpretation of actual events, places and people.

In all, the New Testament is a literary record of people who experienced Jesus in some way – by personal acquaintance or by someone else's experience conveyed through teaching and witness. It is also a record of prayer and reflection on the life and works of Jesus. It is a source of life and grace to those who read or hear it; because of the literary efforts of those who wrote it, it is an integral part of the Christian heritage.

The Gospels Many of the literary characteristics of the letters are also found in the gospels. These are not four biographies of Christ. Like the letters they are unique in Christian literature.

The gospels view Jesus Christ from an Easter perspective. Although they bear the names of four men who traditionally were regarded as their authors, they were more likely, a compilation by several writers from the community where they originated after Jesus' Resurrection. In the gospels, from beginning to end, Jesus is presented as the Risen Lord.

From the time of Mark's Gospel (about 67-70 AD) to that of John (written about 95-100 AD) a great deal happened to the Christian communities. This is one reason why the gospels are an extremely complex literary form – they have their basis in history, but history written from a spiritual viewpoint, remembered and reflected on over the passage of years. They have little concern with chronology and portray four different perspectives of Jesus. In the gospels the meaning of Jesus’ words and actions are much more important than the order of events. The Holy Spirit gives a deeper understanding to the words and works of Jesus as the community studies them and prays with them.

44 Literary Forms within the Gospels The gospel writers also employ a diverse range of literary forms. Here are some of them: a) Midrash Haggadah The Gospels of Luke and Matthew begin with what can be called midrash haggadah, found frequently in the Hebrew Scriptures. These are stories told to instruct and edify, and in these two Gospels, emphasise the divine origin of Jesus and the events of his birth and childhood. These stories interpret as they narrate: and in the New Testament they always start with Jesus Christ, not from Scripture, as is the case in the Old Testament. In this way a Hebrew cultural form was used to establish the miraculous birth of Jesus and the part played by his mother in the divine plan. b) The Genealogy Both Matthew and Luke include genealogies of Jesus in their gospels (Matthew 1:1-17; Luke 3:23-38). These records of relationships of descent establish a person’s membership of a particular group of kin. They are not marked by strict biological accuracy but structure history in such a way that the status and power of an individual is determined by their relationship to their ancestors.

The genealogy which opens Matthew’s gospel, structures the history of Israel into sets of fourteen and draws special attention to Jesus’ descent from the royal line of David. Five women are listed in the genealogy – a practice that is unusual – especially as some are significant for their promiscuity and others because they are non-Israelites. Their names are included not to enhance Jesus’ stature but to communicate something about the nature of the good news of Jesus’ coming.

Genealogies often move from the most distant in time to the most recent. Luke’s genealogy, however, begins with Jesus and works backwards to “Adam, son of God.” By doing so he is emphasising Jesus’ own identity as Son of God.

Elsewhere in the gospels concern with ancestral heritage is an indication of status and kinship. (e.g. Luke 1:5) c) The Symposium At the time of Jesus, the symposium was the second course of a Greek or Roman banquet, a drinking-and-talking party. Typically, symposia were characterised by a common cast of characters – the host (usually noted for his wealth and / or wisdom), the chief guest (noted for his wit and wisdom), and other guests who to varying degrees would join in the discussion. Symposia also had a certain structure:

• The identification of the guests • An action or event that determined or introduced the discussion topic • The discussion itself

45 Guests on the invitation list (usually men) were chosen to preserve and enhance the status of the host. They were arranged around a U-shaped table, reclining in positions that indicated their relative status.

In Luke’s Gospel Jesus is seen to take part in occasions of this type. However, his own practices at the table indicated his willingness to associate with persons of low status, even women (see Luke 5:27-32; 7:36-50). Jesus’ unconventional conversation urging his table companions not to worry about status-seeking and positions of honour (Luke 14:1-24) and the bad behaviour of his followers who argue over greatness at the table (Luke 22:24-27) undermine the conventions of this genre. d) The Type-Scene These are episodes that occur at moments of crisis in a character’s life. They follow certain established patterns and often repeat material from the Old Testament:

Aspects of the birth narratives in the gospels of Matthew (1:20-21) and Luke (1:11-20, 26-37, 2:9-12) – the announcement of the birth, the name of the child, the future of the child – are based on Old Testament models (Genesis 16:7-13; 17:1-21; 18:1-15; Judges 13:3-20).

The scenes of commission in the gospels also repeat Old Testament patterns (Judges 6:14; Jeremiah 1:7-10), as does the scene of Jesus meeting the Samaritan woman at the well (John 4:1-42, cf Gen 14:15ff).

Type-scenes establish expectations on the part of the readers, helping them to anticipate what might come next. But they can also work to undermine these expectations. e) The Farewell Discourse This literary form occurs in the Old Testament – characters including Jacob (Genesis 48-49), Moses (Deuteronomy 31-34) and Joshua (Joshua 23-24) all deliver farewell discourses.

Generally the farewell discourse includes a reference to approaching death, gathering one’s relations or followers, review of one’s life, exhortations, predictions, warnings, blessings and a final prayer. Farewell discourses report the honoured person’s last words and allow that person’s message to be summed up in one solemn teaching moment.

Jesus’ farewell discourses are found in the gospels (see Luke 22 and John 13-17) where their purpose is to instruct those who are left behind. In them Jesus defends his course of action and emphasises the fundamental values and practices that he wants the community he is leaving behind to embrace.

46 f) The Passion Narrative A significant section of each of the gospels is an account of Jesus’ suffering and death (Matthew 26-27, Mark 14-15, Luke 22-23, John 12-19). These narratives stress the centrality of Jesus’ death in God’s plan to bring the Good News into human history.

The story of the vindication of the innocent sufferer is found in the Old Testament. Set against a legal or royal setting, the chief characters in these accounts are recognised for their outstanding qualities. Their lives are endangered, often through malicious scheming. Though innocent, they suffer persecution. Finally they are vindicated. In early representations of this form (see Joseph in Genesis 37-42), rescue and vindication came before death. However, later rescue and vindication came after, and through death (see 2 Maccabees 7 and Wisdom 1-2, 4).

The passion narratives of the gospels look back to these and other Scriptures including Psalm 22 and the song of the Servant of Yahweh (Isaiah 52:13-53: 12). Jesus’ horrific and shameful death on the Cross is presented with a depth of significance against the background of these Old Testament models. g) The Summary Summary is one of the many ways of marking time in a narrative. The evangelists use summaries to provide transitions from one scene to the next and to provide important background information (see Mark 1:45), Summaries tend to emphasise what is typical in the narrative (see Luke 8:1-3). h) Stories The most striking literary form in the gospel is the story. Jesus' message and teachings are recorded in many different types of story – parables, nature miracles, miracles of healing, discourses, sermons, sayings, riddles, maxims and speeches. The imagery contained in these stories is cultural (eg: the story of the Good Shepherd or the Woman at the Well) but the narrative is always directed towards spiritual instruction. Occasionally, Jesus explains the interpretation to his disciples eg: the parable of the Sower and the Seed. The gospels are the Good News of Jesus and this is their unifying literary feature. i) The Parable The term parable refers to short stories within the gospels but also includes axioms, brief comparisons, similes, lessons drawn from everyday life, as well as metaphorical language in general. Key to an understanding of parable is the notion of using what is known in order to provide insight into what is not known.

47 As a literary form a parable is an imaginative story – possessing a beginning, a middle, and an end – developed from ordinary life situations and told to make a certain point. Parables may point beyond themselves to the larger story of God-human relationships, or they may depend for their message on people applying the lessons of everyday life to the life of discipleship, Sometimes the parable introduces a surprising twist into its storyline. This unexpected aspect challenges the reader to reflect more deeply on the story’s meaning and on the nature of all reality. Such parables suggest an alternative vision of the world and of life as God sees it. Often parables are more concerned with bringing about change than with bringing comfort.

When Jesus employs parables and comparisons, we should distinguish the story itself, with its images and illustrations, from the point of the story, that is, what Jesus wants to teach.

Parables are explored in some depth in Topic 10G “The Teachings of Jesus”. j) Miracle Stories The miracle stories are usually organised into five sections:

1. An introduction which presents the situation / person that needs healing. 2. A request for help that shows the faith of the person in need or of those around them. 3. The intervention of the person from whom the miracle is sought. 4. The result of the intervention. 5. The reaction of those who witnessed the event – fear or admiration. k) Pronouncement Stories In pronouncement stories a very simple story functions as a "context" for a decisive pronouncement by Jesus. The story often serves to illustrate a teaching of Jesus. In Mark 3:1-6, for example, the miracle story about the healing of the man with a withered hand serves to illustrate the decisive pronouncement that precedes it in Mark 2: 27-28: "The Sabbath was made for human beings, not human beings for the Sabbath."

Characteristic of such stories is their simplicity and ability to stand alone. Precise times and places, even the names of persons involved, are usually unimportant and often absent. In this story, for example, we are not told in which synagogue the healing takes place, nor the man's name, nor how he was healed. The focus here is not on the miracle of healing, but on the authority of Jesus and his decisive pronouncement concerning the Sabbath. Such stories are probably creations of the Christian community, as elaborations of originally independent pronouncements.

48 l) Call Narratives The stories of the calling of the disciples by Jesus are usually brief. They consist of a call followed by a response. These stories are modelled on the pattern established in the Old Testament of God calling leaders and prophets. Jesus is shown to be calling with the same authority as God. m) Controversies The controversy or discussion between scholars was a genre in which the rabbis were trained. The gospels often reveal a situation where an action or saying of Jesus causes amazement on the part of his audience. This then leads to a debate over what Jesus has said or done and its basis in Scripture. The discussion ends with Jesus pointing to the real meaning of his words or action. The listeners are thus challenged to make a decision – to accept or reject Jesus on the basis of what he has said or done. n) Maxims Encapsulated maxims occur when a saying thought to be important is inserted into a story that then serves as a framework for it. This story, whether it be a miracle, controversy or anecdote, is there only to set off the saying.

Other maxims are “floating”. These are sayings of Jesus which people have remembered, although they have forgotten the context in which these sayings were first pronounced. They are given a new context in another discourse or story. o) Hymns and Prayers These well-known literary forms also feature in the gospels. For example, the Magnificat (Luke 1:46-55) is a canticle or type of hymn.

The Problem of Literalism When teaching literary forms and genres to students it may be necessary for the teacher to emphasise at some point the distinction between these and literalism.

Literalism is a commitment to strict exactness of words or meanings in translation or interpretation. Most often it is encountered in connection with biblical interpretation.

Generally, a literalist will seek to discover the author's intent by focusing upon his or her words in their plain, most obvious sense. The gospels show that some Jewish rabbis practised an extreme form of literalism which stressed external and even minor points or aspects of the Law or traditional requirements. They gave little thought to the intent or purpose that lay behind the texts with which they dealt and so received the condemnation of Jesus (Matthew 23:2-24; Mark 7:3-23).

Over the centuries, literalist readers have continued to regard the interpretation of scriptural texts as a mechanical, grammatical, logical process. Taken to the extreme, this type of literalism makes no allowance for

49 the various literary forms and genres, especially the use of figurative and prophetic language.

A literalistic approach to biblical interpretation often leads to arrogant and dogmatic dismissals of other points of view. Literalism becomes a higher standard of truth than the Bible itself.

The New Testament presents a number of incidents where Jesus confronts literalism, situations where people fail to understand what Jesus is saying because they do not recognise his use of figurative language. In each example, a literal (non-figurative) interpretation leads to mistaken conclusions.

It may be worth discussing the following three incidents with students, asking them to identify in each case how a literalist interpretation of what Jesus is saying prevents people understanding his true message.

50

Reference Scripture Passage Literalist Interpretation John 2:19-22 Jesus answered them, ‘Destroy this temple, and When Jesus spoke of the in three days I will raise it up. ’The Jews then temple of his body some said, ‘This temple has been under construction Jews made the mistake of for forty-six years, and will you raise it up in three thinking he was talking days?’ But he was speaking of the temple of his about a physical building – body. After he was raised from the dead, his the Temple in Jerusalem – disciples remembered that he had said this; and and sought his death on they believed the scripture and the word that the basis of this mistaken Jesus had spoken. literal interpretation (see Matthew 26:61).

John 3:3-8 Jesus answered him, ‘Very truly, I tell you, no Nicodemus' literal one can see the kingdom of God without being interpretation led him to born from above.’ Nicodemus said to him, ‘How wonder if being “born from can anyone be born after having grown old? Can above” meant to “enter a one enter a second time into the mother’s womb second time into the and be born?’ Jesus answered, ‘Very truly, I tell mother's womb” (John you, no one can enter the kingdom of God 3:4). without being born of water and Spirit. What is born of the flesh is flesh, and what is born of the Spirit is spirit. Do not be astonished that I said to you, “You must be born from above.” The wind blows where it chooses, and you hear the sound of it, but you do not know where it comes from or where it goes. So it is with everyone who is born of the Spirit.’

John 4:7-15 A Samaritan woman came to draw water, and When Jesus spoke of “a Jesus said to her, ‘Give me a drink.’ (His spring of water gushing up disciples had gone to the city to buy food.) The to eternal life” (John 4:14) Samaritan woman said to him, ‘How is it that you, the Samaritan woman a Jew, ask a drink of me, a woman of Samaria?’ made the mistake in (Jews do not share things in common with wanting a literal drink of Samaritans.) Jesus answered her, ‘If you knew water. the gift of God, and who it is that is saying to you, “Give me a drink,” you would have asked him, and he would have given you living water.’ The woman said to him, ‘Sir, you have no bucket, and the well is deep. Where do you get that living water? Are you greater than our ancestor Jacob, who gave us the well, and with his sons and his flocks drank from it?’ Jesus said to her, ‘Everyone who drinks of this water will be thirsty again, but those who drink of the water that I will give them will never be thirsty. The water that I will give will become in them a spring of water gushing up to eternal life.’ The woman said to him, ‘Sir, give me this water, so that I may never be thirsty or have to keep coming here to draw water.’

51 The Book of Jonah and Literalism The problems and absurdities that arise when readers interpret texts literally, mindless of the complexities of literary genre, are highlighted when people ask the question:

“Is this text true or is it not true?”

This is the case with the Book of Jonah – one of the really great stories of the ancient world, a tale that has the potential, as all good literature does, to speak across times and cultures.

The Book of Jonah is only four chapters in length. It is an enjoyable text to read and one that makes clear the limitations of literalist interpretations of Scripture. It is, therefore, an ideal work for students to study in regard to the issue of literalism.

A literalist approach to the Book of Jonah, one that tries to read it as history, soon gets bogged down in absurd detail. However, when it is read as literature and set over against its own time, it becomes a delightful tale that carries an enduring message.

The Book of Jonah tells an outrageous story. There's a furious storm at sea, the sailors throw the prophet Jonah into the raging water, a big fish (popularly understood to be a whale) swallows him and spits him out on the shore. Jonah does not like the task God has assigned him, namely, to preach to the city of Nineveh. Like his fellow Jews, Jonah despises the people of Nineveh. He does not like the fact that God's saving love includes the likes of them.

When Jonah proclaims that Nineveh will be destroyed because of its sins, the king of Nineveh announces a fast that not only includes humans but animals as well: “No human being or animal, no herd or flock, shall taste anything,” decrees the king. “They shall not feed, nor shall they drink water. Human beings and animals shall be covered with sackcloth” (3:7-8). Much to Jonah's disappointment, God mercifully forgives the city because of its repentance.

The Book of Jonah clearly fits the genre of satire in that it holds up human vices and follies to ridicule and scorn. It is a spoof on some prevailing religious ideas and practices that the author considers to be both wrong and contrary to the best understanding of the Hebrew faith.

To understand the Book of Jonah as satire requires a knowledge of the historical epoch in which it was written (the fourth century BC) and of the period in which the story is set (the eighth century BC).

For much of its history Israel and Judea had been caught as a buffer state and as a battle ground between Egypt on the one hand and the various Mesopotamian empires on the other. In the fourth century BC the Jewish people had been for some time under the control of the Persian Empire. It seems to have been a rather peaceful time for Judea, at least in terms of international politics – the Jews were permitted to develop their religion, to

52 rebuild the temple in Jerusalem, and to practise their religion with little official interference from the Persian Empire.

At this time, the Hebrew religion came under the influence of two successively legalistic leaders, a governor named Nehemiah and a priest named Ezra. Afraid that the religion of Israel would be blemished by contacts with the world and with religions such as Zoroastrianism, these two leaders sought to purify both the ideals and the practices of the Hebrew religion. They laid great stress on the Torah and faithful adherence to the Mosaic Law.

Under the influence of Nehemiah and Ezra the walls of the city of Jerusalem were rebuilt, the Temple restored and the children of Israel recaptured a new sense of their own destiny and a renewed appreciation of their own religious inheritance.

However, there also developed an exclusivism among Jews that was associated with their belief that they were God's chosen people. Such an exclusivism was easily distorted into the view that the children of Israel had not only been “chosen” for a special responsibility or mission, but for a special privilege and destiny that made them superior to foreigners.

This perspective was reinforced by laws and practices that developed in Judea at the time. Ritual practices separated the Jews from the gentiles, for example, and laws forbidding intercourse, both figuratively and literally, between Hebrew and foreigner were adopted. At first intermarriage was forbidden and later on existing intermarriages were broken up. Genealogy became very important. Religion tended to become a racial imperative: the best Jew was one who could trace his ancestry through an unbroken Judaism for a long, long time into the past. Racial purity became a hallmark of valid religion. Acceptance in the sight of God became more and more dependent on the pureness of racial heritage.

The Book of Jonah was written to hold up to scorn the vices and follies of fourth century Hebrew society and to undermine its emphasis on racial purity and the legalistic interpretation of the Torah. The Book of Jonah is a type of protest literature.

The story’s eighth century setting was a time of great oppression when the Assyrians sent the Jews into exile. It was the era of the great prophets – Amos, Hosea, Micah and Isaiah – who in the midst of oppression called for justice and integrity based on a view of life that transcended narrow nationalistic boundaries. God was a judge, but of all people.

The vision of the eighth century prophets was one of great moral and ethical intensity. In contrast, the Book of Jonah presents us with the story of a disobedient and bigoted prophet who attempts to run away from the Lord, wanting nothing to do with the hated citizens of the now extinct city of Nineveh who destroyed the northern kingdom of Israel in 721 BC.

53 Jonah finally but reluctantly obeys the Lord, but only after the fish that swallows him deposits him back home. He is displeased by the results of his own preaching: the Ninevites do penance and the Lord changes his mind about punishing them. Jonah is angry, so the Lord teaches Jonah a lesson with the death of the gourd plant that protected him from the death-dealing rays of the sun. The final verses of the work open up to Jonah the concern of the Lord for all those who are outside the Lord's covenant with Israel:

Then the LORD said, “You are concerned about the bush, for which you did not labour and which you did not grow; it came into being in a night and perished in a night. And should I not be concerned about Nineveh, that great city, in which there are more than a hundred and twenty thousand persons who do not know their right hand from their left, and also many animals?” (Jonah 4:10-11)

The Book of Jonah tells the story of Jonah as a challenge to the smug idea that God loves only the Israelites and hates all gentiles (non-Jews).

Its affirmation that God loves all peoples and wants them to repent and experience his all-embracing love has lost none of its importance over the centuries. People are always tempted to cut God down to a comfortable size. The Book of Jonah truthfully and forcefully challenges that temptation.

54 Links with the Student Text

Task Four Here students are asked to complete a summary about the organisation of the books in the Old Testament by selecting words to fill in gaps in the summary. The answers appear in bold as follows:

The Organisation of the Old Testament The first five books of the Old Testament, called the Pentateuch (meaning “five scrolls”), form the basic torah or Law of Israel. They are acknowledged as the foundation document of Israel because they tell the story of the beginnings of God’s special relationship with the Jewish people through the promises made to Abraham and Sarah and the giving of the Law to Moses on Mount Sinai.

The books that form the Deuteronomic History (the “second” stage of Israel’s history following that described in the Pentateuch ) tell the story of Israel from the settlement in Palestine until the exile in Babylon – a period of six hundred years. The message is that faithfulness to God brings well-being and riches, while desertion of him brings punishment and suffering.

The Wisdom books – including the Psalms, the prayer book of Israel – span nearly one-thousand years. They emphasise that true wisdom and success come from God.

The books of the Prophets gather together the promises and warnings that God gave to those special messengers who tried to keep Israel faithful in the centuries before Christ.

Catholic Bibles include seven books that are not usually included in Protestant Bibles. These are referred to by Catholics as the deutero- canonical books.

An Alternative to Task Four A more demanding alternative to task four would be for the teacher to provide students with keywords and to ask them to write their own summary about the organisation of the Old Testament.

Keywords could include:

The Pentateuch Deutero-historic Wisdom Literature The Prophets Deutero-canonical

By using information provided in notes and introductions in their own Bibles students should be able to cover the various groupings of Old Testament books.

55 Something to Do This activity asks students to find the following in their copies of the New Testament:

a) Each of the four Gospels b) The Acts of the Apostles c) The Letters of Paul d) The Letters to all Christians – sometimes called the General Letters e) The Book of Revelation

Something to Research a) Here students are asked to check whether their Bibles provide introductions to each of the individual books or to the various groupings of books. b) If so, they should read an introduction to one of the books or groups of books in the New Testament with the aim of finding out the sort of information that is provided.

The type of information included in the introductions is likely to include some of the following.

• Suggestions as to when and where the book was written • Details about any sources upon which the book was based • A discussion of the work’s relationship to other scriptural writings • Information about the identity of its author • A discussion of the book’s literary form or genre • An explanation of the work’s likely audience and purpose • The important ideas and key themes expressed by the work • How scholars view the work today

Activity – Introducing Literary Forms to Students Before introducing students to the literary forms found in the Bible it is helpful to begin with the literary forms that they are already familiar with from their own experience. The following activity may be useful:

The teacher gathers samples of a range of such forms – speeches, letters to the editor, obituaries, birth and death notices, poems, diary entries, editorials, biographies, science fiction, myths etc. These should be distributed among class members who work together in small groups.

Each group should:

a) Identify the genre or literary form that each sample belongs to b) Discuss how they know that the sample matches a particular genre or literary form c) Discuss how their knowledge of a particular genre or form affects their understanding / appreciation of a given text

Having completed the above activity students should be able to understand more readily the use of literary form in Scripture.

56 Task Five Here students are asked to match up explanations of the more common literary forms found in the Old Testament with ten passages from the Old Testament. The answers are as follows:

Passage A – Genealogy Passage B – Legal Codes Passage C – Prophecy Passage D – Poetry Passage E – Medicine Passage F – Eloquence Passage G – Proverbs Passage H – Sanitary Sciences Passage I – Moral Codes Passage J – History

Something to Do Here students are asked to use their copies of the Bible to find examples of the following in the New Testament:

In Matthew or Luke’s Gospel:

a) A miracle story b) A parable c) An account of Jesus preaching to the people d) A situation where Jesus is instructing his disciples e) Jesus teaching the apostles how to pray

In one of Paul’s letters:

f) A greeting at the beginning g) A blessing at the end

Answers will vary from student to student.

Task Six This task asks students to use what they have learned in this section of the topic to:

a) Define in their own words what a literary form or genre is. b) Explain why it is important to identify and understand the literary forms found in Scripture.

Answers should include the following ideas:

• Literary forms or genres are the types of writing that an author uses to express their ideas. • The true meaning of any text can only be discovered when its literary form is identified.

57 • Every literary form has its own rules or conventions, special vocabulary, type of punctuation and style of expression etc. • An awareness of literary forms is just as important in understanding the Bible as it is in interpreting any other texts. • By determining the kind of writing that an author has chosen to use it is much easier to work out his or her intention or message. • When we know the literary form of a passage of scripture we make allowances for it and change our expectations accordingly. • If we misunderstand the literary form of a passage of scripture we will also misunderstand what the author intends to say.

58 PART FOUR: INTERPRETING THE BIBLE

Achievement Objective 3

Students will be able to explore various literary forms found in Scripture.

Church Teaching

The Interpretation of Scripture

• To interpret Scripture correctly readers must be open to what the human authors intend to say and to what Te Atua wants. • An appreciation of the historical, cultural, social and literary contexts of the scriptural authors is necessary in order to understand their intentions. • Attention must be given to the literary genres / forms found in Scripture if it is to be interpreted appropriately. • Scripture is to be interpreted in the light of the canon as a whole, as part of the living tradition of the Church, and with faith in God’s plan of revelation.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Identify Catholic understandings about the authority of the Bible.

Teacher Background

The Status of Scripture within the Christian Tradition All Christians, be they Catholics, Orthodox, or Protestants, give a special status to Scripture. At least four common features characterise the way in which members of the different Christian traditions read the Bible:

1. All scriptural texts are interpreted as being meaningful. Some texts are more difficult to understand than others, but all Christians should approach the Biblical texts, expecting to find meaning in them.

2. All scriptural texts are considered relevant. Christians believe that the Bible has things to say which are pertinent to their lives today. This relevance, which the Bible is perceived to have, may take various forms. However, Christians believe that the Bible speaks to each new situation in which Christians find themselves and that it offers resources to assist them to deal with these circumstances.

3. All Scripture is fundamentally consistent. Individual books of the Bible are not read as self-contradictory, nor is the Bible as a whole. Traditional Christianity, both Protestant and Catholic, regards the Bible

59 as a unity, and seeks to reconcile any apparent inconsistencies in regard to detail.

4. The Scriptural texts are read as profound. Religious believers do not interpret their sacred texts in such a way that their message is trivialised. Much of the teaching of the early Church is presented as commentary on Scripture. As well as having meaning, relevance, and consistency, Scripture also possesses depths that can never be fully fathomed. Today, Christians retain the conviction that these ancient texts are worthy of a sustained and detailed attention.

The Catholic Approach to Scripture The Church has always venerated the divine scriptures as it has venerated the body of the Lord, in that it never ceases, above all in the sacred liturgy, to partake of the bread of life and to offer it to the faithful from one table of the word of God and the Body of Christ. (Constitution on Divine Revelation 21)

Christians affirm that God is the author of our Scriptures while at the same time recognising the role of human writers in the production of the Bible. As stated by the bishops at the Second Vatican Council:

Those things revealed by God which are contained and presented in the text of Sacred Scripture have been written under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. For holy mother Church, relying on the faith of the apostolic age, accepts as sacred and canonical the books of the Old and the New Testaments, whole and entire, with all their parts, on the grounds that, written under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit (see John 20:31; 2 Tim. 3:16; 2 Peter 1:19-20, 3:15-16), they have God as their author and have been handed on as such to the Church itself. To compose the sacred books, God chose certain men who, all the while he employed them in this task, made full use of their powers and faculties so that, though he acted in them and by them, it was as true authors that they consigned to writing whatever he wanted written, and no more.

Since, therefore, all that the inspired authors, or sacred writers, affirm should be regarded as affirmed by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture, firmly, faithfully and without error, teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures. Thus “all Scripture is inspired by God, and is useful for teaching, for reproof, for correction and for training in righteousness, so that everyone who belongs to God may be proficient, equipped for every good work” (2 Timothy 3:16-17, Greek text). (Constitution on Divine Revelation 11)

But how do the divine and human aspects of these writings come together?

60 Other religions whose beliefs are enshrined in sacred texts claim that their scriptures were directly communicated to their founders by God – an ancient example would be the Koran, a more recent one the Book of Mormon. The formation of the Jewish and Christian Scriptures is very different from these.

The Bible is the Word of God in human words. It is a community book, the product of many centuries, written by many hands in many different places. The believing community recognised God’s presence and action in their midst – both in the important events of history and in everyday situations – and expressed this experience in words. After generations of passing on stories, songs, prayers etc. orally, someone rose out of the community and wrote them down. Others contributed to the written texts – copying them, adding material, changing details, re-focusing the emphasis.

The Bible is true in that it reveals to people the truth about God and God’s plan for human salvation. However, it is not to be read as a textbook of natural science or history. Although there is history in the Bible, that is not the purpose of the writing. The Bible is a testimony to who God was in the past, who God is for us in the present, and who God continues to be for people in every age.

The Catholic Approach to Biblical Authority While all Christians believe that the Bible has authority and shapes their lives according to its teachings, this authority is differently understood, and has a different role, within different Christian communions.

In the Catholic understanding, the Bible’s authority is intimately bound up with that of the Church’s Tradition and the teaching magisterium.

For Catholics, the New Testament is the record of the Church’s earliest teaching and cannot be separated from the Tradition handed down in subsequent centuries. Because the New Testament contains the original teachings of the Church – those of Christ and his first apostles – subsequent teaching must conform to it. However, Scripture cannot be appealed to as a separate source of truth over and against the Church’s Tradition. For Catholics, what the Church teaches authoritatively will always be in accord with the teaching of Scripture, since God is understood to be the guarantor of both.

In modern times, especially in the light of developments in Biblical scholarship and the teachings of the Second Vatican Council, the Catholic Church has given a new emphasis to the place of Scripture within the life of the Church. Traditional Catholic teachings are understood in fresh ways because of the insights provided by Scripture. Church practices have been adapted and reformed in the light of Scripture. Nevertheless, the authority of Scripture continues to be seen as closely related to that of Church Tradition, not as something radically separate from it.

61 Interpreting the Bible Before the Second Vatican Council ordinary Catholics were not encouraged to read the Bible and had little first hand experience of it.

At the Reformation the emerging Protestant Churches claimed that the Bible alone was the basis of faith and argued that the meaning of Scripture was accessible to any believing reader. The Catholic Church, insisting that divine revelation came from two sources, Scripture and Church tradition, feared that if its members started reading the Bible and interpreting its meaning for themselves, they would easily fall into error. Consequently, most Catholics encountered the Scriptures only in situations where they were interpreted for them by the clergy. Before the Second Vatican Council the Scriptures were read in Latin at Mass. However, brief passages might sometimes be translated into English and preached on.

In the first part of the twentieth century the Vatican severely restricted Catholic scholars from participating in the rapidly developing field of biblical scholarship. In 1943, however, in a landmark encyclical entitled Divino Afflante Spiritu – Inspired by the Divine Spirit, Pope Pius XII encouraged Catholic scholars to undertake serious study of the Bible using all appropriate modern critical methods. Today, responsible Catholic and Protestant scholars share the same methods of study, cooperate in new translations of the Bible and produce joint commentaries.

Shared scholarship and ecumenical dialogue since the Second Vatican Council have enabled Protestants to appreciate the role of Church tradition in the interpretation of Scripture and have helped Catholics to realise that Church authority is the servant, not the master, of the word of God. An important insight of the Second Vatican Council is that the Bible is God’s gift to the whole People of God. All believers have the right and the responsibility to read and pray the Scriptures and to share them among themselves and with others. The Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation teaches that the Bible is “the pure and perennial source of the spiritual life” and that the People of God must be offered a rich diet of the word as well as of the Eucharist at the table of the Lord (see sections 21-22).

Following the Council many Catholics read the Bible with enthusiasm, and started studying, discussing, and praying the Scriptures. The lectionary was revised so that large sections of the Bible were read sequentially in the liturgy. Clergy were trained in contemporary biblical methods and trained to preach on the lectionary readings.

However, Catholic readers soon faced the issue of biblical interpretation – how to read and understand texts which, on the one hand, are held sacred by one’s tradition and, on the other hand, are the products of a world that was linguistically, culturally, and often morally alien to them. The realisation that the biblical texts contained scientific and historical errors challenged some Catholic readers. Others had to come to terms with what seemed to them to be the Bible’s promotion of war and colonialism, its endorsement of slavery

62 and anti-Judaism, patriarchy and sexism, and attitudes of domination toward nonhuman creation.

Many Catholics in their enthusiasm for Scripture were attracted by the fundamentalist approach of some charismatic Protestant groups who adopted the position that the Bible is the literal word of God – virtually dictated by God to the sacred authors. As such, it is to be regarded as being completely free of any kind of error (historical, scientific, theological, moral, social, etc.) and is to be accepted by Christians as absolutely authoritative. The fundamentalist approach to Scripture over-emphasises the divinity of the biblical text to the extent that it denies the text’s real human character.

Other Catholics were attracted by the radical liberalism of secularist scholars who reduced the Bible to the status of a book similar in every respect to any other book. These scholars believe that faith and Church tradition are essentially irrelevant to the study of Scripture. In their view, the Bible does not have a privileged status as a record of the special relationship between God and humankind, rather it is primarily a source of historical knowledge about ancient Israel and the first Christian communities. Radical liberalism so over-emphasises the human character of the biblical text that it fails to recognise that Scripture is the revealed Word of God.

The Catholic Church believes that Scripture is both human and divine in character – in much the same way that it holds that Jesus Christ is the Word of God incarnate. The Bible, although a witness to divine revelation, is a human text, not an oracle. God did not dictate the Bible any more than God literally created the universe out of nothing in seven calendar days.

A study of the development of both the Old and the New Testament texts indicates that the Bible bears all the marks of human composition – historical conditioning, prejudice, factual error and moral limitation, as well as deep theological and religious insight into the mystery of God’s relationship with humanity. It is this double character of the biblical text, its mysterious divine depths expressed in terms of the limitations of human language, which makes interpretation necessary.

Learning to Read Scripture All human experiences, including texts, must be interpreted in order to be understood. There is no such thing as reading a text, whether it is a film, a novel, a cartoon, a racing form, a letter from a friend or a facial expression, without interpretation. To “refuse” to interpret a text is in fact a form of literalism that limits the reader to a superficial or erroneous reading.

Given that interpretation is necessary if a genuine and fruitful meeting with the word of God through Sacred Scripture is to take place, it is important to follow established principles and guidelines in the reading and study of the Bible:

• God desires to communicate with us and that the Bible is a privileged form of that communication.

63 • The Bible is a text, and like all great texts it grows in meaning as its reader’s life experience expands. • Like all texts, the books of the Bible are products of the times, places, cultures and circumstances in which they were written. • Interpretation of the Bible involves a complex encounter between two complex sets of factors – the reader and his / her experience, and the text in all its historical, cultural, religious and linguistic aspects. • Readers must accept that interpretation of the biblical text requires an effort that includes study, prayer, and discussion.

Practical Techniques The following practical techniques and methods can assist and enrich the interpretation of Scripture:

1. Gather as much information as possible about the biblical text one is studying from a sound commentary on the book or passage in order to get an overall sense of its meaning and its special features. 2. Try to keep a balance between respect for the enormous cultural, historical and linguistic distance separating modern readers from the ancient world of these texts and basic confidence in the capacity of the humanity we share with these ancient peoples to help bridge that distance. 3. Read the biblical text as holistically as possible. Before returning to meditate on a single verse that has captured our attention, read the whole text in which it appears, that is, the whole parable, narrative or discourse. Details have fuller meaning and are less likely to be misinterpreted if read in context. 4. Since the Bible is the product of a community experience and is meant to nourish and guide the community of believers, it is useful to share biblical study and prayer with others. Because every great text has multiple meanings and layers of significance, different dimensions of meaning will be discovered by different readers. Sharing interpretation minimises the possibility of a totally erroneous or idiosyncratic reading. 5. Readers should pay special attention to those texts that cause discomfort, remembering that God’s ways are not people’s ways. Revelation often breaks through in situations where personal biases and social prejudices are called into question rather than in contexts where readers are comforted or confirmed in what they already think. 6. Try to discern the direction in which a challenging text is leading, even if the text does not make a clear or explicit statement on a particular issue. Paul, for example, does not condemn slavery directly but he approaches that position when he tells slaves that their servitude is not really to their human masters but to God (Romans 6:22), and when he challenges Philemon to accept his escaped slave Onesimus as a brother in the faith (Philemon 8-21). 7. Read the Bible prayerfully. The ultimate purpose of reading Scripture is not to find out the answers to our questions or to obtain theological information, but to enable Christians to gradually put on the mind of Christ, and so find answers for our time and world that reflect God’s creative and saving will for all people.

64 A Dialogue between God and the Human Reader The interpretation of Scripture is the work of the whole Church which, as well as making use of the best scholarship of its professionals, requires the committed preaching of its pastors and the prayerful meditation of every believer.

Catholics are asked to be responsible in their use of new knowledge about the biblical text, but are encouraged not to be daunted by the extent and complexity of this knowledge. As the Second Vatican Council said, in Scripture God comes lovingly to meet and converse with us. It is a serious and demanding conversation the purpose of which is encounter with God who, in Christ and through the Holy Spirit, inspired these sacred texts and continues to inspire those who study and pray them:

Likewise, the Holy Synod forcefully and specifically exhorts all the Christian faithful, especially those who live the religious life, to learn “the surpassing knowledge of Jesus Christ” (Philippians 3:8) by frequent reading of the divine scriptures. “Ignorance of the Scriptures is ignorance of Christ”. Therefore, let them go gladly to the sacred text itself, whether in the sacred liturgy, which is full of the divine words, or in devout reading, or in such suitable exercises and various other helps which, with the approval of the pastors of the Church, are happily spreading everywhere in our day. Let them remember, however, that prayer should accompany the reading of sacred Scripture, so that it becomes a dialogue between God and the human reader. For, “we speak to him when we pray; we listen to him when we read the divine oracles”. (Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation 25)

Scriptural Truth and Fundamentalism Today, for many people truth is something relative and shifting – there is no certitude about absolute values. In such a climate, some Christians look to religion, especially the authority of Scripture, to provide certainty in their lives. Surrounded by a complex and often confusing world, people want simple, clear answers even if their problems and questions are difficult. Many adopt a fundamentalist approach to Scripture in their search to find security, even though history and personal experience teach us that there are no simple answers to complex problems.

Fundamentalism is a response to complex changes in society and the Church that seem to challenge the truth of Scripture. At the very core of fundamentalism lies a strict and literal interpretation of Scripture which holds that the Bible is correct in every detail. By setting forth and emphasising the absolute basics of Christianity as they see them, fundamentalists seek to find simple solutions to the increasingly complex problems of life.

A number of tenets of fundamentalism are contrary to the Catholic perspective on Scripture:

• The literal interpretation of Scripture by each individual believer violates the history and tradition of Scripture itself.

65 • The claim to certainty about the meaning of biblical texts disregards their context.

For Catholics, Scripture cannot stand apart from the community. God in Old and New Testament times called people and revealed himself to every generation:

In times past, God spoke in fragmentary and varied ways to our fathers through the prophets; in this, the final age, he has spoken to us through his son, whom he has made heir of all things and through whom he first created the universe. (Hebrews 1:1-2)

It was the task of the community to hand on this sacred revelation from God to each succeeding age. This occurred through human language, ideas, manners, and customs. Sometimes the community spoke, at other times it wrote – but always the community had a care to pass on the Word it had received.

This community, the Church, has always recognised the divine authorship of the Bible and its central role in its life. However, it is important to remember that the Church existed before the New Testament was composed and assembled.

God inspired members of the early Christian Church to produce the New Testament, to preserve, copy and then hand on the sacred texts to successive generations of Christians. Under the guidance of the Holy Spirit the leadership of the Church decided upon the twenty-seven books of the New Testament. It was the Church which determined, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, which books were inspired and which were not to be considered part of the Bible. This same teaching continued to be taught at the Second Vatican Council:

Sacred Scripture is the speech of God as it is put down in writing under the breath of the Holy Spirit. And Tradition transmits in its entirety the Word of God which has been entrusted to the apostles by Christ the Lord and the Holy Spirit. It transmits it to the Successors of the Apostles so that, enlightened by the Spirit of truth, they may preserve, expound and spread it abroad by their preaching. (Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation 9)

Thus it comes about that the Church does not draw her certainty about all revealed truths from the Holy Scriptures alone. Hence, both Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honored with equal feelings of devotion and reverence. Sacred Tradition and sacred Scripture make up a single, sacred deposit of the Word of God, which is entrusted to the Church. (Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation 9 and10)

66 God’s self-revelation was in human language and God entrusted the Scriptures to the living context of a believing community. Thus, the Church has always taken seriously its responsibility to proclaim with confidence the true meaning of Sacred Scripture. In this, the Church is led by the Holy Spirit.

The Bible is not just “mine” – it belongs to the whole Church. The inerrancy of the Bible comes from the fact that the Holy Spirit guided the Church in producing Scripture to begin with, and continues to guide each new generation of Christians to understand its meaning by guiding the leadership of that community in interpreting it.

Fundamentalism, because of its literalist approach, encourages people to use brief Scripture quotations taken out of context, and to hold world-views and judgments opposed to the Catholic understanding. It sets up an exaggerated contrast between the world (evil) and the reign of God (good). For Catholics, Biblical teaching has always maintained that creation is essentially good and has been entrusted to our care by God. The world is not something evil to escape, rather something to embrace while recognising the sin within it.

Catholics understand that the Bible does not provide an answer for every problem. It is rather the record of God's loving and saving presence among his people. It is God’s call to us to become a loving saving presence to one another in the community that is the Church. We are called by the Church and God's Word to a fullness of life that develops the community and its members as people of God.

Links with the Student Text

Something to Think About Here students are asked to suggest situations where people have misused the Bible for their own purposes. Some examples include using the Bible for:

• Predicting natural disasters such as floods or earthquake. • Using verses from the Bible as slogans for political campaigns • As justification for violence against children • As a reason to persecute non-Christians

Task Seven This task asks students to consider twelve statements and decide which of them reflect the Catholic understanding about the authority of the Bible?

1. The Bible is the Word of God and is inspired by the Holy Spirit. Reflects Catholic understanding.

2. God dictated the Bible to human authors. This does not reflect a Catholic understanding. The Bible’s human authors expressed the word of God according to their own human understanding.

3. The Bible is concerned with religious truth. Reflects Catholic understanding.

67 4. The Bible is free from all errors. This does not reflect a Catholic understanding. The Bible is free of error in regard to religious truth but contains inaccuracies in regard to historical, geographical, scientific and other matters.

5. The Bible reflects the personalities of its authors and the cultures in which they lived. Reflects Catholic understanding.

6. It is possible to understand a passage from the Bible without knowing about its context. This does not reflect a Catholic understanding. It is just as important to understand the literary forms in the Bible as it is for other texts.

7. Scripture must always be interpreted literally. This does not reflect a Catholic understanding. Catholic interpretations of scripture extend beyond the literal. To interpret Scripture literally can show a lack of understanding of the literary forms involved.

8. God’s revelation comes through Scripture and Tradition. Reflects Catholic understanding.

9. Christians can deepen their understanding of God’s Word without reference to the teachings of the Church. This does not reflect a Catholic understanding. Catholics are always expected to see Scripture within the context of the Church’s teaching. The Bible belongs to the whole faith community not just to individuals.

10. Biblical scholars and theologians assist the Church in its interpretation of Scripture. Reflects Catholic understanding.

11. It is important to understand the literary form of a particular passage of Scripture. Reflects Catholic understanding.

12. The Holy Spirit automatically leads people to a correct understanding of Scripture. This does not reflect a Catholic understanding. The Holy Spirit guides those who genuinely seek to uncover the message of Scripture as long as they pay attention to what the Church teaches and to the expertise of Scripture scholars.

Supplementary Resource: Interpreting the Bible Faithfully Christians need to respect the text that they seek to understand.

The photocopy master on the following page lists some guiding principles which, if followed, lead readers to approach the Bible faithfully and in such a way that they can be nourished by its teaching.

68 Photocopy Master: Supplementary Resource – Interpreting the Bible Faithfully

In order to read the Bible faithfully and be nourished by its teaching, Christians need to respect the text that they seek to understand. This happens when readers follow certain guiding principles:

The Bible is God’s Word in human words. Respecting the Bible as God’s inspired text does not change the fact that it was written by human beings. Human culture, history, and means of expression all influenced the way the Bible turned out.

Not every passage applies equally in every age. The Bible contains apparent contradictions. God’s Word in a particular situation may not apply in exactly the same way at another point in history.

The literal meaning is not the only meaning. Biblical passages can have many levels of meaning. The literal meaning cannot be ignored or contradicted, but some passages require a more thorough understanding of the historical and

cultural background to get to their deeper meaning.

There is no one foolproof method of biblical interpretation. Each passage must be handled on its own in its various contexts.

A personal interpretation is not the interpretation. Bible study is important and it is necessary to consult respected commentaries for guidance.

The Bible does not contain every detail for living a good life. The Bible alone does not give us every detail of God’s revelation. Many modern problems (nuclear arms, genetic engineering, cloning, etc.) are not specifically addressed in the Bible. Church teachings guide us to recognise God’s will through the Bible.

The Bible is about this life, not just the next. Heaven and hell, angels and devils, end-of-the-world timetables and catastrophic events, are a very small aspect of the Bible.

Some biblical passages reflect an earlier moral perspective that is no longer appropriate. Slavery or the total destruction of enemies are not morally acceptable today even if some passages in the Bible seem to support them. As the faith has grown, so has our moral perspective.

Nothing in the Bible justifies hatred of others. Passages that speak of God’s destruction of Israel’s enemies do not permit humans to act violently against one another. The Bible should not be used to justify the superiority of one race over another, or discrimination against other people.

Some parts of the Bible remain a mystery. The meaning of some passages is so unclear, that no one can be said to have the final word on their interpretation. If a passage does not make sense to the reader, it is best to move on to an easier passage. 69

PART FIVE: INTRODUCTION TO THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO LUKE

Achievement Objective 4

Students will be able to investigate the background and context, and the distinctive characteristics and themes of the Gospel of Luke.

Church Teachings

The Four Gospels

• The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John hold a unique position in the Church as a testimony to the life and teaching, and to the passion, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. • The authors of the four gospels proclaim the truth about Hehu Karaiti in their own distinctive ways, depending on the sources they were drawing on and the situations in the communities they were writing for.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Profile important aspects of Luke’s Gospel including the events it covers, the place and time of its composition, its likely author, its intended audience, its historical context, and its purpose. • Outline the process that formed nga Rongopai. • Explain the relationship between Luke’s Gospel and the Gospels of Mark and Matthew.

Teacher Background

What is a Gospel? Students have already been introduced to many of the themes covered in this section of the present topic in Topic 11F “Understanding the Gospel Story”. The material that follows revises and develops some of the ideas introduced there.

Although it is important to understand the historical origins of the Christian message and the literary forms in which it was first expressed, the significance of the four gospels, for the Christian, is primarily theological.

The gospels are not biographies. A careful reading of the gospels shows that it is impossible to construct a simple historical account of the life of Jesus or to trace his movements with any certainty. At first sight, while the four gospels seem to share a great amount of similar and – in the case of the synoptic

70 gospels – even identical material, a closer examination reveals confusing inconsistencies.

The first line of the first gospel suggests what we should expect when we read a gospel – not a life story but an evangelion, a kind of religious advertisement that proclaims its author's faith in Jesus of Nazareth and the Christian message.

“The beginning of the gospel about Jesus Christ, the Son of God.” (Mark 1:1)

The term evangelion (meaning “gospel”) has a long history in the Greek language where it is associated with the joyful proclamation of good news – victory in battle, the arrival of a great king, or other similar celebratory events in the life of the people.

The four gospel writers or evangelists did not set out to write a “Life of Jesus” but had other intentions – to announce the Good News (the translation of the Old English word “gospel”) that Jesus of Nazareth was the Christ, the Son of God, and to tell the further Good News of the salvation he had brought about by his death and Resurrection.

In compiling their various versions of the Good News of Jesus Christ, the evangelists went back to words and events from Jesus’ own life – words and deeds which had been passed on by word of mouth and perhaps, in some cases, in written form – and which were recalled in the community’s liturgical celebrations. These traditions stand behind each of the gospels. And while each evangelist used these traditions in his own unique way, the traditions themselves have their origins in the memory of the life and teaching of Jesus, a memory that was kept alive in the earliest Christian communities among whom the evangelists lived and for whom they wrote. Certainly the gospels do tell us about the life, person, and activity of Jesus of Nazareth, but they were never intended to be biographies of Jesus.

The form of literature called “gospel” was a relatively late literary activity of the early Church. Before the first gospel was ever written (about 70 AD), Saint Paul, from the late 40s until the early 60s, had been writing letters to various Christian communities and individuals around the eastern Mediterranean, expressing his understanding of what Christian faith and life was about. Yet at no stage did Paul show any interest in telling the story of Jesus of Nazareth.

The earliest form of literature produced in the Christian Church was the epistle or letter. Although this form did not set out to “tell a story” it is possible to learn from Paul’s letters a little about the story of Jesus:

• Jesus was born of a Jewish woman (see Galatians 4:4) • Jesus instituted a new sort of Passover meal which was intimately connected with his death (see 1 Corinthians 11:23-26)

71 • Jesus died, was buried, rose from the dead and appeared to his followers (see 1 Corinthians 15:3-7)

Paul also indicates that what he writes about the life, person and teaching of Jesus is something that he has received – a tradition or handing down. These traditions that are significant for Paul also form the basis of the gospels. Each gospel writer builds his stories of Jesus upon his particular community’s set of traditions.

Although the evangelists did not write twenty-first-century-style biographies, the gospel form is closely linked with the life, the preaching, and especially, the cross and Resurrection of Jesus. The gospels are a testimony of faith in the person and teaching of Jesus – their emphasis is always on the Good News proclaimed in and for the Church.

Each of the four gospels present a different portrait of Jesus and it is inappropriate to try to harmonise them, to say that all four evangelists are saying the same thing. Rather, the fourfold gospel tradition leads the Christian into a mystery whose depths continue to question our absolutes and challenge our comfortable ways.

A correct reading of the gospels needs to take into account the circumstances of the community for which each particular gospel was written. At the same time the Christian recognises that the gospels are living texts that have a privileged place in the liturgy and life of the Church. The Second Vatican Council spoke powerfully about the place of Scripture – especially the Gospels – in the Christian tradition:

Among all the inspired writings, even among those of the New Testament, the Gospels have a special place, and rightly so, because they are our principal source of the life and teaching of the Incarnate Word, our Saviour. (Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation 18)

The Church has always venerated the divine Scriptures as she venerated the Body of the Lord, in so far as she never ceases, particularly in the sacred liturgy, to partake of the bread of life and to offer it to the faithful from the one table of the Word of God and the Body of Christ. (Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation 21)

It is always from a position of faith that Christians read the sacred Scriptures as the inspired Word of God. Together with sacred tradition, they form the supreme rule of the Church’s faith:

For, since they are inspired by God and committed to writing once and for all time, they present God’s own words in an unalterable form, and they make the voice of the Holy Spirit sound again and again in the words of the prophets and the apostles. (Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation 21)

72 The appearance of the first gospel, Mark, was an important literary event. The writer of Mark created a new form of literature, a gospel, which uses the story of the life, teaching, death and Resurrection of Jesus to communicate the evangelion – the Good News that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that God has saved us in and through his Son.

The Formation of the Gospels A document from the Pontifical Biblical Commission, Instruction on the Historical Truth of the Gospels (1964), makes reference to three stages in the process that formed the four gospels:

Stage One corresponds to the public ministry of Jesus, which can be dated approximately to 30-33 AD. Jesus himself did not leave anything in writing. Nothing was written about Jesus in the course of his public ministry, except, perhaps, the sign over the cross that Pilate ordered, ‘Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews’. The evidence of the gospels suggests that Jesus did not instruct his followers to write anything about him. Rather, he commanded them to preach and to teach.

Stage Two in the formation of the gospels, was the preaching and teaching of the apostles, which can be dated approximately from 33 to 70 AD. After the first Easter, the apostles and eyewitnesses proclaimed the death and resurrection of Jesus as the revelation of God’s love for the world. They began their proclamation where our written gospels finish, with the death and resurrection of Jesus. They soon went on to speak about the life of Jesus, his words and his deeds, perhaps in response to the question, ‘Why was Jesus crucified?’ A good example of such preaching is to be found in Peter’s words to the pagan Cornelius in Acts 10:36-43. In the light of Easter these first preachers understood the significance of Jesus’ identity and mission in a way that was not possible during his public ministry. They preached and taught in the light of their Easter faith.

The first preachers were Aramaic-speaking, but soon the tradition about Jesus had to be translated from Aramaic into Greek as the preaching of the gospel spread beyond Palestine. These first preachers and teachers were not interested in conveying information about Jesus for its own sake. They sought to arouse faith in others, faith in Jesus as the Christ, as Lord and Saviour. They selected from the tradition of Jesus’ words and deeds what was most helpful in preaching the gospel to unbelievers, in teaching the gospel to those who had come to believe, in disputing with Jewish opponents and so on. In time, they may have gathered together the teaching of Jesus according to particular topics, e.g. a collection of his parables on the kingdom; and the deeds of Jesus according to some common element, e.g. a collection of healing stories. The handling of the tradition about Jesus in the early church involved a certain revision of that material, in order to apply it to the living issues of the church. The forty years of this second period was predominantly a time of oral tradition. The tradition concerning Jesus’ public ministry, death and resurrection circulated in oral form. However, in the course of this period, some of that tradition began to be expressed in written form. It is likely that the events of the last few days of Jesus’ life found written

73 expression relatively quickly. There may well have been an early version of what we call the passion narrative in this second stage. There is also evidence to suggest that a written collection of the sayings of Jesus began to take shape. In other words, some of the Jesus tradition had already begun to be put into writing before the first gospel was written.

Stage Three – the third and final step in the formation of the gospels – covers the period from 70 to 100 AD when the evangelists recorded the gospels in their written form. The evangelists, although they were the next generation to the original eyewitnesses, inherited the tradition about Jesus that came from them. This fact is explicitly recognised at the very beginning of Luke’s Gospel:

“Since many have undertaken to set down an orderly account of the events that have been fulfilled among us, just as they were handed on to us by those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and servants of the word, I too decided, after investigating everything carefully from the first, to write an orderly account for you...” (Luke 1:1-3).

Luke acknowledges that his work is based on the tradition that was handed on by the original eyewitnesses who subsequently became “servants of the word”, i.e. preachers and teachers. What is true of Luke’s Gospel is also true of the others.

The four gospels were written anonymously. Their authors did not sign their names to them. The titles ‘according to Mark’ etc. were added to the gospels in the second half of the second century. Such titles are clearly based on earlier tradition, and represent the best judgement of the Church at the time as to the identity of the evangelists. In the early church, authorship referred to the authority behind a particular scriptural work not just to the person who wrote it down. Thus, the gospel ‘according to Matthew’ is the gospel that has Matthew for its authority. It does not necessarily mean that Matthew the apostle wrote that gospel, but, rather, that he had some responsibility for the tradition behind the gospel – the oral tradition out of which the written gospel developed.

It is now recognised that none of the evangelists were eyewitnesses to the events of Jesus’ public ministry, but belonged to the next generation of Christians. The Instruction of the Biblical Commission, accordingly, distinguishes the ‘apostles’ of Stage Two from the ‘sacred authors / writers’ of Stage Three.

Sources and the Synoptic Gospels The words of the New Testament reflect the way that Christ was understood by the men and women who made up the Church at the time when the Scriptures were written. It is now generally accepted by Scripture scholars that most of the evangelists – certainly Mark and Luke – never physically encountered Jesus. Although tradition suggests that the apostles Matthew and John were the authors of the Gospels that carry their name, this too is unlikely.

74 What is clear is that each of the four Gospels presents a unique portrait of who Jesus is and what his life, death and resurrection meant for his followers. Because of this, the Gospels are difficult, even impossible, to harmonise. Yet many Christians do create their own composite images of Jesus, carrying in their heads a mixed-up version of the Good News that tends to merge the individual Gospels together, blurring the distinctive features of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.

The Synoptic Issue Biblical experts have long recognised that three of the four Gospels – Matthew, Mark and Luke – have a remarkable similarity in both wording and structure. They can easily be put into parallel columns and viewed together at one glance. This has led scholars to call them synoptic (from the Greek word for “seeing together or at the same time”).

The Gospel writers clearly did not write in isolation, and the author of the Gospel of Luke, at least, was aware of the existence of other narratives in which “many have undertaken to set down an orderly account of the events that have been fulfilled among us” (Luke 1:1).

Studies suggest that two or more of the evangelists used common sources, and establish that the first three Gospels share some sort of literary relationship. Explaining the interrelationships between the Synoptic Gospels – in particular which came first and so was the inspiration and source for the others – has been an important concern of Scripture experts in recent centuries. In the history of biblical scholarship, many ingenious solutions have been proposed, but only a few hypotheses have been widely accepted.

From the time of St. Augustine (d. 430) to the eighteenth century, the accepted view was that the four Gospels were written in the order in which they appear in our Bibles – Matthew, Mark, Luke and John – and that each depended on those that were produced previously. In the eighteenth century, however, scholars recognised that the Gospel of John was a very different work from the other three, which they saw as sharing a common perspective and similar content.

To begin with, experts still believed that Matthew’s Gospel had priority, and identified the order of composition of the Synoptic Gospels as Matthew - Luke - Mark. However, as time went on further studies of the Synoptic Gospels revealed that fewer than thirty verses were unique to the Gospel of Mark and that around ninety-five percent of its material appeared also in Matthew or Luke or both. This suggested that either Mark was familiar with the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, or that Matthew and Luke each made use of Mark.

In the middle of the nineteenth century, a two-source solution was suggested and gained wide acceptance. Those who supported this hypothesis argued that Mark’s Gospel came first and proposed that a collection of about 230 verses of Jesus’ sayings not found in Mark came from a second unknown source used by both Matthew and Luke. Scholars named this source “Q,” from the German word for source, Quelle. In the twentieth century, this two-

75 source theory was adapted to take account of the belief that both Matthew and Luke also relied on other sources unique to their particular communities. These additional sources show up in their distinct infancy narratives, their sayings of Jesus and their resurrection materials. Almost all biblical scholars today accept this expanded two-source theory as the basis for their analysis of the Synoptic Gospels.

Mark’s Gospel Underlying the acceptance of the two-source theory is a recognition that Mark’s Gospel established the general pattern of the presentation of Jesus’ life that was to be followed in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke: baptism, ministry in Galilee, journey to Jerusalem to suffer, die and rise to new life. Mark’s Gospel also anchored numerous “free-floating” sayings of Jesus more closely to specific situations in Jesus’ life. Matthew and Luke were also to do this.

Mark’s Gospel ends with the resurrection of Jesus and proclaims that death ends only the earthly life of Jesus, not his relationship with God – a pattern also taken up by Matthew and Luke. It emphasises the Good News that what happens to Jesus will also happen to us – if we dare to follow his way of relationship and service that leads through death to new life.

Matthew and Luke Mark’s Gospel story was used by other evangelists for their own purposes. Both Matthew and Luke were guided to produce their own Gospels – to revise and edit the Gospel of Mark, by adding new material and reshaping what was there already, in order to address and find solutions to problems challenging their own communities.

Mark’s Gospel was written in a time of trial when following Jesus’ way meant taking up the cross and risking death. It was “the beginning of the good news” (Mark 1:1) for a mixed community of Jewish and Gentile Christians who thought it was the end. Mark presented the life of Jesus as an extended parable that probed the issue of Jesus’ identity. Readers of Mark are repeatedly asked to re-adjust their comfortable expectations in the light of surprising and challenging information about who Jesus really is.

Neither Matthew’s nor Luke’s communities faced the same trials. Matthew needed to encourage his predominantly Jewish community to embrace both their Jewish tradition and the mission to the Gentiles that was transforming Christianity into a new kind of movement. To do this, he presented Jesus as an authoritative teacher who built upon Moses’ law but transformed it into the new Christian community, one that was established on right relationships (righteousness).

Luke’s was required to show how the new Christian community of his Gentile converts was rooted in the unfamiliar Old Testament traditions and, following the example of Jesus, to direct their energy into a mission that would reach out to the whole world. To do this, he portrayed Jesus as a compassionate prophet whose witness both in word and in suffering gathered everyone,

76 especially the poor and those on the margins, into a new community of universal table fellowship and service.

Both Matthew and Luke add new material to Mark’s Gospel. They shared a common collection of Jesus’ sayings with which they supplemented Mark in different ways. Matthew uses most of this “Q” material to create five extended discourses that form the backbone of Jesus’ teaching in this Gospel. Luke gathers most of this “Q” material and inserts it into chapters 9 to19. Here, Jesus, the teaching prophet, sets his face toward Jerusalem, that “kills the prophets and stones those who are sent to it” (Luke 13:34). On the way, he reveals the meaning of God’s plan for a community of persons who relate to each other in ways that reflect God’s presence.

Redaction To study the Synoptic Gospels, Biblical scholars have developed a method called redaction criticism which centres on the critical study of the process of editing. Redaction – an older word for editing – aims:

… to shed light upon the personal contribution of each evangelist and to uncover the theological tendencies which shaped his editorial work. (The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church - the Pontifical Biblical Commission, 1993)

Using the redaction method, scholars have come to recognise and appreciate the unique literary and theological characteristics of each Gospel.

While we are not able to see into the mind of Matthew or Luke, we can recognise the themes and ideas that each of them emphasises through the ways in which they adapt Mark’s material. Often the reasons for their changes are linked to each evangelist’s understanding of who Jesus is and the special needs facing their particular communities.

When comparing and contrasting the material in the three Synoptic Gospels it is important to:

1. Notice the changes that Matthew and Luke make to Mark – these can be grammatical (such as the use of different vocabulary or sentence construction) or thematic (such as the introduction or omission of material that the evangelist thinks is necessary to get his point across), and can be in the form of additions, omissions, changes in location, or by substitution – sometimes Matthew and Luke think that a version of an incident from their own sources is better than that of Mark.

2. Decide which changes are more significant and which might be more to do with style – for example, Luke is always touching up the rather rough Greek that Mark writes, and as careful readers of Mark’s text, Luke and Matthew often make changes because what Mark wrote either was not clear to them or was not what they wanted to emphasise about Jesus or discipleship.

77 3. Consider why Matthew and Luke would want to make these significant changes to Mark’s text – since they did not repeat Mark’s text word for word, they must have had a reason for making the changes that they did.

In most cases the reasons for changes to Mark’s material can be traced to each evangelist’s portrait of Jesus. Mark presents Jesus as a suffering Messiah opening a new way of relating to God. Matthew stresses that Jesus is an authoritative teacher who presents the new guidelines for life in relation to God. Luke highlights the healing and prophetic activity of Jesus as a witness to God’s saving actions. Changes made to Mark’s text reinforce Matthew’s and Luke’s own portraits of Jesus.

The particular challenges that each community faced were also significant factors behind the changes. All the evangelists believed that Jesus was the solution to their problems. So the words and deeds of Jesus hold the key that unlocks the solution to the crises facing their communities. Matthew and Luke change Mark because Mark’s proclamation of the gospel is no longer the way that their communities need to hear the Good News.

Features of Luke’s Gospel Like the Gospel of Matthew, Luke’s Gospel was most likely written a decade or two after Mark and includes material from both Mark and “Q”. It almost certainly incorporates material from the oral tradition that was mulled over, shared and passed on by the followers of Christ during the period of almost fifty years that elapsed since Jesus’ death and resurrection and the appearance of this Gospel, possibly sometime around the year 85 AD.

Unlike the other gospels, the Gospel of Luke is the first of a two-volume work, the second of which is the Acts of the Apostles. Taken together Luke’s two volumes form an intricately integrated thematic construction. Luke’s Gospel tells the story of Jesus’ mission to the Jewish people in the Jewish homeland, whereas the Acts of the Apostles describes the spread of early Christianity beyond the boundaries of Palestine into the Roman Empire, beginning with Jews of the Diaspora and soon including a mission to Gentiles as well. The Gospel begins and ends in Jerusalem; Acts begins in Jerusalem and ends in Rome. The movement of Luke’s two volumes is thus from Jerusalem to Rome.

The author of Luke’s Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles may have been a physician (Colossians 4:14) who collaborated with Paul and travelled with him from Troas to Philippi in Greece. He was also in Caesarea and later in Rome. According to one tradition he also worked at Achaia in Greece. Early Christian writers such as Irenaeus, Eusebius and Jerome, all refer to the Evangelist Luke and suggest he lived in Antioch in Syria. Another tradition, which claims that Luke was a painter, originates from the fourteenth century and is less reliable.

Luke’s Gospel is written for Gentile Christians. Luke seldom quotes from the Old Testament and does not concern himself with issues that are of

78 significance only to Jews. He applies the salvation promised by Jesus Christ to Gentiles.

Luke is writing at a time when Christianity is expanding. The Parousia or return of Christ is no longer seen as being imminent. The disciples are settling down to a lifetime of work and prayer under the guidance of the Spirit who will ensure the growth of the Church.

The Gospel of Luke is the work of a sensitive and inspired author as indicated by the fact that over the centuries it has been known variously as the Gospel of the Spirit, the Gospel of Mercy, the Gospel of the Poor, and the Gospel of Women. The Jesus in Luke’s Gospel is characterised by a gentleness that we do not associate with the other Gospels.

Links to the Student Text

Something to Think About The focus at the beginning of section five of the topic lists four key points about Luke’s Gospel.

• The Gospel According to Luke and the Acts of the Apostles together tell the story of Jesus Christ and the beginnings of Christianity. • Luke’s Gospel was written in Greek, probably forty or fifty years after Jesus’ resurrection, for Gentile Christians living in Asia Minor (Turkey). • Luke teaches that the Good News of Jesus Christ and the love of God are intended for all people. • Luke’s Gospel was formed over many years by a process similar to that which produced the other gospels, especially the other synoptics.

Students are invited to list three more important points about Luke’s Gospel that they would like to add.

This activity could be done individually, in pairs, or in small groups.

Answers will vary from student to student.

Task Eight Here students are invited to write a profile of the Gospel According to Luke, grouping the material under the following headings:

The events it covers The place and time of its composition Its likely author Its intended audience Its historical background Its purpose

All the information that students need to complete this is in part five of the student text.

Something to Discuss Here students are asked to discuss how the opening verses of Luke’s Gospel show an awareness of the different stages of gospel formation.

79

In verses 1 to 4 Luke refers to the fact that knowledge of the events that he intends “to set down” in “an orderly account” has been handed down “from the beginning” by those who “were eyewitnesses and servants of the word”. He is clearly referring to the pre-existing oral tradition.

In stating that he has made the decision to write his gospel “after investigating everything carefully from the first” Luke is suggesting that he has checked the authenticity of his sources.

Luke’s own “orderly account” comes at the end of a long process.

Something to Do Here students are invited to present a poster or diagram that clearly shows the process that formed the gospels. The background information about the three stages in the formation of the gospels is outlined in the student text.

Something to Discuss In the years before the Gospels were written, stories about Jesus were handed down by word of mouth.

a) Here students are asked to discuss a series of images of Jesus and to use what is pictured in them to list some of the important things about Jesus that would have been kept alive and passed on by the oral tradition.

b) Students are asked to list other important aspects of Jesus life and ministry that are not shown in the images but which would have been preserved by the oral tradition.

Shown in the images are:

• Jesus being baptised by John in the Jordan. • Jesus calling the disciples. • Jesus teaching the people. • Jesus speaking to social outcasts (the woman at the well). • Jesus walking on the water and saving Peter. • Jesus showing physical affection – the power of touch. • Jesus healing the sick. • Jesus praying. • Jesus’ breaking bread and instituting the Eucharist at the Last Supper. • Jesus being crucified. • The empty tomb after Jesus’ resurrection.

There are many aspects of Jesus’ life not shown in the images. Some of these are:

• The events surrounding Jesus’ conception, birth and childhood.

80 • Jesus’ interactions with those, such as the Pharisees, who disputed with him. • Jesus’ temptation in the desert. • Jesus’ transfiguration. • Jesus’ many miracles. • Jesus preaching in parables. • Jesus’ trial and the events leading up his death. • Jesus’ encounters with his followers after the resurrection.

Task Nine Here students are asked to explain in their own words the relationship between Luke’s Gospel and the Gospels of Mark and Matthew.

Important ideas that students should mention in their answers are:

• The Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke are very similar in content and style which causes them to be labelled synoptic (from the Greek word meaning “overview”). • Matthew and Luke share significant material which is not found in Mark. • Most experts agree that Matthew and Luke based their gospels on the Gospel of Mark, which was written first • Matthew and Luke seem to have also drawn on another written source not known to Mark – ‘Q‘. • Another source – ‘L’ – has been suggested in order to explain material that is unique to Luke, appearing neither in Mark nor in Matthew.

The OHT Master on the following page contains two diagrams that suggest the links between the three Synoptic Gospels. It may be useful for the teacher to explain this diagram to students before they attempt this task.

81 OHT Master: The Links between the Synoptic Gospels

The Two-Document Theory

Mark Q

Matthew Luke

The Four-Document Theory

(M) Mark Q (L)

Matthew Luke

82 PART SIX: INFANCY NARRATIVES IN THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO LUKE

Achievement Objective 4

Students will be able to investigate the background and context, and the distinctive characteristics and themes of the Gospel of Luke.

Church Teachings

The Four Gospels

• The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John hold a unique position in the Church as a testimony to the life and teaching, and to the passion, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. • The authors of the four gospels proclaim the truth about Hehu Karaiti in their own distinctive ways, depending on the sources they were drawing on and the situations in the communities they were writing for.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Distinguish features of Luke’s infancy narratives that make them different from Matthew’s. • Explain how faith, joy and wonder are important themes in Luke’s infancy narratives.

Teacher Background

The Origin and Purpose of the Gospel Infancy Narratives Only two New Testament books describe the events surrounding the birth of Jesus – Matthew (1:1–2:23) and Luke (1:1–2:52). Whereas Matthew stresses Joseph’s role, has Joseph and Mary living in Bethlehem, and includes the Magi and the flight into Egypt, Luke focuses on Mary, has Mary and Joseph living in Nazareth (going to Bethlehem only for the Roman census), and includes the shepherds and a peaceful visit of the Holy Family to Jerusalem.

Most of our traditional Christmas folklore comes from Luke’s infancy stories, which emphasise joy, angels, simple people and a virgin mother. Matthew’s contributions to it are the star and the Magi and their gifts (Matthew 2:1-12). Jesus’ suspected illegitimacy (Matthew 1:18-25) or Herod’s attempts to kill Jesus, who has to flee for his life (Matthew 2:13-23), tend to be downplayed in the popular imagination.

83 Although the two accounts are very different in their details, the late Scripture scholar Raymond Brown emphasises the religious message common to the infancy narratives:

• To proclaim the identity of Jesus Christ as truly God and truly human • To show how Jesus is linked to and fulfils the Hebrew Scriptures

Brown and others maintain that each infancy narrative is a summary of the theology of the Gospel where the full identity of Jesus – divine and human – is revealed and this Good News is shared with others, who either accept or reject it.

Luke’s infancy stories serve as a theological prelude to what is a two-volume work – the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles. The journey of Mary and Joseph at the time of Jesus’ birth and the person and words of Simeon indicate how skilfully Luke uses the narrative of chapters 1-2 to communicate deep theological truths.

Luke uses the first two chapters of his gospel to serve as a theological introduction to the story of both the life and ministry of Jesus and to the life, ministry and missionary activity of the early Church as it reaches out from Jerusalem to “the end of the earth”.

The prologue to Luke's Gospel (Luke 1-2), describing as it does the beginnings of the story of the life of Jesus, is a summary about the person and role of Jesus of Nazareth in God's plan of salvation.

When we read Luke’s Gospel we begin with the story of Jesus’ birth and then follow the events of his public ministry through to his death, resurrection and ascension in Jerusalem. Continuing with the Acts of the Apostles, we encounter the various activities of the Church as it spreads into the Mediterranean world until the point where Paul stands boldly preaching Jesus in Rome (Acts 28:30-31). However, the story was not originally told this way. The earliest Church did not begin its preaching of Jesus by telling his life story from beginning to end.

The greatest difficulty that the earliest Church had to face in spreading the Good News was the fact that Jesus was executed as a common criminal and had, therefore, died in a humiliating manner. As Saint Paul recognised, the message of Jesus crucified was “a stumbling-block to Jews and foolishness to Gentiles” (I Corinthians 1:23). The letters of Paul, the earliest form of Christian literature in the Church’s possession, reveal that the earliest form of preaching concentrated its attention, not on the story of Jesus’ beginnings, but on his end – a death that made sense because of Jesus’ resurrection (see I Corinthians 15:3-8; Acts 1:22-24; 3:14-15; 4:10; 10:39-40).

The next stories to be told concerned the public ministry of Jesus. Once the scandal of the cross was explained, a further series of questions arose about the sort of man Jesus was, the type of life that he lived, and the message that he preached that lead to his death. The preaching, teaching and praying

84 Church looked back to the traditions about what Jesus said and did in the light of the proclamation of the death and resurrection of Jesus. Collections of sayings, parables and miracle stories that had been gathered over the years to form the primitive oral, liturgical and perhaps even some written traditions about the ministry of Jesus began to be shaped into a coherent narrative by the story-telling of communities that looked back to the life and ministry of Jesus for their encouragement, light and direction. In this way the gospels came to be written.

Mark's Gospel dealt only with the story of the death and resurrection of Jesus, prefaced by the story of his public life – there are no infancy narratives and no appearances following the resurrection. However, Matthew and Luke both add infancy narratives and post-resurrection appearances that would have developed as a response to the differing pastoral situations that the different Churches faced. There was also a need to answer a variety of questions that were being posed about Jesus:

• Was Jesus really human? • How could Jesus be Son of God? • Did Jesus really rise from the dead? • Where did Jesus come from?

As the early Church moved more and more into a Gentile world, and began to preach Jesus and his message among people who were steeped in Greek and Roman traditions, the question of Jesus’ origins became increasingly important. These questions and others caused Matthew and Luke to write narratives about the beginnings of the life of Jesus that would have been based upon ancient traditions that they were familiar with. The fact that Matthew and Luke have different stories about Jesus’ infancy suggests that they worked from different traditions.

In neither the infancy narrative of Luke nor that of Matthew is there a suggestion of Jesus’ pre-existence. Jesus has his beginning when he is born of a woman. As far as both Matthew and Luke are concerned, the child is virginally conceived by a mysterious intervention of God, but from then on, he is born like any other child. It is only with John’s Gospel, written a few decades later after the spread of Christianity into Asia Minor, that Jesus’ origins are linked with the pre-existent Word:

In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. (John 1:1)

While we naturally tell the story of Jesus’ life from pre-existence to infancy, through to his death and resurrection, the story itself took shape in the opposite direction.

Thus, the infancy stories of Luke's Gospel, though their various components may well have had their roots in ancient traditions, were developed and written after the account of the public life and death of Jesus. Luke, therefore, was already well aware of earlier traditions about the death and resurrection

85 of Jesus, and of his life and teaching. By using a series of narratives about the infancy of John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth, Luke presents a theological summary of his own and his community’s beliefs about the origins, identity and nature of Jesus Christ.

The General Structure and Message of Chapters 1 and 2 of Luke A careful reading of the first two chapters of Luke's Gospel indicates that, after a formal introduction (1:1-4), there is a series of episodes that are associated with either John the Baptist or Jesus of Nazareth:

1:5-25 The annunciation of the birth of John the Baptist.

1:26-38 The annunciation of the birth of Jesus.

1:39-56 The visit of Mary to Elizabeth.

1:57-80 The birth and circumcision of John the Baptist.

2:1-21 The birth and circumcision of Jesus.

2:22-40 The presentation of Jesus in the Temple.

2:41-52 The finding of the boy Jesus in the Temple.

There is an obvious telling of two “stories” – the story of John the Baptist and the story of Jesus. Although there are different opinions as to the exact relationship between each of these parts, the narrative is clearly the product of some very skilful writing.

A series of brief comments made by the narrator and emphasising the three themes of departure, growth and treasuring in the heart is another important feature of Luke’s Gospel:

86 Departure When his time of service was ended, he went to his home. (1:23) Then the angel departed from her. (1:38) And Mary remained with her about three months and then returned to her home. (1:56) The shepherds returned, glorifying and praising God for all they had heard and seen, as it had been told them. (2:20) When they had finished everything required by the law of the Lord, they returned to Galilee, to their own town of Nazareth. (2:39) Then he went down with them and came to Nazareth, and was obedient to them. (2:51) Growth The child grew and became strong in spirit, and he was in the wilderness until the day he appeared publicly to Israel. (1:80) The child grew and became strong, filled with wisdom; and the favour of God was upon him. (2:40) And Jesus increased in wisdom and in years, and in divine and human favour. (2:52) Treasuring (pondering) All who heard them pondered them and said, ‘What in the heart then will this child become?’ For, indeed, the hand of the Lord was with him. (1:66) But Mary treasured all these words and pondered them in her heart. (2:19) His mother treasured all these things in her heart. (2:51)

In Luke 1-2, which has been assembled from various traditions that have been knitted together and edited, the narrator communicates a unique point of view, providing his own comments, so that the reader will not miss the significant issues. The pairing of the story of the birth and naming of John the Baptist with the story of the birth and the naming of Jesus, and the careful use of his own themes of departure, growth and treasuring are two important structural features.

The carefully written narrative maintains a balanced structure that can be seen in the following diagram.

87

A. The Two Annunciations

Annunciation of John's birth Annunciation of Jesus' birth (1:5-25) (1:26-38)

Introduction of the parents (1:5-7) Introduction of the parents (1:26-27)

Apparition of the angel (1:8-11) Entry of the angel (1:26-28)

Zechariah is troubled (1:29) Mary is troubled (1:12)

Fear not … (1:13) Fear not … (1:29)

Annunciation of the birth (1:13-17) Annunciation of the birth (1:31-33)

Question: How shall I know this? Question: How can this be? (1:34) (1:18)

Answer: A sign is given: dumbness Answer: A sign is given: Elizabeth's (1:19) pregnancy (1:35-37)

Constrained silence of Zechariah Spontaneous reply of Mary (1:38) (1:20-22)

Departure of Zechariah (1:23) Departure of the angel (1:8)

B. The Coming Together

The Visitation (1:39-56)

Canticle: The Magnificat

Conclusion: The departure of Mary

C. The Two Births

The birth of John (1:57-80) The birth of Jesus (2:1-21)

The birth of John (1:57-58) The birth of Jesus (2:1-7)

Joy at the birth (1:58) Joy at the birth (2:10-11)

Circumcision (1:59-66) Circumcision (2:21)

Canticle: The Benedictus (1:67-79) Canticle: The Gloria (2:13-14)

Refrain of growth (1:80) Departure of the shepherds (2:20)

88 D. The Child Jesus is Recognised as the Saviour

The presentation of Jesus in the Temple (2:22-40)

The meeting with Simeon (2:25-27,33-35)

Canticle: the Nunc Dimittis (2:28-32)

The meeting with Anna (2:36-38)

Departure to Nazareth: refrain of growth (2:39-40)

E. Link to the Public Ministry

The finding of the boy Jesus in the Temple (2:41-52)

Theme: Jesus, Son of God, in the Temple, prepares to perform his father's task (2:49)

Conclusion: refrain of growth (2:52)

Luke’s accounts of the annunciation and birth of John the Baptist emphasise the presence of God in his angel (1:11), in wonders (1:24-25, 60-64) and in spirit-filled praise (1:67-69). However, when paralleled with the story of the annunciation and birth of Jesus of Nazareth, the extraordinary and awe- inspiring signs of God’s presence in the circumstances of the Baptist’s conception and birth are over-shadowed. God is again present in his angel (1:26), but the wonder of the virgin conceiving (1:31-35) and the heavenly host announcing the birth (2:13-14) are greater than the wonder of Elizabeth's conceiving in her old age and the strange events that led up to the naming of “John”. Now Elizabeth sings praise (1:42-45), Mary sings praise (1:46-55), shepherds glorify God (2:20), Simeon welcomes the arrival of the Saviour (2:28-32) and Anna thanks God for the redemption of Israel (2:38). There is no denying the greatness of John the Baptist, but Jesus of Nazareth is greater still. The reasons for Jesus’ greatness are clearly given, first in the annunciation to Mary and then to the shepherds:

The angel said to her, ‘The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you; therefore the child to be born will be holy; he will be called Son of God. (1:35)

… to you is born this day in the city of David a Saviour, who is the Messiah, the Lord. (2:11)

Luke’s narrative proclaims Jesus of Nazareth at his annunciation and birth as Saviour, Son of God, Messiah and Lord, thus introducing the major terms used to speak about Jesus during his public ministry and then on the

89 occasions of his death, resurrection and ascension. They then become the heart of the message of the early Church's preaching of Jesus, as it is reported in the Acts of the Apostles. In this way, the divine status of Jesus is indicated from the very beginnings of his earthly life.

The characters of Zechariah, Elizabeth, Simeon and Anna, and especially John the Baptist, provide a link between the world of the Old Testament and the coming of Jesus, who is presented as the fulfilment of all that the Old Testament promises. Later in Luke’s Gospel, John the Baptist is identified as the key transitional figure, the one who marks the end of the law and the prophets and signals the coming of the reign of God that Jesus announces:

“The law and the prophets were in effect until John came; since then the good news of the kingdom of God is proclaimed … “ (16:16)

All these figures, in one way or another, point away from their own achievements to the new age now being introduced by this child, Jesus.

The central role that Mary, the Mother of Jesus, is to play in the lives of Jesus and his followers is highlighted in Luke’s infancy narratives. In his portrait of Mary, Luke provides a powerful presentation of a woman who is the first and the most faithful of believers – a woman whose openness to God plays a decisive role in the history of salvation.

Luke’s interest in the contribution of women to salvation history that is first seen in the infancy narratives in his attention to Mary, the Mother of Jesus, is evident later in his Gospel where he shows Jesus interacting positively with various women who all respond to him with faith – these include the widow of Nain (7:11-17), the woman who bathed Jesus’ feet with her tears (7:36-50), Mary Magdalene, Joanna, and Suzanna (8:1-3), Martha and her sister Mary (10:38-42), the woman crippled with a spirit (13:10-17), and the women from Galilee who witness the crucifixion (23:49-24:12).

The theme of ”journey”, so central to Luke’s Gospel is already present in the infancy narratives. In Matthew's infancy account, Jesus is born in Bethlehem, Joseph's village (Matthew 1:18-25) and in his house (2:9). In Luke 2:1-20 Joseph and Mary are on a journey to Bethlehem. Mary gives birth to Jesus on that journey and places him in a manger “because there was no place for them” in the lodging or dwelling place (2:7).

The importance of Jerusalem and its Temple are also emphasised throughout the infancy narratives (1:5-23; 2:22-38,41-50), prefiguring their significance later in the Gospel (9:51; 19:45-21:37; 24) and in the Acts of the Apostles (1- 5).

Also powerfully present in the infancy narratives is the spirit of God (1:15,17,35,41,67,80; 2:25,26,27). The lives of John the Baptist and Jesus begin through the power of the Holy Spirit. Jesus’ life will be lived “in the spirit” (Luke 3:22; 4:1,14). After his death and resurrection Jesus goes to his

90 Father so that he might send that spirit upon his followers (Luke 24:49; Acts 1:8; 2:1-4).

The Birth of Jesus (2:1-21) The account of the birth of Jesus opens with a reference to known people, places and times (2:1-7, 3:1-3). In this way Luke indicates that God's salvation comes to real people, through the specific circumstances and events of their lives. His account, in which he presents three sets of characters, opens with a careful presentation of what in the eyes of the world is a descending order of importance:

1. The Emperor Augustus is the most famous and respected of all the Roman Emperors, the one who ended the power struggle and settled the conflict after the murder of Julius Caesar. During his time the Roman Empire experienced a period of lasting peace within its borders, which is often spoken of as the Pax Augustiniana (the Augustan peace). Luke 2:1 announces his decree that “all the world should be registered”.

2. Luke 2:2-3 deals with the governor of Syria, Quirinius, another Roman official, who ruled over and established order in one of the regions of the Empire. While history shows that there was a Quirinius, and that he did administer a census, the dates do not accurately match the story of the birth of Jesus. However, such a discrepancy may not have worried Luke, who was interested in placing a significant Roman dignitary, second only to the Emperor, at the head of the story of the birth of Jesus.

3. Last in this series of characters is Joseph, a son of David, on a journey from Galilee to Bethlehem, the city of David, bringing with him his heavily pregnant wife who gives birth while they are still on the journey. Their child, Jesus, is laid in a manger and wrapped in swaddling cloths (Luke 2:4-7).

The apparently descending order of importance from the great ones of this world (the Emperor), through his representative (Quirinius) to the insignificant ones (Joseph, Mary and their son, born on a journey) emphasises God's reversal of values. In Luke’s Gospel it is the “little ones” who turn out to be the “great ones”. For example, the one who brings lasting peace is not the great Augustus but the child born on a journey:

‘Glory to God in the highest heaven, and on earth peace among those whom he favours!’ (2:14).

The laying of the child in a manger and his being wrapped in swaddling cloths (2:7) are of particular significance. In the message to the shepherd they are referred to as “signs”:

“And this will be a sign for you: you will find a babe wrapped in swaddling cloths and lying in a manger” (2:12).

91 When the shepherds find the child, the reference to the manger reappears in 2:16.

The background for these “signs” can be found in the Old Testament. Swaddling cloths were linen bandages, wrapped around a newly born infant's limbs to ensure that they would grow straight. In Wisdom 7:4-5, the great King Solomon, the son of King David and the personification of human wisdom, writes of his own birth:

“I was nursed with care in swaddling cloths. For no king has had a different beginning of existence.”

By identifying the swaddling cloths as a “sign”, Luke is indicating by way of a symbol that the child Jesus is a king descended from King David, and born in the royal city of Bethlehem.

Luke also highlights the manger or crib as a “sign” of the new-born Messiah:

Hear, O heavens, and listen, O earth; for the Lord has spoken: I reared children and brought them up, but they have rebelled against me. The ox knows its owner, and the donkey its master's crib; but Israel does not know, my people do not understand. (Isaiah 1:2-3)

In this passage from the beginning of the prophecy of Isaiah, the Lord laments the sinfulness of the people, by contrasting the ox and the ass, who come to the manger or crib to find their nourishment, and a stubborn people, who refuse to do so. This newly born child, Jesus, offers Israel a new chance. The revelation of Jesus as the Saviour and the Christ (2:11) brings about the reversal of Isaiah's lament, through the obedience of the shepherds who go to the manger.

Luke’s choice of shepherds as the ones who hear the announcement of the Good News from the heavenly hosts (2:8-14) once again emphasises the importance and value of apparently insignificant people, the “little ones”. In first-century Israel, shepherds were not highly thought of, having a reputation for dishonesty and theft. Concerns were also raised about the purity of their flocks given that it was easy for sheep to stray on to other people’s pastures because the land was not fenced.

The announcement of the angel to the shepherds marks the third annunciation story in Luke's infancy narratives – the earlier, more famous ones being in Luke 1:5-24, 26-38. When the angel appears before the shepherds as a great revelation of God, the shepherds are filled with fear (2:9). The angel calms their fears and announces the birth of a Messiah in Bethlehem, the city of David, saying that they will be able to identify him through the signs of the swaddling cloths and the manger. The scene ends with a further proclamation that Jesus’ birth announces the God of peace to all who are blessed by the revelation that he has come to bring (2:14).

92 The shepherds come to find Mary and Joseph with the child (2:16). Their decision to do so springs from their belief that what has been revealed to them comes from God.

When the angels had left them and gone into heaven, the shepherds said to one another, ‘Let us go now to Bethlehem and see this thing that has taken place, which the Lord has made known to us.’ (2:15)

In the Gospel of Luke, it is often the insignificant ones, the poor and the despised, who are open to the possibilities of a new future. Such an attitude enables them to respond to the promise of God's reign made present to them through Jesus Christ. When they come to Bethlehem, the shepherds find the child in the manger and speak of the wonderful things that have been shown to them (2:16-17). In contrast, more powerful people are often too arrogant to recognise their own need or to discern the “signs” of God’s presence that are around them.

In Luke 2:21 Jesus is named – an action that ends the account of Jesus’ birth. The naming of Jesus closely parallels the birth and naming of John the Baptist in 1:67-80. Immediately before the naming, three possible reactions to the revelation of the mystery of God's ways through Jesus can be found.

1. All who heard it were amazed at what the shepherds told them. (2:18) 2. But Mary treasured all these words and pondered them in her heart. (2:19) 3. The shepherds returned, glorifying and praising God for all they had heard and seen, as it had been told them. (2:20)

Luke places the reaction of Mary at the centre of this threefold structure. In this way the attention of readers is drawn to Mary’s reaction, which they are invited to compare with the reactions of “all who heard it” and “the shepherds”.

The reaction of “all who heard it” is one of astonishment at what the shepherds told them. However, there is no reference to faith, and no suggestion that they have any desire to go and see the child. At the wonders surrounding the birth of John the Baptist there was a similar reaction from all who heard and saw the marvellous things that were happening (1:63). In regard to John the Baptist's birth, there is a further reaction from this unnamed group of people:

All who heard them pondered them and said, ‘What then will this child become?’ For, indeed, the hand of the Lord was with him. (1:66)

Such a reaction from them is not indicated at the birth of Jesus. Only Mary will be described as pondering or treasuring in her heart (2:19). This is an indication that "all who heard" have made a wrong choice!

The reaction of the shepherds is to glorify and praise God, who has accomplished such wonderful things, as they go back to their flocks. However, they play no further part in Luke’s story of Jesus.

93 The only person in Luke’s infancy narratives who does play an on-going role in the life of Jesus (8:19-21, 11:27-28) and is still present at the beginning of the Church (Acts 1:14) is Mary, the Mother of Jesus. Her reaction to all that has happened through the remarkable events of the annunciation and the birth, where she was a central figure, is to “treasure” and “ponder” it.

Later, the same words are used to describe the reaction of Mary when, after finding her twelve-year-old son who has been missing for three days sitting among the teachers in the Temple, Jesus reprimands Mary and Joseph, telling them that he must be in his Father’s house:

But they did not understand what he said to them. Then he went down with them and came to Nazareth, and was obedient to them. His mother treasured all these things in her heart. (2:50-51)

Luke's use of the expression “to keep something in the heart” or “to treasure something in the heart” is another allusion to Old Testament sources including Genesis 37:11. This expression appears often in Wisdom literature (for example, Sirach 39:1-3; Psalm 119:11) and also in apocalyptic writings (for example, Daniel 7:28), where it is used in situations where a person has experienced some sort of revelation from God that is beyond the understanding of the human recipient. In such circumstances, two reactions are possible: the recipient can “marvel” at the experience and then go on their way, or they can accept the revelation at a much deeper level, guarding and pondering it.

This rich biblical tradition provides Luke with a way of speaking about the Mother of Jesus who, in choosing the second option, does not skip over or reject the incomprehensible.

Mary accepts what is revealed to her in the deepest core of her being where she treasures, guards and ponders it. As the faithful one she simply awaits some time in God's future, a moment that will be determined by God's plan of salvation, when the truth will be received in all its fullness.

Mary's situation is an extraordinary one. She has received a strange annunciation, that she, a virgin, will conceive a son who will not only be the Messiah (1:32-33), but also the Holy One, the Son of God (1:35). In her confusion over the conception of her son, Mary questions: “How can this be?” (1:34). Mary experiences the same confusion when, after searching for Jesus for three days, she discovers her son in the Temple of Jerusalem, only to be rebuked by him (2:50-51). In these accounts, Mary is never presented as a woman in control of her own destiny but always as a person who is totally open to God's ways in her life. She “treasures” the mysteries that have been revealed to her, and awaits their fulfilment, trusting it will come in God's own time. The naming of her son Jesus – “the name given by the angel before he was conceived in the womb” (2:21) – should be regarded as a “sign” that Mary’s decisions are lead by God.

94 Through the use of the expression “to treasure in one's heart”, Luke places Mary first among all believers and indicates her importance in the history of salvation. Salvation is not ours to determine. As Jesus said to his disciples immediately before his ascension:

“It is not for you to know the times or periods that the Father has set by his own authority” (Acts 1:7).

Mary did not ask to know “times and seasons”. In this way she became the model for all disciples of Christ.

Links with the Student Text

Getting Started This activity can be a “warm-up” for task ten or an alternative to it.

The teacher asks the class as a whole to “tell” the Christmas story.

Begin with one student providing the first statement which the teacher or the student writes on the board. Another student adds the next statement. The process continues until a series of statements describing the Christmas story are listed.

Students should then decide whether the statements they have written are in the correct order.

Ask students to read the infancy narratives in Luke (1:1-2:52) and Matthew (1:1-2:23) and compare their own account with what is written in the gospels.

Card Activity – The Infancy Narratives This activity can be a “warm-up” for task ten or an alternative to it.

On the following page of this teacher guide is a photocopy master containing twelve images from the infancy narratives. Copy it and cut it into cards so that there is a set for each pair or small group of three or four students in the class. Students should:

a) Identify what event from the infancy narratives of Luke or Matthew is pictured in each image. b) Sort the images so that they best reflect the order of events described in the gospels. c) Find a verse from the gospel of Luke or Matthew to go with each illustration.

95 Task Ten Here students are asked to read the infancy narratives in Luke (1:1–2:52) and Matthew (1:1–2:23) and decide which of the following features belong to Luke’s infancy narratives and which to Matthew’s.

Mary’s faith is emphasised Joseph plays an important part Mary visits Elizabeth Joseph and Mary live in Bethlehem Joseph and Mary take part in a census Joseph and Mary live in Nazareth Magi / wise men visit the baby Jesus Shepherds visit the baby Jesus The Holy Family escapes to Egypt The Holy Family visits Jerusalem

On the above list those features belonging to Luke’s narrative appear in italics, those belonging to Matthew’s are in plain text.

96 Photocopy Master: Card Activity – The Infancy Narratives

97 Task Eleven Faith, joy and wonder are important aspects of Luke’s infancy narratives. Students are asked to choose one of the following incidents from the infancy narratives. Luke 1:5-25 The annunciation of the birth of John the Baptist.

Luke 1:26-38 The annunciation of the birth of Jesus.

Luke 1:39-56 The visit of Mary to Elizabeth.

Luke 1:57-80 The birth and circumcision of John the Baptist.

Luke 2:1-21 The birth and circumcision of Jesus.

Luke 2:22-40 The presentation of Jesus in the Temple.

Luke 2:41-52 The finding of the boy Jesus in the Temple.

They are required to explain how the chosen incident shows some of the following:

• People faithfully carrying out their religious and / or family duties • God challenging people to show faith • People placing their faith in God • God achieving great things in people of faith • People responding with joy and wonder to what God has done

Answers will vary from student to student.

98 PART SEVEN: SOME IMPORTANT THEMES IN THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO LUKE (I)

Achievement Objective 4

Students will be able to investigate the background and context, and the distinctive characteristics and themes of the Gospel of Luke.

Church Teachings

The Four Gospels

• The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John hold a unique position in the Church as a testimony to the life and teaching, and to the passion, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. • The authors of the four gospels proclaim the truth about Hehu Karaiti in their own distinctive ways, depending on the sources they were drawing on and the situations in the communities they were writing for.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Recognise that journeys are important features of Luke’s Gospel that provide a framework for many of Jesus’ words and actions.

Teacher Background

The Theme of Journey While it is possible to emphasise any number of details that are specific to Luke’s Gospel, it is important to recognise that a major structural feature of this Gospel is the theme of journey – the whole of the second part of the Gospel presents Jesus and his disciples on a journey to Jerusalem where he will suffer, die and rise from the dead.

Luke also wants his readers to be aware of the significance of Jesus’ journey and punctuates the text of the Gospel with deliberate indications of time and place that keep the story moving and which show that the journey towards Jerusalem is important to Jesus. For example:

9:51 When the days drew near for him to be taken up, he set his face to go to Jerusalem.

9:57 As they were going along the road …

10:38 Now as they went on their way, he entered a certain village …

99 13:22 Jesus went through one town and village after another, teaching as he made his way to Jerusalem. 17:11 On the way to Jerusalem Jesus was going through the region between Samaria and Galilee. 18:31 “See, we are going up to Jerusalem …”

19:11 … he was near to Jerusalem.

19:28 … he went on ahead, going up to Jerusalem.

19:37 As he was now approaching the path down from the Mount of Olives … 19:41 And as he came near and saw the city …

19:45 Then he entered the Temple …

While both Mark and Matthew include an account of Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem where he will meet his death, they locate most of Jesus’ preaching in Galilee and emphasise his ministry there. Luke, however, takes the theme of Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem and gives what is a geographical necessity a theological perspective that is prominent throughout almost half of his gospel (Luke 9:51-19:45).

In Luke, the theme of journey extends beyond 9:51-19:45 to include the whole Gospel and his second volume, the Acts of the Apostles. A close reading of the Gospel of Luke shows that the journey theme is present in the account of Jesus’ birth (2:1-7). Because “the great ones” of history (Caesar Augustus and his envoy Quirinius) call a census, some “small ones” (Joseph and his pregnant wife, Mary) must set out on a journey (2:1-5). While on their journey, Mary and Joseph’s child is born – for there is no room for them in the kataluma or “resting place”, the large, open-sided tents that were used by travellers to rest for the night. Luke presents Jesus as being born on a journey, for a journey.

The presence of a whole series of people from the Old Testament in the events leading up to and following Jesus’ birth – Zechariah, Elizabeth, John the Baptist, Anna, and especially Simeon – emphasise that the arrival of Jesus represents a movement away from the law of Moses and the Old Testament heritage of the people of Israel into a universal revelation and salvation that is offered to both Jews and Gentiles. The birth of Jesus marks a decisive moment in the unfolding of God’s history of salvation, a journey that starts in the Old Testament, moves through the central events of Jesus’ life, death, resurrection and ascension, to the beginnings of the Church’s story as described by Luke in the Acts of the Apostles.

Through the account of Jesus’ infancy, Old Testament people and events are shown to be essential aspects of the history of salvation. Luke reflects the belief of the early Church when he tells us that the Old Testament has been perfectly fulfilled in Jesus. In the story of the events surrounding Jesus’ birth, Luke establishes that God is working in and through Jesus to bring life to men

100 and women. However, the story of Jesus does not end with his journey to Jerusalem and his death there. Through the events of Jesus’ resurrection and ascension another journey begins, one that becomes the journey of the Church.

From its second chapter, Luke’s Gospel reveals through the words of Simeon that God’s salvation is offered to both Jews and Gentiles:

‘Master, now you are dismissing your servant in peace, according to your word; for my eyes have seen your salvation, which you have prepared in the presence of all peoples, a light for revelation to the Gentiles and for glory to your people Israel.’ (Luke 2:29-32)

This universal dimension to Luke’s Gospel has led experts to the common opinion that it is the work of a gentile living in a gentile world. At the centre of the story of salvation, Jesus offers salvation to all. The journey theme is important in Luke’s Gospel because Luke wants to show his own community – now removed in time and space from the beginnings of the Christian movement – their relationship to its source. In his Gospel Luke shows his community that they are part of a movement that had its origins in Moses, and which is still unfolding at “the end of the earth” (Acts 1:8), where they are still trying to live Christian lives.

Luke’s Gospel emphasises the role of John the Baptist as the “forerunner” of Jesus, an important figure who links the worlds of the Old and the New Testaments. Because of this the early part of Luke’s Gospel covers all the events in the life of Jesus where John the Baptist played an important role. It concludes with John’s imprisonment (3:20).

The genealogy of Jesus that Luke presents (3:23-38), by reaching back to Adam, the ancestor of all men and women, indicates the importance of Jesus, the Son of God, for the whole of humanity. Matthew’s genealogy, in contrast, traces Jesus’ descent from Abraham, thus emphasising his relationship with the Jewish people.

Jesus’ Journeys in Galilee (Luke 4:14–9:50) The material in Luke 4:14 to 9:50 focuses on Jesus’ ministry in Galilee. The journey theme that is introduced in Luke’s infancy narratives appears very early in the events of Jesus’ public ministry where he is described as travelling through the whole of Galilee (4:14-15) and receiving the praises of all. In an incident described in Luke 4:16-30, Jesus reads from Isaiah (61:1-2; 58:6) in the synagogue at Nazareth, announcing his intention of bringing grace, comfort and forgiveness to the broken ones:

The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to bring good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovery of sight to the blind, to let the oppressed go free, to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favour. (Luke 4:18-19)

101 These words announce a key theme of the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles – the mission of Jesus to Israel and the extension of that mission to the gentiles by the early Christians. All of this is the work of the Spirit – the same Spirit that anoints Jesus at the beginning of his mission goes on to anoint the Church at Pentecost at the beginning of its mission.

However, his own people reject Jesus and try to kill him. The hostile reception of Jesus’ message of freedom, forgiveness and love by the people of Nazareth is a pattern that is to be repeated throughout his ministry. His escape from death on this occasion foreshadows his Resurrection.

While Jesus begins his public life among his own people in Nazareth, he ends his time there by going away (verse 30), never to return. The next episodes in Luke’s Gospel (4:31-44) – all miracles – take place at Capernaum. Jesus ends his stay there by undertaking further journeys, “proclaiming the message in the synagogues of Judea” (4:44).

Much of the material that Luke uses in this section of his Gospel, which deals with his ministry in Galilee, is borrowed from the early chapters of the Gospel of Mark. The miracles at Capernaum (4:31-41), the calling of the first disciples (5:1-11), a further group of miracles (5:12-26), the calling of Levi (5:27-32), and the series of disputes with the Jewish religious authorities (5:33–6:11), all come from Mark (Mark 1:16-3:6). However, the Jesus that Luke presents in these situations has his own distinct characteristics. For example, when Luke’s Jesus calls the disciples (Luke 5:1-11) he leads them to a gradual recognition of who he is and what he can do for them (Luke 5:4- 8). This gentle approach – “Do not be afraid!” (Luke 5:10) – stands in contrast to Mark’s depiction of Jesus’ sudden and forceful entry into the lives of his disciples (Mark 1:16-20).

When Jesus appoints the twelve on a mountain (6:12-16), only Luke tells us that he does so after spending the night in prayer. Luke emphasises that Jesus is a person of prayer more than the other Gospel writers. Other references to Jesus at prayer can be found in 9:18,28; 10:21; 11:1; 18:1. Jesus is often seen leaving the crowds and spending time in lonely places where he communicates with God.

Luke 6:17-49 parallels Matthew’s collection of teachings in the Sermon on the Mount (chapters 5 to 7). Luke comes down with the twelve to a level place where “a great crowd of his disciples and a great multitude of people from all Judea, Jerusalem, and the coast of Tyre and Sidon” (Luke 6:17) come to touch him, be healed by him, and to hear his word. The miracles that follow – the healing of the slave of the gentile centurion (Luke 7:1-10) and the raising of the widow’s dead son (Luke 7:11-17) show that Jesus is not just a preacher, but one who brings God’s healing to those in need – even to non- Jews and those on the margins of Jewish society. Jesus offers people a new way of living and of relating to each other. This can be seen when he allows himself to be touched by a woman who is regarded by the community as a sinner (Luke 7:36-50). Jesus contrasts the greatness of the woman’s love with the hypocrisy of the religious authorities. As he continues on his journey

102 it is women whom Jesus has healed who provide for Jesus and the twelve (Luke 8:1-3).

Luke presents Jesus as the great teacher of parables (Luke 8:4-18) and one who extends our understanding of the family of God to include all those who hear the word of God and live according to it (Luke 8:19-21). In Luke, Jesus not only speaks the word of God, but carries out God’s actions, as seen in a further series of miracles (Luke 8:22-56), again taken from Mark. The twelve are also sent out by Jesus to preach the reign of God and to heal (Luke 9:1- 6).

Up to now Jesus has said and done many things. As the time draws near when Jesus will set his face towards Jerusalem, Luke presents material that raises questions about the person of Jesus. Even Herod (Luke 9:7-9) speculates about Jesus’ true identity. When Jesus miraculously feeds five thousand people from five loaves and two fish, Peter answers Jesus’ question, “But who do you say that I am?”, with the reply, “The Messiah of God” (Luke 9:20).

At the transfiguration (Luke 9:28-36) where Jesus speaks with Moses, the giver of the Torah, and Elijah, the founder of the prophetic movement, his true identity is further affirmed when out of the cloud came a voice that said, “This is my Son, my Chosen; listen to him!” (verse 35). All that has gone before in the history of salvation is to be fulfilled in Christ.

Luke, although generally gentle with the disciples, shows that they have plenty to learn. Because of their lack of faith they are not able to cure a boy seized by a spirit (Luke 9:37-43). They do not understand what Jesus is saying when he refers to his future death (Luke 9:43-45) and they clearly fail to appreciate important aspects of Jesus’ teaching, as can be seen in the argument over which of them will be greatest in God’s kingdom (Luke 9:46- 48). They also attempt to set up their own criteria for those who wish to be followers of Jesus (Luke 9:49-50).

Jesus’ Journey to Jerusalem (Luke 9:51–19:48) The turning point in Luke’s Gospel comes in 9:51, when after a long period of preparation through Jesus’ words and actions, and in the explicit revelation of himself as the Son of God, Luke announces:

When the days drew near for him to be taken up, he set his face to go to Jerusalem.

This begins the most original section in the whole of Luke’s Gospel, the so- called “journey section”. The central piece of this material is chapter 15, which deals with one of the main themes of Luke’s Gospel, the God of mercy who goes after those who are lost, offering them pardon, peace and reconciliation. The material in Luke 9:51 to 14:35 leads up to and prepares for chapter 15 by emphasising, for the most part, the qualities that Jesus requires of those who would be his disciples. The narrative that runs from

103 16:1–19:44 again focuses on those who would follow Jesus, dealing with the difficulties that they will have to face.

Luke 9:51 to 19:44 is almost completely taken up with Jesus’ teaching, which is presented within the context of his physical journey from Galilee to Jerusalem. At times Luke’s geography is difficult to follow – for example, 10:13-15 and 13:31-33 seem to be set in Galilee while 13:34-35 suggests that Jesus has already reached Jerusalem. However, Luke’s interest in Jesus’ journey is theological rather than physical. He presents Jesus as a teacher on a journey, and the central part of that teaching is the journey itself.

The earthly journey of Jesus that Luke presents in his Gospel ends in Jerusalem. However, the ultimate goal of Jesus’ journey is heaven. Luke’s is the only Gospel where Jesus is described leaving his disciples on earth and ascending to the Father (Luke 24:50-52), a theme that he returns to in Acts 1:6-11. The journey of the disciples, without the physical presence of Jesus, will begin from Jerusalem and reach out to the ends of the earth – the journey that Luke describes in the Acts of the Apostles.

In Luke 9:51–19:44 Jesus remains within the borders of Israel and attempts to speak to all sections of Jewish society. He calls all people to conversion (12:51–13:9) although his meetings with the scribes and the Pharisees only succeed in arousing their hostility (11:37-52). In the face of possible rejection, Jesus continues to preach a universal message of salvation to both Jews and Gentiles.

In his teaching Jesus prepares his followers for that time after he has returned to the Father. In this way he instills in them a clearer sense of mission (9:52– 10:20). Luke, who was writing for a third generation of Christians, possibly more comfortable in their Christianity, is aware of the danger of complacency. Luke’s Jesus instructs his disciples to live lives of prayer, selflessness, and service. He tells them that there will come a time when they will need to call on the Holy Spirit (11:13) and profess their faith in the Lord (12:1-12) while they await his return (12:33-40; 17:22–18:8; 19:11-27).

Some of the most memorable and loved material in all of the gospels is found in Jesus’ instructions to those who would be his followers – for example, the parable of the Good Samaritan (10:25-37), the description of Martha’s distraction and Mary’s attentiveness to Jesus’ teaching (Luke 10:38-42), and Jesus’ instruction to his disciples about how to pray (11:1-13).

The whole of chapter 15, which is entirely focused on seeking out and finding the lost – the lost sheep (15:1-7), the lost coin (15:8-10), and the two lost sons called back to the house of the Father (15:11-32) – is equally powerful.

Towards the end of his journey to Jerusalem, Luke returns to Mark as a source (Luke 18:15). However, he adds the story of Zacchaeus (19:1-10) to indicate that Jesus brings salvation to anyone who is prepared to take the risk of faith, even social outcasts, such as Zacchaeus, who collect taxes for the Roman occupiers. The parable of the talents (19:11-27) reinforces the

104 contrasting idea that we answerable for the gifts which we receive, and pointedly suggests that Israel has refused the God-given gift of Jesus of Nazareth.

In Luke 19:28-34 Jesus instructs his disciples in preparation for the entry into Jerusalem. His ride into the city on a colt (see Zechariah 9:9), an indication that he has come on a peace mission and not for violent purposes, is ambiguously received (Luke 19:36-40). Jerusalem misses God’s moment and is to embark on a course that eventually leads to its total destruction at the hands of the Romans in 70AD. Near the end of his journey, Jesus laments over Jerusalem (Luke 19:41-44), an incident that appears only in this Gospel. Jesus then enters the Temple, purging it of all that defiles it. He then occupies it in order to teach God’s Word in God’s House (19:45-48).

Jesus’ Journey Ends and the Church’s Journey Begins in Jerusalem (Luke 20:1–24:53)

In Luke’s Gospel, Jesus, having occupied the Temple, never leaves it. He preaches there and enters into conflict with the Jewish authorities (Luke 20:1– 21:4). Jesus speaks of the end of Jerusalem and of the end of all history. He draws his listeners’ attention to the signs of this end-time and tells them to attend to God speaking through these catastrophic events (21:5-38).

Events move rapidly towards Jesus’ crucifixion – the plot to kill Jesus (22:1-6), his Last Supper (22:7-38), and his prayer and betrayal by Judas at the Mount of Olives (22:39-53). Luke’s version of Jesus’ trials differs significantly from that of Mark. Luke sets Jesus’ trial by the Jewish council in the morning after the arrest, while Mark has it occurring at night. Luke also has two trials before Pilate, punctuated by a visit to Herod.

As Jesus’ journey moves closer to his death, Luke emphasises that Jesus is the innocent one whose loss of life is gloriously overcome by the faithfulness of a loving and saving God. Luke uses Jesus’ trials to proclaim the truth about him. Before the Jewish authorities, Jesus is identified as the Messiah / Christ (22:67), Son of Man (22:69), and Son of God (22:70). When he is before Pilate Jesus is also called Messiah / Christ and is given the title of king (23:3-4). Pilate finds Jesus innocent of the charges brought against him (23:4) and sends him off to Herod. After his return, Pilate again – twice – declares Jesus innocent (23:13-16,22) of any crime.

Condemned to crucifixion (23:27-31) when the public call for the death of Jesus rather than that of Barabbas (23:17-19), a notorious and violent criminal, the innocent Jesus is led to the place of the Skull for his execution. Simon of Cyrene, who is forced to assist Jesus with the carrying of his cross, becomes a model of all Christians who are required to follow Jesus on his journey (23:26). On his way to his death Jesus pauses to speak words of comfort and warning to the women of Jerusalem (23:27-31).

Once again, Luke emphasises Jesus’ innocence, this time by having him executed between two criminals. While one of the men hanging there derides

105 Jesus, the so-called “good thief” recognises that Jesus, unlike himself, is without guilt (23:39-41). In Luke’s account, the death of Jesus is without the anguish that is a feature of Mark’s passion narrative, and is indicated by a gentle giving up of his spirit into the hands of the Father (23:46). At his death, the centurion standing by the cross also declares Jesus’ innocence (Luke 23:47). Women watch as Jesus is taken from the cross and buried (Luke 23:50-56).

Luke’s account of the resurrection contains a number of features that distinguish it from the other resurrection narratives. In Luke all of the Easter events take place in Jerusalem, on the same day (24:1,13,28-29,33,36,50) – thus, the unity of time and place point to the coherence of the history of salvation.

The journey theme is also present in Luke’s account of the Resurrection, especially in the Emmaus story. Following the Resurrection, the women are not instructed to tell the disciples to return to Galilee, as in Mark 16:7. Rather, the women are told not to look for the living among the dead (Luke 24:5) and are reminded of the journey that they have made with Jesus from Galilee, where he had already told them that “the Son of Man had to be handed over to sinners, and be crucified, and on the third day rise again” (Luke 24:7).

It is to Jerusalem that Jesus journeyed to be crucified and to rise again, and it is in Jerusalem that women and men first experience the saving power of the risen Lord. However, on the day of the resurrection, two disciples of Jesus set out on a journey away from Jerusalem towards Emmaus (Luke 24:13) – in a sense they are walking away from salvation history. The Lord, however, goes out after the pair, who feel that Jesus has disappointed their hopes that he might be the saviour of Israel (Luke 24:21). Jesus explains to them all that the Scriptures had said about him, starting with Moses and the prophets (Luke 24:25-27), but they are too self-absorbed and fail to recognise Jesus. It is only when he blesses and breaks the eucharistic bread that the two disciples’ eyes are opened to Jesus’ presence with them (Luke 24:29-32). “That same hour they got up and returned to Jerusalem”, once again re-joining the company of faithful witnessing to the Lord’s resurrection (Luke 24:33-34).

Luke’s Gospel concludes with Jesus’ appearance to all the disciples whom he instructs to proclaim repentance and forgiveness of sins “in his name to all nations, beginning from Jerusalem” (Luke 24:47). However, they will not be alone in this, as he promises to send them the Holy Spirit – the life-giving power from on high (24:49). As his own journey on earth comes to an end in Jerusalem, Jesus prepares his followers for a new journey – the birth of the Church at Pentecost – which will begin in the same city.

Following Jesus’ ascension into heaven (Luke 24:50-51), his disciples, full of joy and praising God, return to the Temple. Thus, Luke’s Gospel ends where it began.

106 Links with the Student Text

Task Twelve Here students are asked to choose one of the following events on Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem and explain what point is made in the relevant passage from Luke’s Gospel about being a follower of Jesus.

• Jesus describes what it means to be a disciple (Luke 9:46-62) • Jesus sends out seventy-two disciples ahead of him (Luke 10:1-16) • Jesus tells a story using the theme of journey – the parable of the good Samaritan (Luke 10:25-37) • Jesus rests in the home of Martha and Mary (Luke 10:38-42) • Jesus teaches his disciples the Lord’s Prayer (Luke 11:1-13) • Jesus eats with a Pharisee (Luke 11:37-54) and warns his disciples about the Pharisees’ hypocrisy (Luke 12:1-12)

Answers will vary depending on which passages students have chosen to write about.

Extension Activity Here students are asked to choose another event or incident from Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem (see Luke 9:51 – 9:41). They should present a role-play in which they interview Jesus and one of the other people involved about what has happened. Encourage students to explore the deeper impact of the event or incident on people’s lives and faith in the interview they are role-playing.

Task Thirteen Here students are asked to list as many reasons as they can why Luke’s Gospel can be called “The story of a journey”.

Answers may include:

• Journeys are important features of Luke’s Gospel and provide a framework for many of Jesus’ words and actions. • Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem is central to the Gospel and to his fulfilment of God’s plan of salvation there through his saving death and resurrection. • From the time he leaves Galilee until he enters Jerusalem (Luke 19:41), Jesus is constantly on the move. • Jesus teaches his followers that being his disciple involves walking in his footsteps – setting out in response to God’s call and facing hardships and suffering along the journey. • The theme of Journey is present in the events of the Emmaus story where the risen Lord journeys alongside the pair of disappointed disciples. • Jesus’ Ascension into heaven brings his earthly journey to an end. • The story of the Church will begin with the descent of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost. This is described in the sequel to Luke’s Gospel, the Acts of the Apostles.

107 PART EIGHT: SOME IMPORTANT THEMES IN THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO LUKE (II)

Achievement Objective 4

Students will be able to investigate the background and context, and the distinctive characteristics and themes of the Gospel of Luke.

Church Teachings

The Four Gospels

• The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John hold a unique position in the Church as a testimony to the life and teaching, and to the passion, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. • The authors of the four gospels proclaim the truth about Hehu Karaiti in their own distinctive ways, depending on the sources they were drawing on and the situations in the communities they were writing for.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Recognise the importance of joy, the Holy Spirit and karakia (prayer) in Luke’s Gospel.

Teacher Background

Joy A sense of joy fills Luke’s Gospel – joy in response to the wonders that God has done through Jesus.

This theme emerges in Luke's stories about Jesus' birth. Throughout her canticle (Luke 1:46-55) – also called the Magnificat – Mary expresses great joy: “My spirit rejoices...The Mighty One has done great things for me...The hungry he has filled with good things...He has helped Israel his servant.”

Gabriel's announcement to Mary and Zechariah's canticle also convey this message: The salvation of the human race is good news! God is doing mighty and surprising things, so rejoice!

The word joy is used as many times in Luke as it is used in the other three Gospels combined: “I am bringing you good news of great joy” (2:10); “Rejoice on that day and leap for joy!” (6:23); “There will be more joy in heaven over one sinner who repents” (15:7). Throughout Luke’s Gospel Jesus’ disciples consider themselves fortunate and blessed.

108 But why are people so joyful in Luke’s Gospel? Because they have experienced the saving power and love of God! Jesus' teaching about God's surprising love is most clear in Chapter 15 of Luke’s Gospel, where Jesus tells three parables – the lost sheep (15:1-7), the lost coin (15:8-10) and the prodigal (or lost) son (15:11-32). The parables of the lost coin and the prodigal son are found only in Luke.

In the story of the prodigal son – a parable that is really more about the father, who represents God – Jesus compares God to a father who surprises everyone by welcoming back a son who through sin has alienated himself from his family, village and religion. God’s love for sinners is so great that when sinners who feel themselves far removed from God take even a small step, as it were, they are welcomed into God’s loving embrace.

Luke’s Gospel is a reminder that being a follower of Jesus should be a joyful and even surprising experience. When people focus on their struggles and difficulties, they fail to see the many positive and hopeful things that are right there in front of them. But when Christians remember what a wonderful thing it is to be loved by God, they become more aware of the surprising ways in which God blesses the world.

The Spirit of God Luke mentions the Holy Spirit frequently throughout his Gospel and continues the emphasis on the Holy Spirit in the Acts of the Apostles. Though Matthew and Mark also frequently speak of the Spirit, Luke does so to an even greater extent.

The first two chapters of Luke not only narrate Jesus’ conception by the Spirit (1:35), but also report that Elizabeth (1:41) and Zechariah (1:67), the parents of John the Baptist, are filled with the Holy Spirit. In fact, the Spirit is first mentioned in (1:15) when John the Baptist is described within his mother’s womb as being “filled with the Holy Spirit”. The aged Simeon, who praises God after he sees the infant Jesus in the Temple, is clearly filled with and guided by the Spirit (2:25-27).

Like Matthew and Mark, Luke describes how the Spirit descended upon Jesus at his baptism (3:21-23) and led him into the wilderness (4:1). Luke again refers to the Spirit as Jesus begins his public activity:

Then Jesus, filled with the power of the Spirit, returned to Galilee, and a report about him spread through all the surrounding country. (Luke 4:14)

Near the end of the Gospel, the final words of the dying Jesus are:

“Father, into your hands I commend my spirit.” (Luke 23:46)

The Gospel ends with the risen Jesus promising to send the Spirit upon his followers:

109 And see, I am sending upon you what my Father promised; so stay here in the city until you have been clothed with power from on high. (Luke 24:49)

The Holy Spirit is central in the Acts of the Apostles. Not only does the Spirit give birth to the Church at Pentecost, but also directs the expansion of the Christian community’s mission – for example, Philip’s conversion of an Ethiopian eunuch (Acts 8:29), Paul’s conversion (Acts 9:17), Peter’s conversion of Cornelius, a Roman centurion (Acts 10:19), Paul and Barnabas’ commissioning for their first missionary journey (Acts 13:2), and the directive to Paul to take the gospel to Macedonia – and hence into Europe (Acts 16:6- 9).

The Spirit also guides the decision of the Council of Jerusalem about what conditions to impose on gentiles who wish to become Christians:

For it has seemed good to the Holy Spirit and to us to impose on you no further burden than these essentials: that you abstain from what has been sacrificed to idols and from blood and from what is strangled and from fornication. (Acts 15:28-29)

In addition Luke frequently writes about the community and individuals as filled with the Spirit. Thus, the same Spirit that conceived, empowered, and guided Jesus now does the same within the Christian community as it spreads from Jerusalem (the centre of the Jewish world) to Rome (the centre of the gentile world).

Prayer Luke shows prayer to be an important aspect of Jesus’ preparation before each new stage of his ministry – for example, at his baptism (3:21), before the choice of the Twelve (6:12), before Peter’s confession of faith (9:18), at the Transfiguration (9:28), before teaching the “Our Father” (11:1), and in the Garden of Gethsemane (22:41). Jesus is clear that his disciples need to be people of prayer also (6:28; 10:2; 11:1-13; 18:1-8; 21:36).

Links with the Student Text

Task Fourteen A sense of joy fills Luke’s Gospel – joy in response to the power and love of God! Here students are asked to read the various passages from Luke’s Gospel listed in the student text that emphasise joy or praise of God.

• Gabriel’s announcement to Mary (Luke 1:26-38) • Mary’s Canticle – the Magnificat (Luke 1:46-55) • Zechariah’s Canticle (Luke 1:68-79) • The Beatitudes (Luke 6:20-23) • The apostles rejoice (Luke 10:17-20) • Jesus is filled with joy (Luke 10:21-22)

110 Students should choose the passage which for them conveys the greatest sense of joy and then copy out the words or phrases from the passage that are especially joyful in their praise.

Responses will vary from student to student.

Something to Think About Here students are asked to reflect on why, in the light of Luke’s Gospel, Christians should be joyful people.

Possible response might include:

• What Jesus has brought into the world is something quite wonderful – the power and the love of God. • The Good News that Jesus brings should arouse great joy in people if only they took it to heart. • Faith is something that will bring great and lasting happiness in life. • The joy that Jesus brings is especially for those who in the eyes of the world are unimportant – the poor, the lowly, sinners etc.

Task Fifteen Here students are required to link Scripture passages with the action of the Holy Spirit that they describe. The answers appear below:

Scripture Passage Action of the Holy Spirit

1. Luke 1:11-16,67 H. The Holy Spirit acts in the life of John the Baptist and his parents. 2. Luke 1:26-38 E. The Holy Spirit causes Mary to conceive Jesus.

3. Luke 2:25-32 J. The Holy Spirit enables Simeon to recognise Jesus as the Messiah. 4. Luke 3:21-22 A. The Holy Spirit reveals Jesus at his baptism by John. 5. Luke 4:1-2 I. The Holy Spirit leads Jesus into the desert to be tested. 6. Luke 4:14-15 B. The Holy Spirit empowers Jesus to begin his ministry in Galilee. 7. Luke 10:21-22 F. The Holy Spirit fills Jesus with joy.

8. Luke 11:9-13 D. The Holy Spirit is promised to those who ask the Father for this gift. 9. Luke 12:11-12 G. The Holy Spirit teaches the believer what to say in times of trial and difficulty. 10. Luke 24:49 C. The Holy Spirit who is promised by the Father will be sent by Jesus.

111 Something to Think About • Here students are asked to identify any people through whom the Holy Spirit works today. Answers will vary. • Students are then asked to suggest some of the signs that the Spirit is active in these people’s lives.

Paul’s letter to the Galatians provides a useful checklist of indications of the Spirit’s presence in a person:

“… the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, generosity, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control.” (Galatians 5:22-23)

The teacher may find it useful to refer students back to material covered in Topic 11C “The Spirit at Work in our World”.

Task Sixteen Here students are asked to look up the Scripture references provided and make up a list of dos and don’ts of prayer based on what Jesus says and does.

• At Jesus’ baptism (Luke 3:21) • While Jesus takes time out in a deserted place (Luke 5:16) • Before Jesus chooses the Twelve (Luke 6:12) • Before Peter’s confession of faith in Jesus (Luke 9:18-21) • At the Transfiguration (Luke 9:28) • Before Jesus teaches the disciples the “Our Father” (Luke 11:1-4) • In the Garden of Gethsemane (Luke 22:41)

Answers will vary but here are relevant points:

Dos of Prayer Pray often – at all times Pray before important decisions and events in your life Pray for those who treat you badly Pray for the gift of the Spirit Address God as Father in your prayer Be persistent in prayer Go to quiet places to pray Pray using the petitions of the Lord’s Prayer Pray that God’s will be done

Don’ts of Prayer Don’t give up on prayer Don’t pray only when you feel like it Don’t ignore the needs of others in your prayer Don’t pray to be forgiven if you are not willing to forgive others

112 Something to Think About Here students are asked to consider what Jesus’ prayer at Gethsemane tells us about his relationship with God.

As well as revealing his great intimacy with God – Jesus calls God “Father” – Jesus’ prayer at Gethsemane tells us that he has total trust in the Father and puts God’s will first.

113 PART NINE: SOME IMPORTANT THEMES IN THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO LUKE (III)

Achievement Objective 4

Students will be able to investigate the background and context, and the distinctive characteristics and themes of the Gospel of Luke.

Church Teachings

The Four Gospels

• The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John hold a unique position in the Church as a testimony to the life and teaching and to the passion, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. • The authors of the four gospels proclaim the truth about Hehu Karaiti in their own distinctive ways, depending on the sources they were drawing on and the situations in the communities they were writing for.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Recognise that in Luke’s Gospel Hehu shows God’s saving aroha to all people. • Explain how Jesus’ ministry towards women and those on the margins of his society challenged the culture of his time.

Teacher Background

Care for the Poor In Luke’s Gospel, Jesus places a greater emphasis on meeting the needs of the poor and the outcast than he does in Matthew, Mark and John.

In the Infancy Narratives, the poor and lowly are chosen for the greatest privileges. A comparison of the Beatitudes in Matthew (5:3-12) and Luke (6:20-23) reveals that the focus in Matthew is on spiritual poverty and spiritual hunger, but in Luke material poverty and physical hunger are emphasised. Luke goes even further and adds a section of woes in 6:24-26, starting with “But woe to you who are rich, for you have received your consolation”. Luke has Jesus read the text from Isaiah about the poor when he is present at the synagogue in Nazareth (4:18) and refers to it again later (7:22). Marginalised people, such as the Samaritans, are viewed sympathetically by Luke (9:51- 56).

Throughout the Gospel of Luke Jesus challenges those who are rich to see the needs of others. The famous parable of the Good Samaritan (10:29-37)

114 and the story of the rich man and Lazarus appear only in Luke (16:19-31), as does other material relating to the poor (12:13-21). The parable of the rich fool (12:16-21) goes so far as to say that a person who is focused on accumulating wealth will be excluded from heaven. By ignoring the poor we are also rejecting the God who calls us to care for those in greatest need.

Mercy Luke’s Gospel has been called the Gospel of Mercy because, on many occasions, it emphasises compassion and forgiveness – the parables of the lost sheep, the lost coin and the lost son (15), and Jesus’ encounters with the sinful woman (7:36-50) and Zacchaeus (19:1-10) demonstrate this. Jesus also forgives his killers (23:34) and commands his disciples: “Be compassionate just as your Father is compassionate” (6:36). This compassion and pardon is universal. The genealogical table that Luke presents early in the Gospel (3:23-38), stretches from Jesus back to Adam – it is Luke’s way of showing that God intends to save the whole human family.

Stewardship of Wealth Stewardship is also important in Luke. Parables such as the rich fool (12:16- 21), the dishonest steward (16:1-8) and the rich man and Lazarus (16:19-31) make the point that the goods of this life are ours to look after and share.

Women Luke gives greater prominence to women than do the other evangelists. For example, Luke mentions thirteen women not found in the other gospels. As well as including many of the same incidents involving women that are part of the Gospels of Mark and Matthew, Luke has his own unique stories about them. For example, Mary, the mother of Jesus, plays a central role in Luke’s Infancy Narrative, which she doesn’t in Matthew’s. In Jesus’ public ministry a group of women, Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Susanna and others (8:2-3), travel with him and are also present at his Crucifixion, burial, and at the tomb on Easter morning. They are the first to announce the Easter message (24:9). Luke makes it clear that women are the first to come to Easter faith and the first to proclaim it. However, women are never referred to as disciples or apostles.

Luke also includes the stories of Martha and Mary (10:38-42), the widow of Nain (7:11-17), the woman who washed Jesus’ feet (7:36-50), the cure of the crippled woman (13:10-17), the parable of the lost coin (15:8-10) and the importunate or insistent widow (18:1-8). The prominent role that women play in Luke’s Gospel suggests that they were an important presence in Luke’s community. However, it seems that the community may have been divided over their role.

Luke appears to foster the reflective silence of women who are consistently presented as nurturers. For example, in the story of Martha and Mary, Luke shows an attentive, thoughtful woman to be adopting the “better part”. Luke presents Jesus as siding with Mary, who is seated where it was customary for only men to be found, at the feet of a teacher. Luke signals that Jesus does

115 not let the mores and values of his day limit him or restrict those who might hear him and desire to become his followers.

Luke and Women: feminist perspectives

Many feminist scripture scholars do not consider the treatment of women in Luke in such a favourable light. They acknowledge that Luke does have a greater number of stories about women in his gospel by comparison with the other gospels. On the other hand there are few in Acts. The apparently favourable treatment of women in Luke may lull women into a sense that all is well. However, women are seldom given a voice in Luke, not even Mary after the infancy stories. And Martha, who does have a speaking part, is rebuked by Jesus, while her quiet, receptive sister Mary is praised. Women tend to be shown as hearers and receivers, supporters and servers rather than as truly active disciples in their own right.

“One of the strategies of this gospel is to provide female readers with female characters as role models: prayerful, quiet, grateful women, supportive of male leadership, forgoing the prophetic ministry” Jane Schaberg in The Women’s Bible Commentary, p. 275

So women need to read Luke carefully and so do men who care about that equality of discipleship to which Jesus calls all of us. On the one hand we can appreciate the way in which women and men feature in the good news story of Jesus Christ. On the other hand we can be aware that the image of women disciples suffers from the cultural limitations of the times.

Table Fellowship In Jesus’ time, table fellowship – sharing a meal with somebody – was a social act that represented mutual acceptance. Rules governing not only what might be eaten and how it should be prepared, but also with whom one might eat, were deeply embedded in Jewish society. Refusing to share a meal was a form of social ostracism. Pharisees and others would not eat with somebody whom they regarded as impure, and no decent person would share a meal with an outcast.

A reading of Luke’s Gospel makes it clear that Jesus enjoyed long meals with other people. Luke treats these mealtimes as an essential aspect of Jesus’ ministry, opportunities for Jesus to teach people, especially those he had just met, about the reign of God. Jesus frequently ate with those on – or beyond – the margins of Jewish society. Meals gave Jesus the opportunity to behave in an inclusive way towards people and embodied his alternative vision of a community that welcomed and included all. Motivating Jesus was the ethos of compassion. This stood in sharp contrast to the ethos of purity, which required closed table fellowship.

Luke’s Gospel records Jesus’ presence at nine meals. The first of these is with Levi, the tax collector, whom Jesus called to be one of his followers (Luke 5:27-39). Levi left his old way of life and threw a banquet for Jesus, inviting many of his tax-collector friends – people whom respectable Jews wouldn't

116 have anything to do with because of their cooperation with the Roman oppressors. The Pharisees and scribes who were present challenged Jesus by asking, “Why do you eat and drink with tax collectors and sinners?” To which Jesus replied, “Those who are healthy do not need a physician, but the sick do. I have not come to call the righteous to repentance but sinners” (5:31- 32). The Pharisees and scribes sensed that what Jesus was saying threatened their expectations about God – until people recognise their need for mercy and forgiveness they will never know God.

Another meal story in Luke shows Jesus eating in the home of a Pharisee (Luke 7:36-50). During the meal, a woman who is a well-known sinner, possibly a prostitute, enters the house with an expensive jar of ointment. She washes Jesus' feet with her tears, dries them with her hair, then covers them with the ointment. The Pharisee who has invited Jesus cannot believe that Jesus is letting this sinful woman touch him.

Aware of what the Pharisee is thinking, Jesus tells a story that makes the point that people with great sins appreciate God's mercy more than people whose sins are not so great. Then Jesus forgives the woman her sins. By doing this, Jesus implied that sinners recognise his divine power while the religious leaders do not.

Links with the Student Text

Some Things to Discuss After reading passages from Luke’s Gospel on outsiders and sinners, mercy and forgiveness, and the poor and the rich, students are asked to discuss the following questions.

• Which groups of people were labelled as outcasts and sinners in Jesus’ society? • Which groups of people does our society label as outcasts and sinners? • In what ways did Jesus bring mercy and forgiveness to people in his time? • In what ways might Jesus bring mercy and forgiveness to these people today? • What did Jesus teach about the use of riches? • How might Jesus’ teaching on riches apply in Aotearoa New Zealand today?

This discussion could involve the whole class or take place in smaller groups. Students should jot down ideas that come up in their discussion.

The photocopy master on the following page provides a brief summary about the various categories of people who were considered sinners and outcasts in Jesus’ time. It is also useful for the following activities and tasks.

Students should have no problem identifying outcasts and sinners in our own age.

117 Something to Research Here students are asked to find out about the attitudes of Jesus’ society towards the following groups of people:

Samaritans gentiles tax-collectors lepers

Task Seventeen Using their knowledge of Luke’s gospel, students should prepare a presentation on aspects of the theme of “Good News for All”.

The presentation could be in the form of:

• A PowerPoint • A speech • A poster • A short essay

In their presentation students should suggest how particular teachings and actions of Jesus bring out the theme or message. They should make use of quotes from Scripture. Where appropriate they should include visual design and / or layout.

Task Eighteen Jesus had a very open and accepting attitude towards women that went far beyond the conditions of his time and culture. Women had a special place in Jesus’ life and ministry.

This task requires students to take any aspect of Jesus’ ministry and relationship with women and explain how by his words or actions Jesus challenged the culture of his time.

The teacher should direct students to the material about women in this section of the student text.

Students should also refer to the following material in Luke’s Gospel:

• Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Susanna and others (Luke 8:2-3), travelled with Jesus, and were present at his crucifixion and burial. At the tomb on Easter morning they were the first to come to Easter faith and to announce it. (Luke 24:9) • The widow of Nain (Luke 7:11-17) • The woman who washed Jesus’ feet with her tears (Luke 7:36-50) • Martha and Mary (Luke 10:38-42)

118 Photocopy Master: Sinners and Outcasts – Resource Material

Sinners and Outcasts – Resource Material

All societies and cultures have their outcasts, those people who are despised and looked down upon by the powerful and respectable.

In Jewish society certain groups were regarded as being outsiders and were treated badly.

Gentiles were those people who were not of Jewish ancestry. Jews tried to keep clear of them because they were not descendants of Abraham. Jewish customs, such as circumcision, and strict rules regarding what they could and couldn’t eat set them apart from the Gentiles and marked them as being chosen by God.

Samaritans were of Jewish ancestry but had intermarried with foreigners. They built their own temple in Samaria at Mount Gerizim, which was in opposition to the Temple in Jerusalem.

Tax collectors (also known as publicans) were Jews who collected the taxes on behalf of the Romans. The tax collectors or publicans would often make people pay a much greater amount of tax and keep the profits for themselves. They had a very bad reputation because they were dishonest and were hated because they worked for the Romans.

People with disabilities (the blind, the deaf, the dumb, the lame and the crippled) and those with diseases (lepers) were also rejected by most Jews. Their poor physical condition was seen as a punishment from God for their own sin or that of their parents, and their failure to follow any one of the hundreds of regulations demanded by the Law of Moses.

Occupations which tempted people to be dishonest or break the law were also looked down on by some Jews. Prostitutes were one obvious example but so too were doctors and butchers who became unclean when they touched blood and dead bodies. Even shepherds were regarded as law-breakers because their sheep often wandered onto other people’s land!

A sinner was anyone who broke the law either deliberately or out of ignorance.

Through his life and actions Jesus showed concern and friendship for those who were rejected by Jewish society. He was given the nickname “friend of tax collectors and sinners” (Matthew 11:19 and Luke 15:1-2) by those respectable and powerful people who did not like him mixing with outcasts.

119

PART TEN: AN INTRODUCTION TO APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

Achievement Objective 5

Students will be able to investigate the background and context, and the distinctive characteristics and themes of the Book of Revelation.

Church Teachings

Apocalyptic

• Karaiti is Lord of the cosmos and of all history. • Christ’s reign of tika, aroha and peace will be fulfilled with his return to earth when all evil powers will become subject to him. • Before Christ establishes Te Rangatiratanga (the reign of God) at the end of time, the Church will experience trial and distress. • At all times, Christians must live in expectation of Christ’s coming. • The trials, including persecution, that the Church must pass through before Christ’s coming will shake the whakapono of many believers and lead them away from the truth. • The Church rejects claims of millenarianism, based on false readings of the Book of Revelation, which hold that Christ and the saints will return to establish a thousand-year reign in this world before the end of time. • The Last Judgement marks God's final triumph over evil which throughout history has existed alongside good. • At the end of time the righteous will reign with Christ forever in glory and all creation will be renewed.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Describe important aspects and features of apocalyptic literature.

Teacher Background

The Apocalyptic Genre The word apocalypse comes from the Greek word meaning “revelation” or “unveiling”. It refers to a type of Jewish literature that flourished from about 200 BC to the end of the first century AD. The last book in the canon of Christian scriptures, the Book of Revelation – also known as the Book of the Apocalypse – fits this pattern.

120 Apocalyptic writings typically describe the process by which a human visionary receives secret knowledge about the future and the cosmos from a heavenly being. In Jewish apocalypses the revealing figure is usually an angel; in Christian works it is the risen Christ. The revelation is often given through symbolic visions or journeys to heaven or to other places normally inaccessible to human beings.

The narrative framework of a particular piece of apocalyptic writing describes the manner of revelation. It is standard for the person receiving the vision to claim to have been let into the secrets of the heavenly realm. The person to whom the heavenly secrets are given – either by means of visions or hearing the heavenly word, or through an otherworldly journey – must have their meaning interpreted by an angel. This underlines the fact that revelation alone is not enough and that the visions are beyond natural human comprehension. The content of the revelation is typically in the form of a prophecy of an event long past. It often involves the division of history into periods (for example, a series of “weeks” of years). Angelic and demonic forces also play a significant role.

In apocalyptic writings the supernatural world is seen to stand above our earthly world. This heavenly world is presented as the “real” world, the earthly world as a place that will not last. The apocalyptic writer has a dualistic understanding of reality that contrasts our world with the world above, and our age with an age to come. The fate of our world is shown to be in the hands of an otherworldly reality. Apocalyptic literature looks to a life beyond death that is very different from the life of our experience. It always involves a definitive judgment – the final clash between good and evil, resulting in the total victory of God and the end of evil.

This concern with the “end time” events, also known as eschatology – from the Greek term meaning “knowledge of the last things” – grew out of biblical prophecy. The prophets of Israel, when they looked to the future, envisaged a world that would find form and shape in history. The apocalyptic attitude toward the present age does not arise from the belief that the present world was too corrupt for the establishment of God’s kingdom, so much as from the conviction that without God’s help the new age would never come about.

Apocalypticism Apocalyptic literature acknowledges that God sees the course of history and looks ahead to the eschaton – “the end”. At its basis is the understanding that God has a final goal or destiny in view for humanity and all creation. Apocalyptic literature affirms the position that the final goal is near at hand. In the apocalyptic view, God reveals his mysteries directly to humans and gives them knowledge of the true reality so that they can organise their lives accordingly. The two biblical apocalypses, the Book of Daniel and the Book of Revelation, support such a view of apocalyptic. The same is true for the apocalyptic imagery that accompanies the “end-time” descriptions in the three synoptic gospels.

121 Apocalypse and apocalyptic literature must be distinguished from apocalypticism. While apocalypse is a literary genre or form of literature in which apocalyptic views are expressed, apocalypticism is the worldview of an apocalyptic movement or group. Such movements and groups use apocalyptic literature, especially the Book of Revelation, as a basis for developing and presenting their own particular interpretation about the end of the world and the circumstances that will prevail when this occurs.

The Voice of the Marginalised Apocalypse and apocalyptic literature is often the product of people suffering oppression, of those on the margins. It voices a minority point of view, whether in relation to a foreign power or in the face of a power-group within a society. It announces that “God and right are on our side” – a comforting message to those experiencing adversity who take God seriously.

Apocalyptic arises from the experience of alienation or in times of crisis. An apocalyptic group sets up its own symbolic universe or worldview – a system of ideas and beliefs within which it can live its life. It usually does so in protest against the dominant society with which it is in conflict. The group’s experience of alienation and of powerlessness can take various forms but the apocalyptic writer is typically addressing what is perceived to be a crisis situation.

Reading Apocalyptic Literature Included among the religious writings of Israel and the early Church, are seventeen Jewish works that fit within the apocalyptic genre. Most are outside the canon of Old and New Testament scriptures – those that are recognised by the Church as divinely inspired. They are of uneven quality, but two of them are of particular interest.

• 1 Enoch is a compilation of five “books” or sections of unequal length and of differing dates. In general the work reflects the historical events preceding and following the Maccabean Revolt (167-164 BC), and shares the same setting as the Book of Daniel.

• The apocalypse of 4 Ezra was written after the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in AD 70. It dates from about the time of the Book of Revelation.

For those unfamiliar with the genre, apocalyptic literature can be strange, disturbing, and impossible to understand. For Jews and early Christians, however, it was part of their culture. They would have understood its literary conventions and heard its message.

The Book of Daniel The Book of Daniel is well known for the stories in chapters one to six which introduce Daniel, a Jewish youth deported to Babylon by King Nebuchadnezzar “in the third year of the reign of King Jehoiakim of Judah” (1:1). He and his three friends were trained to serve at the royal court where Daniel gained a reputation as an interpreter of dreams (chapters 2, 4 and 5)

122 and where he emerged unharmed from the lions' den (chapter 6). In these tales Daniel and his companions overcome trials in which their lives, or at least their reputations, are at risk, and the pagans glorify God.

The Book of Daniel, a product of the Maccabean age, falls into two halves. In the early chapters, Daniel and his companions, in their dealings with the kings – Nebuchadnezzar, his “son” Belshazzar and the latter's successor, Darius the Mede – show unwavering fidelity to God and the Law. In turn, God vindicates the young men for their faithfulness.

Chapters seven to twelve, however, take a different direction and are strongly apocalyptic in their emphasis. They contain the only fully-developed example of apocalyptic literature in the Hebrew Bible – earlier Jewish apocalyptic writings, including the Enoch material (I Enoch), are considered apocryphal.

Daniel 7-12, a masterpiece of Jewish apocalyptic literature, can be dated fairly precisely to 165 BC, shortly before the death of Antiochus IV Epiphanes. It consists of three visions (chapters 7, 8, 10-12), and an interpretation of a biblical prophecy (chapter 9). Along the way, an angel explains what is revealed. In each of the visions and the prophecy there is a historical pattern, an eschatological crisis and the prospect of judgment and ultimate salvation.

Daniel’s Visions The series of visions (Daniel 7-12) traces the course of history, emphasising the ultimate, inevitable victory of the people of God. Four successive empires are portrayed – the Babylonian, Median, Persian and Greek (a stereotyped list) – each surpassing its predecessor in evil.

In this way the reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes (the Seleucid monarch who had launched an assault on the Jewish religion) is presented as a flood of evil. The time was at hand when God would show his power.

Daniel maintains that history is totally under God’s control. He tells the story of the past in such a way that the persecuted Jews will understand that their sufferings have a place in God's purpose.

The book looks ahead to the final victory, to the end time, to the coming of the reign of God. It sees the age of the Messiah about to dawn, beyond the time of suffering. God's victory over the forces of evil is assured, and those who serve God faithfully will have a glorious part in his triumph.

Daniel, like apocalyptic literature in general, presupposes the existence of a supernatural world above the visible one. The apocalyptic seer has an insider’s perspective on this heavenly reality.

Symbolic Beasts in the Book of Daniel In the first vision (chapter 7) Daniel sees four beasts rising from the sea. An angel explains to him that these represent four empires: Babylonian, Median, Persian and Greek (Seleucid). Antiochus IV is presented in a derogatory way as the “little horn” (7:8) coming from the last of them.

123 The Ancient of Days (God), in a heavenly judgment scene, condemns the four empires. There then appears, on the clouds of heaven, one “like a human being” (7:13), that is, a human figure, in contrast to the beasts. The angel explains that this heavenly figure, presented here as an individual, symbolises the earthly people of God, the “saints of the Most High” (7:25). They will receive an everlasting kingdom that will be inaugurated after “a time, two times, and half a time” (7:25) – that is, after three and a half years. This is a reference to the approximate length of the persecution of Antiochus (167-164 BC).

The second vision (chapter 8), explained by Gabriel, is closely related to the first one. A two-horned ram (the conventional symbol for the Medo-Persian empire) is opposed and destroyed by a he-goat (the sign for the Greek empire) with a conspicuous horn (Alexander the Great). While the he-goat is at the height of its power, the great horn is broken (indicating the premature death of Alexander) and four horns grow in its place (marking the fourfold division of Alexander's empire among his generals following his death). Out of one of these horns sprouts “a little horn” (8:9) – Antiochus IV. In his pride this horn exalts himself. In the first place this is by the title he takes upon himself: Antiochus Theos Epiphanes – that is, Antiochus, manifestly God. He also challenges the prince of the heavenly host (God) through defilement of the Temple and prohibition of sacrifice. The tyrant will be broken “not by human hands” (8:25). The daily sacrifices will be offered again after “two thousand three-hundred evenings and mornings” (8:14), that is, after the three and one-half years of the persecution.

In the third vision (chapter 9) Daniel puzzles over Jeremiah's prophecy that seventy years must pass before the desolation of Jerusalem will be ended (Jeremiah 25:11; 29:10) and he prays to God for light on this mystery. While Daniel prays, confessing his sin and the sin of his people Israel, the angel Gabriel comes to interpret the significance of the seventy years: Jeremiah has spoken of the captivity and the return from exile, but the full restoration, the coming of the time of the Messiah would occur after “seventy weeks of years.” (9:24). The number seventy implies completion – an interpretation that is consistent with the vision of Jeremiah.

The fourth vision (chapters 10-12) is a revelation of the final period before the appearance of the Messiah and the age which he will initiate. Although it is dated to the third year of Cyrus, the Persian period is covered in a single verse (11:2). Chapter 11 deals with the successors of Alexander the Great and gives a detailed account of the relations between the Seleucids and the Ptolemies down to Antiochus IV. Though this historical summary is expressed in the form of a vision of events to come, it is not a prediction of what will happen in the future.

Daniel’s final vision or prophecy (chapter 12) leaves behind the field of politics and deals with what will happen on the cosmic plane. The goal of history is God's reign, which will come about solely by God's own power and in God’s good time. In 12:2-3, the doctrines of the resurrection of the body and of retribution after death are explicitly stated for the first time.

124 Finally, Daniel is ordered to “keep the book sealed”(12:4) as its message is for the end time. Once again we read that the persecution will last “a time, two times, and half a time” (12:7).

Determinism A common feature of the apocalyptic genre found in the Book of Daniel is determinism. There are two camps, the righteous and the wicked – the presupposition being that there is little or no chance that the wicked will change allegiance.

In the Book of Daniel a powerless minority – the Jewish people – is effectively disenfranchised by the dominant group – the invading armies of the various empires. In a situation where the conquerors are not going to relinquish their power base, what can the oppressed do?

The Book of Daniel looks to divine intervention in the face of what is seen as an impossible situation. And it follows the road of determinism:

Go your way, Daniel, for the words are to remain secret and sealed until the time of the end. Many shall be purified, cleansed and refined, but the wicked shall continue to act wickedly. None of the wicked shall understand, but those who are wise shall understand. (12:9-10)

The apocalyptic perspective maintains a deterministic view of history. The destiny of humankind inevitably moves toward a final realisation of the reign of God. It is the movement towards the completion of God’s reign, not the fate of the individual, that is the focus of apocalyptic writings.

A Theology of History The author of the Book of Daniel tells the story of the past in such a way that the persecuted Jews may understand that their sufferings have a place in God’s purpose and that the tyranny of Antiochus falls within God’s plan. The situation has not developed by chance or in defiance of the divine decree.

Though the king may seem to succeed in his arrogant revolt against the Prince of princes, and may trample unhindered over the people of the Prince, his triumph is presented as an illusion:

He shall prosper until the period of wrath is completed, for what is determined shall be done. (11:36)

The emphasis on God’s absolute control of human affairs that is presented in the Book of Daniel is not intended to encourage a passive attitude towards the circumstances of history. Rather, the assurance that history is guided by God and moves towards a goal fixed by God filled the small population of faithful Jews with courage in a situation where they seemed doomed to failure. Its words gave them the confidence to continue their struggle:

The people who are loyal to their God shall stand firm and take action. (11:32)

125 The Book of Daniel always looks to the final victory, to the time of the end, to the coming of the reign of God. The author sees the messianic age about to dawn, just beyond the “time, two times, and half a time” of the persecution.

The prophets before and during the exile believed that deliverance from Babylonian bondage would initiate the last age. The author of the Book of Daniel expected the great change to come with the death of Antiochus IV. In both cases there is a belief that what is revealed in prophecies and visions is about to become a reality. That the reign of God did not come as soon as the prophets and the writer of the Book of Daniel had imagined does not weaken their message that God will certainly come. God’s victory is assured, and those who serve him faithfully play an important part in it.

Links with the Student Text

Task Nineteen After studying the material on coded writing in section ten of the student text, students should read the following notes about apocalyptic literature. They should:

a) Think carefully about the point that each note is making. b) Identify the points that you think are the most important. c) Add any points of your own. d) Organise these important points into an order that makes sense. e) Develop the most important points into two or three paragraphs about apocalyptic literature.

Apocalyptic literature….

* examples are Daniel / Revelation * meaning is non-literal * Greek for “uncovering” or “revealing” * maintains hope * uses coded language / vivid imagery * end of 1st century AD * struggle between good and evil * angels interpret * comes out of suffering and persecution * God has the final victory * deals with end time / new age * symbolic visions * God’s final goal for humanity * secret knowledge * contrasts heaven with earth * 167 – 164 BC * uses past to write about present * faith is rewarded

Responses will vary.

126 Something to Think About Here students are required to read the second chapter of the Book of Daniel.

It is typical of much apocalyptic writing in that King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon has a puzzling and worrying dream about a great statue formed out of different metals. The dream is finally interpreted for him by Daniel, a Jewish captive, who explains that it is a message from God. The dream shows that God is in control of history, raising up and overthrowing the rulers of this world. Eventually, God will set up a kingdom that will never be destroyed.

The different metal parts of the statue represent different rulers and empires (as shown on the diagram in the student text).

Students are asked to suggest what the stone that destroys the statue in the dream represents (see Daniel 2:35, 44-45).

The stone that destroys the statue represents the kingdom that God sets up which will never be destroyed – the kingdom of the Messiah awaited by the Jews.

127 PART ELEVEN: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF REVELATION

Achievement Objective 5

Students will be able to investigate the background and context, and the distinctive characteristics and themes of the Book of Revelation.

Church Teachings

Apocalyptic

• Christ is Lord of the cosmos and of all history. • Christ’s reign of justice, love and peace will be fulfilled with his return to earth when all evil powers will become subject to him. • Before Christ establishes Te Rangatiratanga (the reign of God) at the end of time, the Church will experience trial and distress. • At all times, Christians must live in expectation of Christ’s coming. • The trials, including persecution, that the Church must pass through before Christ’s coming will shake the faith of many believers and lead them away from the truth. • The Church rejects claims of millenarianism, based on false readings of the Book of Revelation, which hold that Christ and the saints will return to establish a thousand-year reign in this world before the end of time. • The Last Judgement marks God's final triumph over evil which throughout history has existed alongside good. • At the end of time the righteous will reign with Christ forever in glory and all creation will be renewed.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Present accurate statements about the background and themes of the Book of Revelation. • Demonstrate knowledge of the structure of the Book of Revelation.

Teacher Background

The Book of Revelation (The Book of the Apocalypse) The Book of Revelation holds a conspicuous position as the final book of the Bible – God’s “last word”, as it were. Interpreters of this most mysterious and cryptic book of the Bible have tended to fall into a number of categories:

• The Futurists, such as Hal Lindsey, the author of The Late, Great Planet Earth, hold that the Book of Revelation predicts future events

128 and regard it as an instruction book for the end times. Within this camp, there has been much disagreement over when future events will take place, and which of Revelation’s beasts correspond with which world leaders. For example, futurists have, in turn, identified the beasts with Napoleon, Bismarck, Hitler, and Stalin, among others. Futurists also disagree among themselves as to whether Christians will go through the “tribulation”, and when the world will eventually enter Christ’s thousand-year reign. To varying extents, futuristic interpretations emphasise concepts such as the “rapture” (1 Thessalonians 4:16-17). • The idealists maintain that the Book of Revelation is best understood as a metaphor or allegory for the struggles of the spiritual life – a spiritual warfare that every Christian is involved in. • The historicists believe that the Book of Revelation outlines God’s master plan for the history of the Church, from the beginning to end. • The preterists emphasise a first-century fulfilment of Revelation’s prophecies. They maintain that the Book of Revelation is an encoded description of the first-century Christians’ political position as a minority group within a hostile Roman empire. The point of the Book of Revelation is to exhort believers to remain steady in their faith and to assure them of God’s vengeance against those who persecute the Church. This interpretation identifies the beasts, for example, with one or other of the Roman emperors, or with Rome itself, or sometimes with Jerusalem. • The Church Fathers – the Christian writers and teachers of the first eight centuries – frequently interpreted the Book of Revelation in the context of the Church’s liturgy and made explicit the connections between the Eucharist and the Book of Revelation. For many of them, the Book of Revelation was incomprehensible apart from the liturgy.

Dating the Book of Revelation While some experts believe that the Book of Revelation was composed sometime between 68 and 70 AD, shortly after the death of Nero, the most common opinion among experts today is that it was written in 95 or 96 AD. This view can be traced back to Irenaeus of Lyon who held that the Apocalypse was finished towards the end of the reign of Domitian, emperor between 81 and 96 AD. The reference to the “beast from the sea” is considered to be an allusion to Domitian.

The Author of the Book of Revelation The author of the Book of Revelation identifies himself as “John”, and claims that as a result of hardship or persecution he came to be on the island of Patmos, not far from the coast of Asia Minor, “because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus” (Revelation 1:10). Over the centuries Christians have debated the identity of “John”. An ancient tradition within the Latin Church – based on Justin (c. 160) and Irenaeus of Lyon (c. 180) – regards the Apocalypse as the work of John, “the beloved disciple”, one of Christ’s apostles. The text of the Book of Revelation does not resolve the issue but there are certainly parallels between it and the Gospel of John – for example,

129 the occurrence of terms such as “witness”, “water”, “living water”, “manna”, “conquer”, “Word”, “Lamb”. However, there are also important differences in language, style, literary features, symbolism, the use of numbers etc between the two works, which suggest that they are by different writers – though both texts may be the product of the one Johannine community.

The author of the Book of Revelation, sometimes referred to as “John the Elder” or “John of Patmos”, was possibly a Christian from Ephesus, the capital of the Roman province of Asia and one of the earliest centres of Christianity. “John” may have been exiled to Patmos as a martyr for his Christian faith, or as some scholars have suggested, it is possible that he visited Patmos as part of a regular preaching circuit.

One tradition identifies “John” as the bishop of Ephesus, one of the seven Churches addressed in the Book of Revelation. These Churches are identified with cities, all seven of which were located within a fifty-mile radius in Asia Minor, probably marking off the sphere of “John’s” authority.

The Language of the Book of Revelation The Book of Revelation contains many vivid and violent images that seem to defy common sense and good taste – frightening wars, consuming fires, rivers of blood, and streets paved with gold etc. One particularly weird example is that of the plague of locusts:

Then from the smoke came locusts on the earth…. In appearance the locusts were like horses equipped for battle. On their heads were what looked like crowns of gold; their faces were like human faces, their hair like women’s hair, and their teeth like lions’ teeth; they had scales like iron breastplates, and the noise of their wings was like the noise of many chariots with horses rushing into battle. They have tails like scorpions, with stingers, and in their tails is their power to harm people for five months. (Revelation 9:3, 7-10)

Such language, heavily laden with strange images and complex symbols, is typical of ancient apocalyptic writings. However, the intricate and unusual nature of the language in the Book of Revelation makes it difficult for modern people, unfamiliar with this kind of literature, to understand its meaning.

People in the ancient world, more accustomed to the complex nature of apocalyptic literature, recognised that it followed certain conventions of style and knew better what to expect from it. Because apocalyptic literature was almost always a kind of literature for “insiders” who already knew something of the situation and of the symbols that were used to portray it, the original audience of the Revelation of John, would have made sense of the strange language and weird scenes it presented. The modern reader is challenged to read the text with “ancient eyes”. This requires an understanding of how apocalyptic literature worked and of the specific situation out of which it came.

130 The Book of Revelation and the Imperial Cult at Ephesus It is widely accepted among authorities on the New Testament that the author of the Book of Revelation viewed the religious and political force of Roman rule as a threat. However, there is no common understanding as to how particular political oppression or persecution against the Christians of Asia Minor during the reign of Domitian influenced the writing and content of the Book of Revelation. Furthermore, there is no clear indication that Domitian consciously tried to persecute Christians for their faith. Despite the many references to martyrdom and persecution in the Book of Revelation, the extent to which there was a real roundup of Christians going on at the time of its writing is a matter of debate.

Recent evidence suggests that the specific threat that the author of the Book of Revelation was responding to originated in Ephesus after the year 89 AD when Domitian established a new sanctuary for an imperial cult dedicated to the worship of his family, the Flavian dynasty, who ruled Rome from 71 to 96 AD. Such a cult was a way of showing loyalty and honour to the Emperor, and was viewed as a public duty of all citizens in important centres such as Ephesus.

This Flavian dynasty began with Domitian’s father, Vespasian, who as a Roman general led the war against the Jews from 66 to 69 AD. When the Emperor Nero was killed in 68 AD, Vespasian was summoned from Judea to Rome to become the new Emperor. Vespasian then appointed his elder son, Titus, as the commander of the legions in Judea. It was Titus who led the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD. When Vespasian died in 79 AD, Titus became the next Emperor. Just two years later Titus, died, leaving the empire in the hands of his brother Vespasian's younger son, Domitian, a strong-willed ruler who tolerated no disagreement with his policies.

Most scholars now believe that a crisis within the Christian community brought about by the introduction of the Flavian imperial cult in Ephesus was behind the writing of the Book of Revelation. The description of the two “beasts” (see Revelation 13) reflects this situation. The first beast, “the beast from the sea”, who is given his power by Satan himself, is described as having “seven heads and ten horns,” and people worshipped him (Revelation 13:1-4). The second beast, “the beast from the land”, makes everyone worship the first beast and its “image” (Revelation 13:11-18). The “image” (13:14-15) and the mysterious number “666” (13.18) refer to statues and coins or inscriptions depicting the emperor's image and titles. The “beast from the land” probably referred either to the provincial governor of Asia or to the high priest of the imperial cult, who had joint oversight of the temple and its festivals in Ephesus at this time.

That the Emperor himself is the “beast from the sea” is made clear in a later passage in the Book of Revelation, where the symbolism of the seven heads is explained:

This calls for a mind that has wisdom: the seven heads are seven mountains on which the woman is seated; also, they are seven kings, of whom five have fallen, one is living, and the other has not yet come; and

131 when he comes, he must remain only a little while. As for the beast that was and is not, it is an eighth but it belongs to the seven, and it goes to destruction. And the ten horns that you saw are ten kings who have not yet received a kingdom, but they are to receive authority as kings for one hour, together with the beast. These are united in yielding their power and authority to the beast; they will make war on the Lamb, and the Lamb will conquer them…. (Revelation 17:9-14)

The woman sitting on the seven-headed beast is the city of Rome, the persecutor of Christians:

The woman you saw is the great city that rules over the kings of the earth. (Revelation 17:18)

The seven mountains are that city’s seven hills. The seven heads are also seven kings – a cryptic reference to the Emperors of Rome. The “five fallen” emperors are the five emperors who reigned before Vespasian’s establishment of the Flavian dynasty and who have died:

• Augustus (29 BC - 14 AD) • Tiberius (14-37 AD) • Gaius (37-41 AD), • Claudius (41-54 AD) and • Nero (54-68 AD)

The description of one with a mortal wound (see Revelation 13:3,12) is a reference to Nero, who died in 68 AD, but whom contemporary legend said would return from the dead to continue persecuting the Christians. Thus, the beast is presented as having a head that has recovered from a mortal wound.

The head “who is” refers to Vespasian (69-79) and the one that is “not yet” to Titus (79-81). The head that “was but is not” refers to an eighth emperor, Domitian.

Thus, the Book of Revelation views history as if it were being written while Vespasian was still alive, and thus “forecasting” what terrible things would occur under Domitian only a few years later. By portraying the Emperor and his provincial authorities as “beasts” and henchmen of the dragon, Satan, the author is calling on Christians to refuse to take part in the imperial cult, even at the risk of martyrdom.

Different Ways of Reading Persecution in the Book of Revelation Over the centuries, because of its strangeness and complexity, the Book of Revelation has been “read” in various ways:

1. A Traditional Reading The traditional view is that the Book of Revelation grew out of circumstances of persecution, in much the same way that the Book of Daniel was a direct response to the oppressive anti-Jewish measures of the Seleucid monarch, Antiochus Epiphanes IV, at the time of the Maccabean Revolt (167-164 BC).

132 This reading of the text assumes that there was a direct persecution of those Christians living in Asia Minor during the reign of Domitian which resulted in “John's” own exile and imprisonment on Patmos. Scholars supporting this position argue that the purpose of the Book of Revelation was to prepare and strengthen the Christians of Asia Minor – those addressed in the letters to the seven Churches – so that they would remain faithful and withstand the impending persecution. The various visions that are presented in the Book of Revelation are taken to be indications to Christians in Asia Minor as to how the conflict would be played out – God’s victory over Satan serves as an encouragement to Christians to remain steadfastly on the side of Christ. However, the language of these visions cannot be taken to refer literally to precise events in Asia Minor.

2. A Literalist Reading of Persecution Other experts argue that much of the material in the letters to the seven Churches (Revelation. 2-3), and more generally in the Book of Revelation, should be read as literally applicable to the precise circumstances of the day. Such approaches try to link archaeological evidence of the region with comments in the Book of Revelation or see in the “mythic” language of its text concealed references to concrete historical circumstances. Underlying this position is the assumption of a direct, one-to-one correspondence between much of the language and the situation under Domitian – a view that supports the notion that Revelation was intentionally “concealing” or coding its anti- Roman perspective in order to escape discovery by Roman authorities.

3. Metaphorical Readings of Persecution A more common way of approaching the issue of persecution and the circumstances of the Book of Revelation has been to read the work as a type of religious response to the crisis that Christians found themselves in because of the Roman world’s hostility towards them. This response is expressed in images of dualistic oppositions, characteristic of apocalyptic literature.

In the mid-nineties the Christians of Asia Minor faced a fresh challenge when they were pressured by the threat of punishment or death to participate in the religious activities and festivals of a new imperial cult introduced in Ephesus on the orders of Domitian. The author of the Book of Revelation attempted to resolve this crisis by clearly demarcating the lines between Christians and cult followers and by warning Christians against the dangers of participating in pagan society and the imperial cult. The symbolic language that is used by the author of the Book of Revelation brings about this demarcation and creates a new sense of the cosmic reality in which these Christians were living.

At the centre of the Book of Revelation, both literarily and ideologically, stands the “mythic” scene of the woman and the dragon (Revelation 12), which results in the dragon being hurled down to earth where it will persecute “the other children of the woman” (that is, the Church). The two beasts of chapter 13 – symbolising the emperor and his provincial authorities – are placed in this cosmic drama on the side of Satan. The later visions then present what will happen as the cosmic drama unfolds. Babylon (Rome) will fall, the armies

133 of God will triumph, and Jerusalem (God's city on earth) will be restored. For the Christians of Asia Minor, the battle lines are clearly drawn – it is only a matter of time until God is victorious.

Another perspective adopts a similar view of the purpose and overall outlook of Revelation, but does not hold that either the imperial cult or any real persecution was a significant factor behind the writing of the Book of Revelation. Rather, it suggests that the disconnection between the Christians’ faith and their social experience of alienation brought about the crisis that the Christian community in Asia Minor was experiencing. This view proposes that the Book of Revelation, metaphorical and symbolic in its approach, offers a kind of drama of catharsis that cleanses and resolves internal conflicts experienced by the Christian community.

4. Revisionist Views Other studies argue that persecution itself was not at the centre of the Christian experience underlying the Book of Revelation, but take different views of the precise role of the imperial cult.

For example, it has been suggested that a careful analysis of the historical evidence for the reign of Domitian shows that there was no real or systematic “persecution” of Christians at that time. Domitian’s “bad” reputation arose only after his death, when the subsequent emperors – especially Trajan, who ruled from 98 to 117 AD – presented Domitian in a negative way in order to show themselves as good and generous rulers. In this view, the imperial cult presented little or no direct crisis for the Christians. Instead, it is argued, the Book of Revelation was attempting to create a picture of cosmic reality that incorporated all aspects of the daily social life of the Christians of Asia Minor. The Book of Revelation does this by incorporating the Roman sense of world order into its own alternative sense of a “new world order” governed by God – where Christ is presented as the triumphant emperor of heaven and earth. It shows Roman imperial ideas shaping the “Christian” vision of reality.

Another revisionist view, one based on extensive archaeological evidence, supports the conclusion that the imperial cult was not just an enforced participation in particular sacrifices or festivals, but a more widespread social, political, economic, and religious factor in the lives of the citizens of provincial Asia Minor. While there had been imperial cult activity for over a century in cities such as Pergamon, Ephesus had received its first imperial cult temple, and imperial awards and titles, under Domitian in the year 89 AD. By honouring his family, especially the Flavian emperors Vespasian and Titus, Domitian’s imperial cult was seen to be honouring the very emperors who had destroyed Jerusalem, the city of God, and its Temple, God’s sanctuary, only two decades earlier.

It was this greater and more intense emphasis on the imperial cult that triggered “John's” reaction. In the Book of Revelation it is as if “John” is asking: “How can those who call themselves Jews and Christians pay honour to the imperial family that destroyed the Temple and to the empire that killed Jesus?” Thus, he presents the Roman rulers as the agents of Satan!

134 The Structure of the Book of Revelation There are various ways of describing the structure of the Book of Revelation. A useful approach – and one that may appeal to students – recognises the significance of the number seven and groups of seven in its organisation.

The material in the Book of Revelation can be understood as falling into seven sections introduced by a brief prologue and followed by an epilogue. The first six of these sections, each containing groups or patterns of seven, lead up to and prepare the way for the seventh and final section where a new heaven and a new earth appear (21:1-8) and the holy city, Jerusalem, comes down out of heaven from God (21:9–22:5).

Within each of the first six sections the seventh item in each group or pattern is often emphasised – usually by the insertion of a brief vision or visions – before it is described or announced.

A. The Prologue (1:1-3) and John's Address and Greeting (1:4-20).

B. The First Group of Seven Introduction (1:9-20) and John’s letters to the seven Churches of Asia Minor (2:1-3:22):

1. John’s Letter to the Church in Ephesus (2:1-7) 2. John’s Letter to the Church in Smyrna (2:9-11) 3. John’s Letter to the Church in Pergamon (2:12-17) 4. John’s Letter to the Church in Thyatira (2:18-29) 5. John’s Letter to the Church in Sardis (3:1-6) 6. John’s Letter to the Church in Philadelphia (3:7-13) 7. John’s Letter to the Church in Laodicea (3:14-22)

C. Second Group of Seven Jesus as the Lamb with seven eyes receives the seven sealed scroll from God enthroned in heaven (4:1–5:14) and breaks the seals (6:1–8:1):

1. The Lamb breaks the first seal – a white horse representing war appears (6:1-2) 2. The Lamb breaks the second seal – a red horse representing civil and social chaos appears (6:3-4) 3. The Lamb breaks the third seal – a black horse representing famine appears (6:5-6) 4. The Lamb breaks the fourth seal – a pale green horse representing sickness and disease appears (6:7-8) 5. The Lamb breaks the fifth seal – the souls of the martyrs that lie beneath the altar are seen (6:9-11) 6. The breaking of the sixth seal – seven types of natural disaster are seen: violent earthquake, sun blackening over, moon turning red as blood, stars falling from the sky, figs blowing off a tree, the sky disappearing like a scroll rolling up, and all the mountains and islands moving from their places (6:12-17)

135 Two intermediate visions: • The foreheads of one hundred and forty-four thousand are sealed – the sacred number twelve squared and multiplied by 1000 indicates the totality of those saved (7:1-8) • John sees a huge number before the heavenly throne (7:9-17)

7. The breaking of the seventh seal – there is great silence in heaven (8:1)

D. Third Group of Seven Seven angels sound seven trumpets in the presence of God (8:2–11:19). These herald evils:

1. The first angel blows his trumpet – hail and fire mixed with blood fall on the earth destroying a third of the vegetation (8:7) 2. The second angel blows his trumpet – a burning mountain is hurled into the sea, a third of which turns to blood destroying a third of all sea creatures and ships (8:8-9) 3. The third angel blows his trumpet – a burning star (Wormwood) falls from the sky poisoning a third of the rivers and springs and killing people (8:10-11) 4. The fourth angel blows his trumpet – a third of the light from the sun, moon and stars is darkened so that day and night lose a third of their illumination (8:12-13) 5. The fifth angel blows his trumpet and announces the first “woe” – locusts drop to earth out of smoke from the bottomless pit and attack those people without God’s seal on their foreheads (9:1-12) 6. The sixth angel blows his trumpet and announces the second “woe” – four angels are released to destroy a third of the human race by three plagues of fire, smoke and sulphur (9:13-21)

Two intermediate visions: • An angel tells John to eat the small scroll (10:1-11) • John is told to measure the Temple and God gives power to two witnesses (11:1-14)

7. The seventh angel blows his trumpet – the sanctuary of God in heaven opens and the ark of the covenant is revealed (11:15-18)

E. Fourth Group of Seven Heaven opens (11:19–15:4) and seven signs appear:

1. The first sign – the woman and the dragon (12:1-17) 2. The second sign – the beast from the sea (13:1-10) 3. The third sign – the beast from the land (13:11-18) 4. The fourth sign – the Lamb and the one-hundred-and-forty-four- thousand (14:1-5) 5. The fifth sign – the three angels (14:6-13) 6. The sixth sign – harvest of the earth (14:14-20)

136 An intermediate vision: • Seven angels with seven last plagues (15:1)

7. The seventh sign – all those who share Christ’s victory sing in heaven (15:2-4)

F. Fifth Group of Seven The sanctuary opens in heaven and the seven angels with the seven plagues empty the seven golden bowls of God’s anger over the earth (15:5–16:21):

1. The first angel empties his bowl on the earth – sores appear on those who worship the beast or are branded with its mark (16:2) 2. The second angel empties his bowl over the sea – it turns to blood (16:3) 3. The third angel empties his bowl into rivers and springs – they turn to blood (16:4-7) 4. The fourth angel empties his bowl over the sun – it scorches people with its flames (16:8-9) 5. The fifth angel empties his bowl over the beast’s throne – his power is broken and his whole empire is covered in darkness (16:10-11) 6. The sixth angel empties his bowl into the river Euphrates – it dries up and hordes sweep in from the East (16:12)

An intermediate vision: • Three foul spirits appear from the mouth of the dragon, beast and false prophet (16:13-16)

7. The seventh angel empties his bowl into the air and announces the End – lightning, thunder, and earthquakes destroy the great city; a plague of hailstones fall on the world and its people (16:17-21)

G. Sixth Group of Seven Babylon the Great, the mother of all prostitutes, is seen riding a scarlet beast with seven heads and ten horns – she is drunk with the blood of saints and martyrs (17:1-18). There then appear seven sights (18:1–20:15)

1. The first sight – the fall of Babylon [Rome] (18:1-8) 2. The second sight – kings, traders and sailors mourn for Babylon (18:9- 19) 3. The third sight – heaven celebrates the downfall of Babylon, which is silenced by a great boulder hurled by an angel (18:20-24) 4. The fourth sight – heaven rejoices in the fall of Babylon (19:1-8 (9-10)) 5. The fifth sight – victory over the beast and the false prophet (19:11-21) 6. The sixth sight – the chaining of the dragon (20:1-3)

An intermediate vision: • The thousand-year reign of those who died witnessing for Christ (20:4-10)

7. The seventh sight – the Last Judgement (20:11-15)

137 H. The Final Vision – The New Jerusalem A new heaven and a new earth appear (21:1-8) and the holy city, Jerusalem, comes down out of heaven from God (21:9–22:5).

The truth of what “John” has written is attested to by the guiding angel (22:6- 9), by Jesus (22:10-16), and by the author (22:17-20) then Jesus announces that he is the First and the Last, the Beginning and the End

I. Epilogue and Concluding Blessing The author asks that the grace of the Lord Jesus be with all (22:21).

The Visions in the Book of Revelation Key features of the Book of Revelation are the visions that “John” experiences. While many fleeting moments of visionary experience are presented, the Book of Revelation contains five extended visions that are especially important and which form major “blocks” in the work’s structure. These are:

The First Major Vision: The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia Minor (2:1–3:22)

The Second Major Vision: In the Throne Room of Heaven (4:1–11:19). This includes the sequences of the seven seals and the seven trumpets.

The Third Major Vision: Three Great Signs in Heaven – The Cosmic War (12:1–16:21). This includes the beasts, the war, the seven plagues, the seven bowls of anger, and the Battle of Armageddon

The Fourth Major Vision: The Judgement on Babylon [=Rome] (17:1–21:8) Part I: The Allegory of the Great Prostitute (17:1-18) Part II: Babylon [Rome] is Fallen! (18:1-8) Part III: Heaven is once again opened: the thousand years (19:11–21.8) Part IV: A New Heaven and New Earth (21:1-8)

The Fifth Major Vision: The New Jerusalem (21:9–22.5)

Within each of the major visions presented in the Book of Revelation, there is always a literary device that propels the viewer on to the next vision.

For example, at the beginning of the first vision, John sees the seven lampstands – he is then told to write letters to the seven churches of Asia, which the lampstands represent. In the second vision John initially sees the scroll with seven seals, and then each of the seals is opened one at a time. The opening of the first four seals is described very briefly (in only two verses each). However, the description of the opening of the fifth seal is more detailed. The opening of the sixth seal, the climax of the sequence, is followed by an even longer section of vision, which serves to emphasise – through delay – the importance of the seventh seal. Finally, when the seventh seal is opened and following half an hour of silence, the reader is propelled

138 into the sequence of the seven trumpets – the whole process starts over again as each of the trumpets is sounded in order.

The cumulative effect of much of the material in the Book of Revelation being laid out this way is similar to “Chinese boxes” where one box is opened only to discover another box inside. Readers of the Book of Revelation often sense that they are on the threshold, delayed at the sixth item and on the verge of the seventh thing happening. This creates a sense of urgency.

The overall impact of the second vision is to show the dangerous position in which the faithful now find themselves, as they await the final things to take place. It is described as a time of famine, plague, oppression, and woe. This sense of disaster probably comes out of their memories of the First Revolt and the devastation that occurred when Jerusalem and the Temple were destroyed. This can be seen in the description of the “two witnesses” or martyrs who are said to have been killed in the very city where Jesus was crucified (11:1-13). The sense of desperation and suffering that is so central to this second vision can be understood as a direct commentary on the outcome of the War of 66-70 AD.

At the end of the second vision, when the seventh angel finally sounds his trumpet (11:15–19), the heavenly throne room of God is once again opened, and a new scene now appears there. This is the opening of the third vision, the three signs in Heaven, which are the centrepiece, both literarily and ideologically, of the entire work. These three signs provide an explanation of why the woes and suffering described in the second vision have come upon the earth. The answer is that the war on earth is merely a continuation of a cosmic war begun in heaven between God and Satan (12:1-17). At the end Satan, the Great Red Dragon, is thrown down to earth with his evil angels, and now they begin to make war on the saints (12:17). For his henchmen, the Dragon chooses two helpers, who are called “the beast from the sea” (13:1- 10) and “the beast from the land” (13.11-18), whose job is to force all humans to worship the Dragon and the first beast.

The result is that God sends his army of angels to earth, led by the “Lamb who had been slain”. These now take on the army of the dragon and the beasts (14:1-20). The seven angels have pronounced their woes on all who side with the Dragon. They now pour out seven bowls of anger, which turn out to be seven plagues (15:1–16:21). Once again it is the sixth bowl that is the most important, for it leads directly to the Battle of Armageddon at the mountains of Megiddo (16:12-16). This results in victory for the armies of God which is announced by the angel who pours out the seventh bowl.

The various visions presented in the Book of Revelation are not presented in a linear progression. The events in chapter 12, for example, do not follow in time after the events in chapter 11. The events described in chapters 12-13 throw light on how the circumstances in chapters 5 to 11 came about. In this way the events of the Book of Revelation are arranged in a cyclical manner that keeps returning the readers to the “present situation” – the situation that the original readers found themselves in.

139 In this way the Christians in Asia Minor at the end of the first century are being emphatically reminded that God would ultimately triumph and the faithful would be saved. The fourth vision indicates the final judgements against the evil forces of the Roman Empire and the final rewards of the faithful. It is only in chapters 18-21 that the text starts to look forward in confidence to the near future. Central to this is the depiction of the Roman Empire as the Great Prostitute and the emperor as the seven-headed “beast from the sea’ – Satan's agents warring against God on earth. The fourth vision makes explicit the implications of the central scenes in the third vision. For example, it states that the Great Prostitute is Babylon, who is seated on the Beast with seven heads, as seven hills (17:9). This is an obvious reference to the “seven hills of Rome” and to the seven-headed beast encountered earlier (see Revelation 13:3-10). By telling readers that the seven heads are seven kings (17:9-10), it provides the key clue that the “beast” is the Roman emperor himself. In this way, the visions continue to unfold information for the original readers in order to describe their current situation.

Links with the Student Text

Task Twenty Here students are asked to use their knowledge of apocalyptic literature and the material in this section of the student text about the Book of Revelation to match the first part of a statement with its ending.

The correct answers appear below:

Column A Column B

1. The Revelation to John is difficult to E. it contains complex symbolism that understand because seems strange to modern readers.

2. Like other apocalyptic literature, the J. to address a crisis – in this case the Book of Revelation was composed persecution of the early church by the Roman authorities.

3. Apocalyptic literature enjoyed wide A. in both Jewish and Christian circles popularity from around 200 BC to 200 AD.

4. A proper understanding of the Book G. a knowledge of the historical context of Revelation requires in which it was written.

5. The Revelation to John both C. first century Christians to stand firm in encourages and warns the faith and avoid compromise with the Roman Empire.

6. The Book of Revelation shows the H. over Satan and the forces of evil. struggle and victory of Christ and his followers

7. Although the Book of Revelation deals D. its message is essentially about hope with death and destruction and trust in Christ.

140 8. The Book of Revelation uses coded B. in order to hide its meaning from the language enemies of first century Christians.

9. Although there are coded references F. the oppression and persecution that it to Nero in the Book of Revelation, refers to most likely took place under Domitian.

10. The Book of Revelation promises a I. to those who endure suffering in the future reward present.

Task Twenty-One Here students are asked to study the diagram outlining the structure of the Book of Revelation which is printed in their student text. It also appears on an OHT master on the following page of this teacher guide.

Students are required to use the Scripture references provided and read each section of the Book of Revelation in their Bibles. Using the summaries in the student text they should find one that describes each of the sections of the Book of Revelation.

The answers follow on the OHT Masters.

141 OHT Master: An Outline of the Structure of the Book of Revelation

An Outline of the Structure of the Book of Revelation

A. The Prologue and John's Address and Greeting (1:1-20)

B. The First Group of Seven (1:9–3:22)

C. Second Group of Seven (4:1–8:1)

D. Third Group of Seven (8:2–11:19)

E. Fourth Group of Seven (11:19–15:4)

F. Fifth Group of Seven (15:5–16:21)

G. Sixth Group of Seven (17:1–20:15)

H. The Final Vision – The New Jerusalem (21:1–22:20) I. Epilogue and Concluding Blessing (22:21)

142 OHT Master: An Outline of the Structure of the Book of Revelation – Answers to Task Twenty-One (page one)

An Outline of the Structure of the Book of Revelation

A. The Prologue and John's Address and Greeting (1:1-20) 5. John introduces himself as a servant of Christ who is on the island of Patmos because of his witness to Jesus. The Son of Man appears to him among seven golden lampstands.

B. The First Group of Seven (1:9–3:22) 8. John sees Jesus in glory and receives messages for the seven

Churches in the province of Asia.

C. Second Group of Seven (4:1–8:1)

4. John sees into heaven and watches as Jesus the Lamb unseals a scroll which presents the history of the world in the last days. Each of its seven seals reveals an aspect of God’s judgement and victory.

D. Third Group of Seven (8:2–11:19)

1. Seven angels sound seven trumpets in the presence of God. These warn of destruction and death in every part of the cosmos and announce the day of God’s judgement.

E. Fourth Group of Seven (11:19–15:4) 9. Heaven opens and seven signs, including a woman and a dragon, great beasts defying God, the Lamb and the day of judgement are seen.

143 OHT Master: An Outline of the Structure of the Book of Revelation – Answers to Task Twenty-One (page two)

An Outline of the Structure of the Book of Revelation

F. Fifth Group of Seven (15:5–16:21) 2. The sanctuary opens in heaven and the seven angels with the seven plagues empty seven golden bowls of God’s anger over the earth.

G. Sixth Group of Seven (17:1–20:15) 7. Babylon the Great, the mother of all prostitutes, is seen riding a scarlet beast with seven heads and ten horns – she is drunk with the blood of saints and martyrs. There then appear seven sights.

H. The Final Vision – The New Jerusalem (21:1–22:20)

3. A new heaven and a new ea rth appear and the holy city, Jerusalem, comes down out of heaven from God in readiness for the wedding of the Lamb.

I. Epilogue and Concluding Blessing (22:21)

6. The author asks that the grace of the Lord Jesus be with all.

144 PART TWELVE: SYMBOLS IN THE BOOK OF REVELATION

Achievement Objective 5

Students will be able to investigate the background and context, and the distinctive characteristics and themes of the Book of Revelation.

Church Teachings

Apocalyptic

• Karaiti is Lord of the cosmos and of all history. • Christ’s reign of justice, aroha and peace will be fulfilled with his return to earth when all evil powers will become subject to him. • Before Christ’s reign is established at the end of time, the Church will experience trial and distress. • At all times, Christians must live in expectation of Christ’s coming. • The trials, including persecution, that the Church must pass through before Christ’s coming will shake the faith of many believers and lead them away from the truth. • The Church rejects claims of millenarianism, based on false readings of the Book of Revelation, which hold that Christ and the saints will return to establish a thousand-year reign in this world before the end of time. • The Last Judgement marks God's final triumph over evil which throughout history has existed alongside good. • At the end of time the righteous will reign with Christ forever in glory and all creation will be renewed.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Identify and explain the meaning of some of the symbols in the Book of Revelation.

Teacher Background

Imagery and Symbolism in the Book of Revelation A significant aspect of the Book of Revelation is its vivid symbolic imagery: colours, numbers, all sorts of animals, objects such as lampstands and buildings, and plants and trees all have symbolic connotations. However, not all of the imagery and symbols function in the same way. Sometimes images and symbols are explained by the author; sometimes they are standard features borrowed from other biblical and apocalyptic literature; sometimes they are included to heighten the drama and sensory impact of the work but have no deeper significance.

145 Much of the imagery refers to historical realities of the world of the first century and often points to Rome in some way. For example, the woman seated simultaneously on many waters and on a scarlet beast that was full of blasphemous names and which had seven heads and ten horns, is an image of Rome (17:1-6). The name “Babylon”, which is on her forehead, and the explanation from the angel that the seven heads are seven mountains or hills further emphasise this connection. At this time Rome was known throughout the Mediterranean region for its command of the seas (“the many waters”). The “blasphemous names” refers to the deification and worship of emperors, and Rome was identified in various ancient Jewish and Christian sources by the name of the ancient enemy of the Hebrew people, Babylon. The interpreting angel in stating that “the seven heads are seven mountains” (17:9) is referring to the seven hills upon which Rome was built.

There are many places in the Book of Revelation where the angel interprets a symbol for John, who in turn passes on the explanation to the reader. For example the vision of one “like a Son of man” amid seven gold lampstands holding seven stars in his hand (1:13-16) is immediately explained by the angel: “The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches, and the seven lampstands are the seven churches” (1:20). Jewish Christians of the first century would certainly have identified the seven golden lampstands with the menorah – the seven branched candle stand – that had stood before the Holy of Holies in the Temple in Jerusalem. When the Temple was destroyed by the Romans in 70 AD it is likely that the menorah, along with other treasures, was taken to Rome.

Other symbols that are described and then explained within the text of the Book of Revelation include the four horsemen which are identified as conquest, slaughter, famine, and death (see chapter 6) and the great red dragon which is named as “that ancient serpent, who is called the devil and Satan, the deceiver of the whole world” (see chapter 12).

Much of the symbolism in the Book of Revelation is more general in nature. Colours, for example, have symbolic value. White represents righteousness or purity, gold signifies great value, red indicates blood and hence destruction and death, and purple is the colour of royalty.

That God and the Lamb (Jesus Christ) are pictured as seated or standing on thrones signifies sovereignty and dominion, especially in the political realm. The depiction of the various creatures continually singing, praying, and prostrating themselves around the throne is an indication that God and the Lamb are highly worthy of worship. The court of heaven (4:2) is also pictured as a synagogue in which the scroll is read (chapter 5), as the Temple with an altar on which incense is offered (8:3-5), and as a law court from which the Accuser is thrown out (12:10).

In addition to those already spoken of, the author of the Book of Revelation emphasises many other parallels between the court of heaven and aspects of Jewish worship, especially in regard to the Temple. Many of the Greek- speaking Jewish Christians of John’s time, living in the cities of the Roman

146 province of Asia Minor, would have known Jerusalem and its Temple through regular pilgrimages there in the period before its destruction. More than a place of worship, the Temple was for pious Jews a model of all creation. Every aspect and feature of the Temple also pointed to higher realities – for King David had received the plan of the Temple from God (1 Chronicles 28:19) and it was to be modelled after the court of heaven (Wisdom 9:8).

In John’s heaven four living creatures minister before God’s throne – these refer back to the four carved cherubim overlaid with gold that adorned the walls of the Temple. The twenty-four elders (in Greek presbyteroi, translated into English as “priests”) replicate the twenty-four priestly divisions who served the Temple in any given year. The “sea of glass like crystal” (4:6) is a reference to the Temple’s large pool of polished bronze that held 11,500 gallons of water.

According to ancient Jewish beliefs, the worship in Jerusalem’s Temple mirrored the worship of angels in heaven. The Temple priesthood, the liturgies that celebrated the Covenant, and the sacrifices were all seen to represent heavenly models. Specifically Christian approaches to worship are also revealed through the symbolism of the Book of Revelation. Whereas only the priests were allowed in the holy place of Jerusalem’s Temple, the Book of Revelation shows a nation of priests (5:10; 20:6) dwelling always in the presence of God. It presents one worship shared by both people and angels.

Numbers in the Book of Revelation are also highly symbolic. The number seven – the number associated with perfection, and hence heavenly or divine realities – is especially significant. For example, there are seven letters addressed to the seven churches in the seven leading cities of Asia Minor, seven angels, seven spirits, three sets of seven judgements (trumpets, seals, and bowls), seven signs, seven sights, and the Lamb has seven eyes. The passing of time is often measured in increments of seven, including three- and-a-half. Increments of ten (for example, ten days or one-thousand years) are also used. Four is the number of the corners of the earth, and the heavenly city is built “four square”. The number of those sealed is one hundred and forty-four thousand (7:4), derived by multiplying 12x12x1000, which indicates the great number of the people of God (7:5-8). The repetitive use of numbers emphasizes their symbolic function.

Many of the motifs and symbols in the Book of Revelation are drawn from the Old Testament. By recalling the salvation and judgement of God in the past and prophesying it for the future, the Book of Revelation offers an assurance of God’s sovereignty and serves as a reminder of the limits and temporary nature of human power.

In addition to the scenes of heavenly worship which rely on details and images (altars, censers, songs and prayers) associated with worship in the Temple, many images in the Book of Revelation can be linked back to the Book of Exodus, the account of God freeing the Chosen People from slavery in Egypt. The plagues of hail, water turning to blood, darkness, and locusts,

147 which all figure in the Book of Revelation (8:7-12; 9:2-10), have their origins in Exodus (7:17; 9:18; 10:4,21). John’s description of God’s throne recalls the revelation of God’s presence on Mount Sinai, with accompanying lightning and thunder (Exodus 19:16). From the Book of Daniel come various strange beasts, as well as the representation of Jesus as the Son of man, and of God seated on the heavenly throne. The four winged creatures around the throne are similar to the cherubim in Ezekiel 1 and Isaiah 6. The “holy, holy, holy” of their hymns comes from Isaiah’s vision. The prophetic denunciations of Babylon in Isaiah and Jeremiah and the downfall of the city of Tyre recorded in Ezekiel are applied by John to his own day. The fate of Babylon and Tyre is used to foreshadow the fall of Rome.

Links with the Student Text

Something to Discuss Here students are asked to identify images and symbols in the Book of Revelation that they are already aware of and to suggest which of them are straightforward / which difficult to understand.

Students should be able to identify some symbols associated with the number seven that they came across in the previous section of the topic when they were looking at the Book of Revelation’s structure.

Something to Think About This asks students to reflect on how modern readers might read the Book of Revelation through “ancient eyes”.

This is, of course, impossible. However, it is worthwhile to ask students to imagine themselves in a situation of persecution, such as that in which the early Christians found themselves, and to work out ways they could communicate a serious message to each other without being discovered by “the enemy”.

Seeing through “ancient eyes” required the modern reader to learn about the imagery and symbolic language used at the time when and the place where the Book of Revelation was written.

Task Twenty-Two Here students are asked to find as many different examples as they can of symbolic colours, numbers and animals in the Book of Revelation. They should focus on five or six symbols that they think are especially interesting or important.

a) Students should copy out the verse(s), along with the Scripture references, where each of the symbols appear(s). b) They should explain the meaning of each of the symbols in the context of the verse(s) where it appears. c) They should draw the symbols or present them in another visual form.

Answers will vary from student to student.

148 An Alternative to Task Twenty-Two Working in pairs, students could each take a different chapter of the Book of Revelation, listing all the images and symbols that they find there. It could then become each pair’s responsibility to find out as much as they can about the symbolism and imagery used in their particular chapter.

Task Twenty-Three Students are asked to read Revelation 14:1-5 and 17:1-18 and study the prints by the artist Dürer that were inspired by these two passages of Scripture.

These two works, The Woman Seated on a Seven Headed Beast (Revelation Chapter 17) and Adoration of the Lamb (Revelation 14:1-5), are printed in the student text.

Students are asked to explain:

a) What are some of the images and symbols used in Revelation 14:1-5 to represent Christ and his faithful followers?

b) How are the evils of the Roman Empire represented by images and symbols in Revelation 17:1-8?

The Woman Seated on a Seven Headed Beast (Revelation Chapter 17) A careful study of Dürer’s engraving of the Woman of Babylon seated upon a beast with seven heads and ten horns (Revelation 17) reveals anti-Roman symbolism.

The vision of the whore of Babylon was of a woman clothed in purple and scarlet, mounted on a scarlet beast that had seven heads and ten horns (Rev. 17:3-6). She held a gold cup full of obscenities. An angel foretold her destruction to John.

Then a mighty angel took up a stone like a great millstone and threw it into the sea, saying, ‘With such violence Babylon the great city will be thrown down, and will be found no more….’ (Revelation 18:21)

The “great whore” who, at the same time, “is seated on many waters” and “on a scarlet beast that was full of blasphemous names” and which had “seven heads and ten horns” symbolises Rome. (Revelation 17:1-6).

• The name “Babylon”, which is on her forehead, and the angel’s explanation that “the seven heads are seven mountains” emphasise this connection. At this time Rome was known for its command of the seas (“the many waters”). • The “blasphemous names” refers to the worship of Roman emperors. • A number of ancient Jewish and Christian sources identified Rome as “Babylon” – the name of the ancient enemy of the Hebrew people.

149 • As the angel explains (Revelation 17:9), “the seven heads which are seven mountains” refers to the seven hills upon which the city of Rome was built.

In the upper left of the illustration is a vision of a rider named Faithful and True, riding a white horse (Revelation 19:11-16). His eyes flamed like fire, a sword came out of his mouth, he carried a rod of iron, and his garment was drenched in blood. This figure is a symbol of Christ as a warrior, robed in the blood of martyrs, with a sword to conquer and a rod to rule.

Adoration of the Lamb (Revelation 14:1-3) This print is a piecing together of three different passages from the text of the Book of Revelation (Revelation 14:1-3, 19:1-4, 7:9-13). Revelation 14:1-3 is highlighted.

The depiction of the various creatures continually singing, praying, and prostrating themselves around the throne is an indication that God and the Lamb (Jesus Christ) are highly worthy of worship.

The four living creatures ministering before God’s throne refer back to the four carved cherubim overlaid with gold that adorned the walls of the Temple. The twenty-four elders (in Greek presbyteroi, translated into English as “priests”) replicate the twenty-four priestly divisions who served the Temple in any given year.

Extension Activity What other groups of contrasting images or symbols can you find in the Book of Revelation? What do they represent?

Answers will vary from student to student.

An Additional Task Sheet The following master of an additional handout on the Book of Revelation and its symbolism may also be useful to photocopy and distribute to students. It should be used in conjunction with other material on symbolism in the student text.

150 Photocopy Master: Student Handout – The Book of Revelation and its Symbolism (page 1)

The Book of Revelation and its Symbolism

Historical Background During the reign of Domitian (81–96 AD) an imperial cult required citizens to show submission and loyalty to the emperor by burning incense at his shrine and addressing him as Kyrios (Lord) in their prayers. Christians, because they had no Lord other than Jesus Christ, resisted performing any action which suggested the emperor was divine – even if it meant persecution and death.

The author of the Book of Revelation encouraged Christians to remain faithful to the Lord during this time of crisis. The Book of Revelation is essentially a book about hope – it reassures those who are faithful that Christ is with his people and will not abandon them.

Symbolism Symbolism is central to any understanding of the Book of Revelation and helps to present its theological and spiritual message. Much of the symbolism in the Book of Revelation comes from the Old Testament.

Cosmic Symbols The Sky – this is the “firmament”, the ideal place where God is to be found.

The Stars – are a sign of God’s creative power, dominion, resurrection and triumphant glory.

Thunder and Lightning – these spectacular events represent the marvellous, terrifying “voice” of God. The Sea and Sun – the sea is sometimes evil, but in the new creation its destructive power will be taken away and it will be as peaceful as glass. The sun represents something or someone that is loved.

Animals Sometimes the animals in the Book of Revelation perform extraordinary tasks; sometimes they have an unreal appearance. Often animals possess characteristics which make them seem to be more powerful than human beings, but they are always under the dominion of God.

The lamb symbolises Christ. The dragon represents Satan in particular and evil in general. The beasts from the sea stand for tyrannical empires, such as Rome, or for Nero. The beasts from the earth are the ideologies at the service of tyrannical empire, or Domitian. The four living creatures represent the created world with four horizons (north, south, east and west) forming God’s

throne.

151 Photocopy Master: Student Handout – The Book of Revelation and its Symbolism (page 2)

Animals (continued) The white horse symbolises the Parthians who fought against Rome. The four horsemen of the apocalypse are the evils of war, death, plague and famine that rage through the world. The goats are the wicked. The sheep are the people.

Colours White represents righteousness or purity. Gold signifies great value. Red indicates blood, destruction and death. Purple is the colour of royalty. Black is the colour of the night, fear, cosmic upheaval, sin. Green stands for the deathly sick, it is also the colour of grass, something that passes and does not last. Hyacinth and sulphur are associated with flames and

demonic fire.

Numbers 3 ½ – This number, being half of seven, represents imperfection. It indicates suffering and a time of trial. 42 months is the equivalent of three and a half years, as is 1,260 days. 4 – The number four refers to the corners of the world, the points of the compass. 6 – Six (being one less than seven) is a number that symbolises imperfection. 7 – The number seven is associated with perfection and fullness, and therefore with heavenly or divine realities. There are many patterns of seven in the Book of Revelation. 12 – This number is a symbol for Israel in that it refers to Israel’s twelve tribes. It also stands for the twelve apostles. 666 –The number six repeated three times stands for total failure. It is the number of the beast. In the Book of Revelation it stands for Rome and its empire, especially the emperor Nero. 1,000 – This does not refer to an exact number but to a great quantity that cannot be calculated. It may suggest Christ the source of the thousand-year kingdom. 144,000 – This number (12 x 12 x 1000) refers to the elect or chosen ones. It represents the countless multitudes of believers.

152 OHT Masters of Other Scenes from the Book of Revelation On the following pages are OHT masters of other scenes from the Book of Revelation from the series by Dürer that may be useful resources for discussing symbolism or other aspects of the Book of Revelation.

John's Vision of Christ and the Seven Candlesticks (Revelation 2) A voice told John to narrate his vision to seven communities in Asia Minor. He saw seven lamps (usually represented as altar candlesticks) in the midst of which was "one like a son of a man", his hair like snow-white wool, his eyes aflame, holding seven stars in his right hand, with a sword coming out of his mouth (Revelation 1:10-16). John kneels in prayer before this vision of Christ who is enthroned.

The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (Revelation 6) The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse is the best known and most frequently referred to scene in the Book of Revelation. After the opening of the first four seals (Revelation 6:1-8), the Horsemen enter the world and bring plague, war, hunger and death to mankind.

The four horsemen are:

• The Conqueror holding a bow • War with a sword • Famine with a pair of scales • Death on a sickly pale horse

The horsemen have been variously interpreted. To the Middle Ages the first stood for Christ and the Church; but more commonly all four are seen as the agents of God’s anger.

The group of riders, accompanied by an angel, thunders across the human world and does not appear to touch the ground. Finally, Hades, the hellish creature at the side of the Four Horsemen is swallowing everything in his enormous jaws that Death, the final rider, has passed.

153 OHT Master: John's Vision of Christ and the Seven Candlesticks (Revelation 2)

154 OHT Master: The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (Revelation 6)

155

PART THIRTEEN: THE MEANING OF THE BOOK OF REVELATION TODAY

Achievement Objective 5

Students will be able to investigate the background and context, and the distinctive characteristics and themes of the Book of Revelation.

Church Teachings

The Assumption of the Virgin Mary

• Mary, the Mother of God, dwells body and soul in the glory of heaven.

The Saints in Heaven

• God’s faithful witnesses, who have already gone before us into heaven, contemplate and praise God, and constantly care for those whom they have left on earth through their intercession.

The Heavenly Liturgy

• The Book of Revelation reveals the worship of God which takes place in heaven. • By joining in the sacraments we are able to participate in this heavenly liturgy.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Express their own responses to the Book of Revelation. • Explain the Church’s choice of readings from the Book of Revelation for the Feasts of the Assumption and All Saints.

Teacher Background

Understanding Apocalyptic Writings Today Many people today misunderstand apocalyptic literature and interpret it in ways that are contrary to the conventions of the genre.

A type of fundamentalist eschatology called “premillennial dispensationalism”, that was especially strong in the United States in the decades leading up to the year 2000 and the dawn of the third Christian millennium, provides a good insight into how apocalyptic literature, especially the Book of Revelation, has been subject to misinterpretation. Popularised by The Late Great Planet Earth (1970), the best-selling book by Hal Lindsey, premillennial

156 dispensationalism figured significantly in the preaching of many TV evangelists in the closing years of the twentieth century.

The term dispensationalism refers to the theory that God “dispenses” or brings about his divine purpose in seven distinct and successive stages of history, called “dispensations.” The seventh dispensation is that of the millennium (Revelation 20:1-6). Pre-millennialists believed that Christ would return before the new millennium. They held that after a brief reign by the Antichrist, Christ would come and destroy once and for all the powers of evil in the great battle of Armageddon.

The concept of a millennium – understood, literally, as a thousand-year reign with Christ on earth – and the final battle of Armageddon, show the influence of the Book of Revelation on the dispensationalist stance. Dispensationalists believed that history was rapidly moving to a showdown – the final, decisive battle of good and evil that would be fought in the valley of Megiddo (Revelation 16:16).

Lindsey contended that the prophecies of Revelation were a precise forecast of future events, a future that was just dawning in the nineteen-seventies. He saw the Book of Revelation’s strange imagery as corresponding exactly to people, places, and events that were then in the news. Russia was “the beast”, for example, and “Gog” and “Magog” applied to the Soviet Union. Lindsey predicted that the Soviets would swoop down upon Palestine but that Jesus would return and slaughter them and establish his millennium rule in Jerusalem.

A further refinement of this position is the concept of the “rapture”. In 1 Thessalonians 4:16-17, Saint Paul, using vivid apocalyptic language to emphasise that all the faithful will live with the Lord forever, spoke of all being “caught up” (“rapt up”) to meet the Lord at his Coming. From this brief text dispensationalists developed the concept of the “rapture”. According to them, true believers will, at the end, be “raptured” from the earth and, thus, escape the terrible destruction of the rest of humankind.

Although the dawn of the third Christian millennium has been and gone, many Christians still claim dispensationalist views. These are not only based on a serious misinterpretation of the Book of Revelation and other biblical texts, but also reflect a negative and dangerous trend within Christianity. The idea of an elect minority being transported to the safe regions of the upper air while a vengeful Lamb destroys the inhabitants of the earth is neither the Catholic understanding of the end of time nor a belief held by mainstream Christians.

The View of History Presented in the Book of Revelation a. The “Past History” view Today almost all New Testament scholars and experts in Christian history believe that the events described in the Book of Revelation took place in the past and insist that the work must be read in its own historical context. However, while the mainline Churches and many Christian denominations

157 adopt this approach they also hold that the final judgement described in the Book of Revelation is an event that is still to come.

However, throughout Christian history, many people have found it difficult to accept the view that the Book of Revelation is primarily about the past. To varying degrees, people in every age have continued to apply aspects of the Book of Revelation to their own times or project them into the future. b. The "Symbolic History" View. This perspective holds that while the historical circumstances of the Book of Revelation relate to the Roman world at the end of the first century AD, it also has a universal and timeless message about how God deals with humanity through all generations. Certain symbolic elements may be applied across the ages. For example, Saint Augustine argued that the thousand-year reign described in the Book of Revelations was not a literal number at all but a figurative way of describing the “age of the Church” on earth. This view has been the dominant one in most mainstream Christian interpretations, especially in the Catholic tradition. It has also been influential in western philosophical thought. c. The “Continuous History” View. This approach was popular in the Middle Ages where many took the literal view that the thousand-year reign spoken of in the Book of Revelation referred to the current age of the Church. As a result many looked to the Book of Revelation in order to interpret ongoing events in the history of Christianity. This mode of interpretation, which sees later events in Christian history as fulfilling predictions in the Book of Revelation, is known as the “continuous history” view.

This approach was first developed by Joachim of Fiore (1132-1202) who used the reference to forty-two months (Revelation 11:2) – the duration of the “trampling of the Temple” – as the basis for his conclusion that the forty-two generations in Matthew's genealogy from Adam to Jesus (Matthew 1:17) indicated a period of 1,260 years from the birth of Jesus until the end of the world predicted in the Book of Revelation. He then identified particular events and individuals in Christian history as fulfilling aspects of the Book of Revelation in a continuum stretching from the days of Jesus until his own time. For example, Joachim links the beast with seven heads (Revelation 13.1), identified as seven kings (Revelation 17:10), with evil rulers beginning with Herod the Great and continuing to Saladin, the Turkish leader who had only a few years earlier repulsed the Crusaders from the Holy Land. Thus, Joachim believed that the Book of Revelation predicted an unfolding of history from ancient times into the future.

From Joachim's day up until the middle of the nineteenth century, similar patterns of interpreting the Book of Revelation became very common. For example, during the Reformation period in Europe there were many predictions about the end of the world based on details in the Book of Revelation. Increasing numbers of people in colonial America and in England saw in current events the fulfilment of predictions contained in the Book of

158 Revelation, especially emphasising those elements that they believed were a sign of the nearness of the end of time. d. The “Future History” View. In the early nineteenth century, drawing on a Protestant theology which supported the literalist interpretation of the Book of Revelation, it became popular to argue that none of the events described in the Book of Revelation after chapters 1 to 3 (that is, John's vision and the letters to the seven churches of Asia) had yet come to pass.

The images and visions in chapters 4 to 22 of the Book of Revelation were considered to be predictions of future events that would come to pass in literal terms as the return of Christ and the end approached.

Central to this method of interpretation is the view that the Book of Revelation is essentially a prophecy of the future. Those who adopt this approach tend to link various passages from the Book of Revelation to details in other parts of the Bible to form a scheme that fits current and future expectations. It is an approach which enabled the rise of the view that the thousand-year reign of Christ will be a literal event that will occur only after Christ returns. Thus, images from the Book of Revelation that can be linked to events surrounding Christ’s Second Coming are emphasised.

A number of different explanations or systems have been proposed to explain how the actual events of the Second Coming will work out. The most popular of these approaches is known as Dispensationalism, a view made popular in England and America in the early nineteenth century. The publication by Cyrus Scofield (1843-1921) of a Reference Bible that contained detailed notes about how to read each passage of the Bible in conjunction with other prophecies encouraged readers to use the Book of Revelation to predict the future. Through its cross-references, readers could jump from passage to passage to follow the “true” meaning of the Book of Revelation. More than any other “future history” interpretation, Dispensationalism has had the most impact on current literalist interpretations of the Book of Revelation.

Apocalyptic and the Catholic Tradition While apocalyptic elements are a feature of the Catholic tradition, they are not central to it and must be seen in the context of the whole of the Church’s teaching. Problems occur when Christians emphasise the dualistic understanding of reality inherent in the apocalyptic writings, and come to see the heavenly world as the “real” world and that which occurs on earth as a repercussion of something already determined in heaven. In this way human and earthly life can be seriously devalued.

The situation is aggravated when there is the expectation of an imminent end. The sharp division of the world into good and evil is simplistic. Sectarianism is inevitable when groups take on an apocalyptic identity and – for whatever reason – see themselves as the suffering righteous ones and others as the wicked oppressors. In such situations there is always a tendency to demonise the perceived opposition.

159 A positive understanding of apocalyptic literature, including the Book of Revelation, recognises its uncompromising assertion of the sovereignty of God. Apocalyptic writings take a serious view of evil and urge the righteous to take a stand against it, no matter the cost. At its deepest level, apocalyptic literature is hopeful because it promotes total trust in the power of God.

While members of apocalyptic movements may cause alarm or seem completely unrealistic, they do serve as a reminder that, ultimately, only the fulfilment of God’s reign will satisfy human desire. The true hope that underlies the apocalyptic writings in the Bible is that the Church will bring about the reign of God, but only in God’s way and in God’s time.

Catholic tradition, while recognising that the primary meaning of the Book of Revelation relies on an accurate understanding of its historical context, also acknowledges that it portrays unchanging realities which provide a firm basis for faith in any period of history – God’s promise to be with God’s people, protecting and saving them.

The Catholic Tradition of Identifying the Virgin Mary with the Woman in the Book of Revelation

One particular feature of the Book of Revelation that has figured significantly in the Catholic tradition is the figure of the “woman clothed with the sun, with the moon under her feet, and on her head a crown of twelve stars” (12:1), who plays a major role in chapter 12 and also reappears, in different guises, in chapters 17 and 21.

From the early Christian centuries, the Church’s eucharistic liturgies and offices of prayer have often applied various scriptural passages to the Blessed Virgin Mary, even though some of these passages clearly originated from other contexts. Scholars and theologians, including the Church Fathers Athanasius and Epiphanius, identified the woman in the Book of Revelation with the Virgin Mary and claimed that the male child she gave birth to was the promised Messiah, Jesus Christ (12:2,5). Other interpretations consistent with Catholic teaching see the woman as a symbol for Israel, and by extension, a representation of the Church, besieged by Satan, but preserved from harm.

The vision of the woman, the child, and the dragon found in chapter 12 of the Book of Revelation is rich in symbolism taken from the mythology of ancient Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, as well as from the Hebrew Scriptures. In the Book of Revelation, this material is reinterpreted to emphasise Jewish traditions and expectations about the birth of the Messiah. The woman, who is unnamed, is understood by many scholars to be the symbolic representation of Israel. The twelve stars that form the crown around the woman’s head are the twelve tribes of Israel and the child that she gives birth to is the Messiah that arises out of Israel.

Within the Catholic tradition, however, it has long been customary to identify this woman “clothed with the sun, standing on the moon” (Revelation 12:1)

160 with Mary, the Mother of Jesus and the Mother of God. This association is affirmed by the Catechism of the Catholic Church which, using material from Revelation 21, describes Mary / “the woman” as participating in the service of the praise of God in heaven:

Recapitulated in Christ, “these are the ones who take part in the service of the praise of God and the fulfilment of his plan: the heavenly powers, all creation (the four living beings), the servants of the Old and New Covenants (the twenty-four elders), the new People of God (the one hundred and forty-four thousand), especially the martyrs “slain for the word of God,” and the all-holy Mother of God (the Woman), the Bride of the Lamb, and finally “a great multitude which no one could number, from every nation, from all tribes, and peoples and tongues.” (CCC 1138)

Francis J. Moloney in Woman, First Among the Faithful (Blackburn, Victoria: Dove Communications, 1984), however, argues that the image of the woman in the Book of Revelation is primarily a symbol of humanity and warns against the tendency to lift 12:1-2 out of context and to apply it directly to Mary. It is important not to force a Mariological interpretation on the figure of the woman, Moloney believes, because in many cultures humanity in its perfection is represented by the figure of a woman.

The sign of the woman in heaven cannot be understood in isolation but needs to be seen in opposition to the sign of the dragon introduced in verses 3 and 4 and identified in verse 9:

Then another portent appeared in heaven: a great red dragon, with seven heads and ten horns, and seven diadems on his heads. His tail swept down a third of the stars of heaven and threw them to the earth. Then the dragon stood before the woman who was about to bear a child, so that he might devour her child as soon as it was born.

The great dragon was thrown down, that ancient serpent, who is called the Devil and Satan, the deceiver of the whole world – he was thrown down to the earth, and his angels were thrown down with him. (Revelation 12:3-4,9)

Here, the dragon represents the serpent in the story of the fall (Genesis 3). Thus, Revelation 12:1-6 is not primarily about Mary, Israel or the Church, but is a retelling of the story of Genesis 3, the encounter between the woman and the serpent. Revelation 12:1-6 recalls humanity at its origins, full of promise and beauty. But hunted by “that ancient serpent”, humanity falls, losing its state of original perfection and bliss. Interpreted in the light of Genesis 3, the snatching away of the male child from the woman in Revelation 12:5 is an image of humanity’s loss of its original blessed state.

But her child was snatched away and taken to God and to his throne; (Revelation 12:5)

161 In Revelation 12:6, the woman finds herself in the desert, cared for and nourished by God for three and a half years – a length of time associated in Daniel 9:24-27 with a period of severe trial.

… and the woman fled into the wilderness, where she has a place prepared by God, so that there she can be nourished for one thousand two hundred sixty days. (Revelation 12:6)

The description of the woman escaping to the desert comes from a long biblical tradition that has its beginnings in the Exodus experience. For the Israelites the desert proved to be an ambiguous place – there, they not only encountered God, but also experienced wandering, sinfulness and suffering. However, in the midst of their desert sufferings and wanderings, God continued to guide and feed the people of Israel, leading them eventually to the Promised Land. In the context of the Book of Revelation, the woman in the desert symbolises humanity, caught in ambiguity and suffering, but still cared for by the loving, protective hand of God.

Revelation 12 next presents an account of the war in heaven between Michael and his angels and the dragon:

And war broke out in heaven; Michael and his angels fought against the dragon. The dragon and his angels fought back, but they were defeated, and there was no longer any place for them in heaven. The great dragon was thrown down, that ancient serpent, who is called the Devil and Satan, the deceiver of the whole world – he was thrown down to the earth, and his angels were thrown down with him. (Revelation 12:7-9)

This struggle ends with God’s victory in Christ:

Then I heard a loud voice in heaven, proclaiming, ‘Now have come the salvation and the power and the kingdom of our God and the authority of his Messiah, for the accuser of our comrades has been thrown down, who accuses them day and night before our God. But they have conquered him by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony, for they did not cling to life even in the face of death. Rejoice then, you heavens and those who dwell in them! (Revelation 12:10-12a)

However, ‘the woman’, that is, humanity, is clearly still at risk:

But woe to the earth and the sea, for the devil has come down to you with great wrath, because he knows that his time is short!’ (Revelation 12:12b)

The fall of the dragon to earth is very significant because it matches the fall of the woman from heaven to the desert. Revelation 12:13-16 emphasises its importance by repeating the description:

162 So when the dragon saw that he had been thrown down to the earth, he pursued the woman who had given birth to the male child. But the woman was given the two wings of the great eagle, so that she could fly from the serpent into the wilderness, to her place where she is nourished for a time, and times, and half a time. Then from his mouth the serpent poured water like a river after the woman, to sweep her away with the flood. But the earth came to the help of the woman; it opened its mouth and swallowed the river that the dragon had poured from his mouth. (Revelation 12:13-16)

In Revelation 12:13-16 there are again several clear references to Israel’s experience of the Exodus. As the serpent pursues the woman, she is given ‘the two wings of the great eagle’ – a clear reference to Exodus 19:4 and Deuteronomy 32:1, another image that speaks of God’s protection of Israel. The serpent pouring ‘water like a river after the woman’ which the earth opens up and swallows recalls Israel’s experience of safely passing through the waters of the Red Sea (Exodus 14:21-31). Here the readers of the Book of Revelation are reminded of God’s care for Israel during the Exodus experience.

God’s loving protection can be found at the beginnings of human history and again at the Exodus. The final verses of Revelation 12 are a reminder that the rest of the woman’s children – all of humanity – remain caught up in the ambiguity of the human condition:

Then the dragon was angry with the woman, and went off to make war on the rest of her children, those who keep the commandments of God and hold the testimony of Jesus. Then the dragon took his stand on the sand of the seashore. (Revelation 12:17-18)

The dragon is positioned ‘on the sand of the seashore’ (12:18), ready to enlist the power and authority of corrupt political authority – the beast from the sea (13:1-10) – and corrupt religious authority – the beast from the land (13:11-18) – in order to capture the woman and her offspring forever.

Revelation 12 poses important questions: which direction will humanity take? Will the history of humanity be a history of self-destruction, as it falls to the dragon, or will it be a history of salvation?

The woman in chapter twelve is a symbol of humanity in its complex and troubled relationship with God. The further appearance of the woman in chapters 17 and 18 and then again in chapter 21 suggests that the ambiguity of the human condition can be resolved either by a permanent commitment to the beast in the desert (chapters 17-18) or by a permanent commitment to the Lamb on a high mountain (chapter 21).

In chapter 17 the beast and the woman reappear united in a monstrous intimacy:

163 So he carried me away in the spirit into a wilderness, and I saw a woman sitting on a scarlet beast that was full of blasphemous names, and it had seven heads and ten horns. The woman was clothed in purple and scarlet, and adorned with gold and jewels and pearls, holding in her hand a golden cup full of abominations and the impurities of her fornication; and on her forehead was written a name, a mystery: ‘Babylon the great, mother of whores and of earth’s abominations.’ (Revelation 17:3-5)

The scarlet beast upon which the woman is riding is clearly the dragon from chapter 12. Whereas in chapter 12 the woman, representing humanity’s vulnerability after the fall, escaped the beast by fleeing to the desert and to God’s protection, in chapter 17 she becomes the symbol of a debased humanity that has gone the way of the beast. The desert is no longer the place of God’s protection but a place of alienation and shame.

The final appearance of the woman occurs in chapter 21 where the gathering of the chosen ones, those who from all time have been prepared to listen to the word of Jesus and give witness to him, is described. This event is presented as “the new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband”. (Revelation 21:2)

‘Come, I will show you the bride, the wife of the Lamb.’ And in the spirit he carried me away to a great, high mountain and showed me the holy city Jerusalem coming down out of heaven from God. It has the glory of God and a radiance like a very rare jewel, like jasper, clear as crystal. (Revelation 21:9-11)

The dragon has been destroyed, and the woman is now “the bride, the wife of the Lamb”. This image points to a new intimacy between humanity and Christ – the ambiguities of the human condition that were apparent in chapter 12 are now resolved through the woman’s loving relationship with the Lamb. Humanity’s situation has been transformed:

And I heard a loud voice from the throne saying, ‘See, the home of God is among mortals. He will dwell with them as their God; they will be his peoples, and God himself will be with them; he will wipe every tear from their eyes. Death will be no more; mourning and crying and pain will be no more, for the first things have passed away.’ (Revelation 21:3-4)

While the all-protecting God never abandons humanity, through the symbol of the woman people are offered the choice of either committing themselves to the ways of the beast, and to ultimate destruction, or to the ways of the Lamb, and to life with God through Jesus Christ. ‘The woman’ is the symbol used in chapters twelve, seventeen, eighteen, and twenty-one of the Book of Revelation to make this message clear.

While the use of such symbolism to represent humanity was widespread in the ancient world, and it is true that there are many places in the Bible where

164 woman imagery is used to speak of Israel, it is very significant that such a central Christian theme is carried by this symbolism.

The Book of Revelation and the Gospel of John influenced the development of Marian theology in the early Church considerably. In the fourth Gospel, which legend says was penned by the same author as the Book of Revelation, Jesus never refers to his mother by name, but consistently speaks of her as “woman”.

Links with the Student Text

Task Twenty-Four Here students are asked to reflect on nine brief statements by today’s readers about how they understand the Book of Revelation. Students should think about these comments and then write their own response to the Book of Revelation.

Something to Discuss Here students are asked to study the passages from the Book of Revelation which are read during the Liturgy of the Word on:

a) The Feast of the Assumption (15 August) – Revelation 11:19, 12:1- 6,10 b) The Feast of All Saints – (1 November) – Revelation 7:2-4, 9-14

Students are asked to consider why the Church chooses these readings on these feast days.

The dogma of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary (formally defined by Pope Pius XII in 1950) celebrates Mary “when the course of her earthly life was finished” being “taken up body and soul into the glory of heaven”.

Although the vision of the woman, the child, and the dragon found in chapter 12 of the Book of Revelation is rich in symbolism taken from the mythology of ancient Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, as well as from the Hebrew Scriptures, within the Catholic tradition, however, it has long been customary to identify this woman “clothed with the sun, standing on the moon” (Revelation 12:1) with Mary, the Mother of Jesus and the Mother of God.

This association is affirmed by the Catechism of the Catholic Church which, using material from Revelation 21, describes Mary / “the woman” as participating in the service of the praise of God in heaven:

Recapitulated in Christ, “these are the ones who take part in the service of the praise of God and the fulfilment of his plan: the heavenly powers, all creation (the four living beings), the servants of the Old and New Covenants (the twenty-four elders), the new People of God (the one hundred and forty-four thousand), especially the martyrs “slain for the word of God,” and the all-holy Mother of God (the Woman), the Bride of the Lamb, and finally “a great multitude which no one could

165 number, from every nation, from all tribes, and peoples and tongues.” (CCC 1138)

The Feast of All Saints celebrates the triumph of God’s grace in every person who enjoys the eternal vision of God in heaven – this includes those who are officially recognised by the Church as saints through the process of canonisation but also all those whose sanctity is largely unacknowledged.

The reading from the Book of Revelation for the Feast of All Saints (7:2-4, 9- 14) describes the worship of God in heaven by the company of saints:

‘After this I looked, and there was a great multitude that no one could count, from every nation, from all tribes and peoples and languages, standing before the throne and before the Lamb, robed in white, with palm branches in their hands. They cried out in a loud voice, saying, ‘Salvation belongs to our God who is seated on the throne, and to the Lamb!’ (Revelation 7:9-10)

The saints in heaven include the martyrs:

‘These are they who have come out of the great ordeal; they have washed their robes and made them white in the blood of the Lamb.’ (Revelation 7:14)

Something to Find Out Many statues and pictures of the Blessed Virgin Mary use imagery taken from Chapter 12 of the Book of Revelation. Students are asked whether they are familiar with any of these statues or pictures and, if so, to identify features from Revelation 12 that appear in them.

Imagery commonly found in artistic representations of Mary includes the snake beneath her heel (indicating Mary’s power over Satan in particular and evil in general), and the twelve stars around her head (suggesting the twelve tribes of Israel). She is often seen standing on the moon and shining like the sun (an indication of Mary’s pre-eminence within the created world).

166 GLOSSARY OF GENERAL TERMS

The entries in this glossary are for words italicised in the text, and other useful definitions.

The references in the margin, eg. N2766 are to paragraphs in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.

There is a separate glossary of Maori terms.

Acts of the Apostles This book is found in the New Testament immediately following the four Gospels. It is a sequel to the Gospel of Luke, written by the same author. It was written to show how, under the influence of the Holy Spirit, Jesus’ first followers spread his Gospel “not only in Jerusalem but throughout Judea and Samaria and indeed to the ends of the earth”. It is mainly concerned with the activities of St Paul and St Peter.

All Saints The feast day of All Saints is celebrated on 1 November to honour all the saints known and unknown.

Apocalypse In Greek the word means a revelation or disclosure. Written with an initial capital this usually refers to the last book of the New Testament or the events described in that book. For more information refer to the entry in this glossary for “Book of Revelation”. More generally an apocalypse is any disastrous occurrence.

Apocrypha The name given by Protestants to those books which Catholics include in the Old Testament but which they do not. See the glossary entry for “Deutero- Canonical”.

Aramaic A Semitic Language relating to Hebrew. It began to replace Hebrew as the spoken language of the Jewish people from the time of the Exile (6th Century BC). It was probably the language spoken by Jesus. Some passages of the Old Testament were written in Aramaic especially in the Books of Daniel and Ezra. Some words are also found in the New Testament – ’Abba’ being the best known.

Assumption (N 966, 974) This is the dogma that the Blessed Virgin Mary was taken (assumed) body and soul into heaven at the end of her earthly life. It was promulgated by Pope Pius XII in 1950, and is the only dogma proclaimed since the decree on papal infallibility in 1870. Mary’s Assumption is a sharing in the Resurrection of her Son and an anticipation of the resurrection of others. The Assumption is celebrated liturgically on 15 August and is the patronal feast of the Church in Aotearoa New Zealand.

167 Babylon The ancient city of Babylon (or Babel) lay on the left bank of the Euphrates River not far south of the modern city of Baghdad, the capital of Iraq. The term also sometimes refers to the state of Babylonia which surrounded it.

Babylon, like Egypt and Assyria, was one of the powerful neighbours of the Israelites in Old Testament times. From 587-539 BC many Jews were held in captivity in Babylon in a period known as The Exile. In 587 BC Nebuchadnezzar, the ruler of Babylon, destroyed Jerusalem. Only after his defeat in 539 by Cyrus of Persia were the Jews allowed to return from exile.

Book of Revelation Also known as the Book of the Apocalypse, this is the last book of the New Testament. It is an example of a form of literature known as apocalyptic also found in the Books of Daniel, Isaiah and Zechariah. The name comes from a Greek word meaning to ‘unveil’ or to reveal, and apocalypses reveal some heavenly mystery. They are sometimes referred to as ‘crisis literature’ because they were often written during a time of crisis with the intention of giving hope in a desperate situation. The Book of Revelation was probably written during the persecution of the early Christians by the Roman Emperor Nero (54-68 AD) or Domitian (81-96 AD). It is a highly symbolic work full of strange and profound visions, images and significant numbers. The meaning of these would have been clear to their original audience but are often obscure to today’s reader. However, the message of the Book of Revelation for Christians then and now is essentially one of hope. Despite the apparent triumph of evil – God will overcome. There will be “a new heaven and a new earth”.

Canon of Scripture (N 120) The list or collection of books of the Bible officially recognised and accepted by the Church as the inspired Word of God and therefore to be taken as the rule or norm of faith.

Christian Scripture A term used to describe the New Testament. The collection of the sacred writings of Christians, including the four gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, various epistles or letters, and the Book of Revelation.

Deutero-Canonical This term refers to the “second” canon of the Old Testament, those Old Testament writings which were originally written in Greek or survive only in Greek versions. They include Tobit, Judith, Sirach, Baruch, Wisdom, and 1 and 2 Maccabees. These books are included in the Catholic canon but are often omitted from Protestant Bibles which accept only the Hebrew books of the Old Testament. Protestants refer to these writings as “Apocrypha” (from the Greek meaning ”hidden” or “not genuine”).

168 Disciples From the Latin meaning pupil or follower. In the ancient world a common way for people to learn something was to attach themselves to a master to follow him around, to listen to his teaching and to imitate his way of life. Many Rabbis (teachers) in Israel had disciples. In the New Testament the term disciple is applied both to the wider circle of Jesus’ followers and to the inner circle including ‘the Twelve’ who are also called apostles.

Domitian Roman emperor 81 – 96 AD. It was as a consequence of persecution or oppression of Christians during his reign that the Book of Revelation was most likely written.

Emmaus A village about 11 kilometres from Jerusalem where Jesus appeared to two disciples, after his resurrection, and they recognised him “in the breaking of the bread”. (Luke 24:13 ff)

Epistle A letter. Used to refer particularly to the letters sent by St Paul and others to the early Christian communities.

Eschatology (N 1020-1041) Eschata is Greek for “last things”. Eschatology is that part of theology which studies “the last things”, such as death, judgement, heaven, hell, purgatory, the resurrection of the body, and the Second Coming of Christ.

Evangelism The act of proclaiming the Good News.

Evangelist A term from the Greek meaning “proclaimer of the Good News”. It applies to anyone engaged in spreading the Gospel, but refers particularly to Matthew, Mark, Luke and John – those who, according to tradition, wrote the four gospels.

Gentiles A biblical term, from the Latin word for foreigners, meaning people who were not Jews.

Gospel From the Old English godspel meaning “good news” this word has two related meanings: the good news of God’s saving action in Jesus Christ and the accounts of Jesus’ life and works produced by the early Church – i.e. the four Gospels according to Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. There were also in circulation other accounts of Jesus’ words and deeds which the Church did not recognise because they do not give an accurate picture of Jesus, and are not inspired. These books the Church rejected. She gave them no place in her canon of sacred books. They are referred to as the apocryphal Gospels.

169 Heaven (N 1023-29) Heaven is a state of being in blessed community and perfectly incorporated, eternally, with God. It is hard for us to conceive of Heaven. As St Paul puts it: “What we see now is like a dim image in a mirror: then we shall see face- to-face.” (1 Cor 13:12) Heaven, then, is being face-to-face with God. Or to put it another way, it is union with God. It is a state of literally unimaginable joy or bliss. As St Paul says: “What no one ever saw or heard; What no one ever thought could happen, is the very thing prepared for those who love God.”(1 Cor 2:9) Heaven is living on in love, eternally. Among the most vivid images of Heaven are those found in the Book of Revelation, especially in Chapters 21 and 22. Heaven is the love of God enveloping all creation. It is ‘the ultimate end and fulfilment of the deepest longings, the state of supreme definitive happiness.’ Heaven is a communion not only with the Holy Trinity, but also with the Virgin Mary and ‘all the angels and saints’ including our loved ones who are with God.

Infancy Narratives These are the sections of the gospels of Matthew and Luke (Matthew 1:1– 2:23 and Luke 1:5–2:52) that deal with the story of Jesus’ birth and childhood. Although they do not harmonise in detail, Matthew and Luke agree that after being virginally conceived through the power of the Holy Spirit, Jesus was born of Mary in Bethlehem. Jesus’ coming fulfilled the Old Testament preparation and was to bring saving revelation to all the peoples on earth (Matthew 2:1-12 and Luke 2:30-32).

Inspired (N 106) If someone or something is inspired in a religious sense they are under the influence of the Holy Spirit. Thus the Scriptures are said to be the Word of God or to be inspired because their human authors wrote under the influence of the Holy Spirit.

Kingdom or Reign of God (N 541ff, 671) The Kingdom or Reign of God is a term used in both the Old and New Testaments to describe the saving and life-giving rule of God over creation and human history. The preface for the liturgy of the Feast of Christ the King describes it as “an eternal and universal Kingdom: a Kingdom of truth and life, a Kingdom of holiness and grace, a Kingdom of justice, love and peace”. In the Lord’s Prayer Christians pray that this Kingdom may come “on earth as it is in Heaven”. On the one hand Jesus ushered in the Kingdom with his presence on earth (Mark 4:30-32) while on the other hand the Reign of God will not be experienced in all its fullness until Christ comes “again in glory to judge the living and the dead”. (Mark 13:26-27). Christians are called on to take responsibility, both in the personal and the public spheres, for trying to foster the reign of justice and peace in their own times and situations.

170 Letters There are 21 Letters or Epistles among the 27 books of the New Testament. Thirteen of these are ascribed to St Paul, though modern scholars doubt his authorship of at least six of these. The non-Pauline letters are Hebrews and the Catholic letters. The word Catholic here means “general” and these letters, except for 3 John, are addressed to the Church in general, not to a particular Church or individual. They are 1 and 2 Peter, 1, 2 and 3 John and Jude.

Literary Form Types of literature distinguished by form and structure. For example, poetry, narrative, history, letter etc.

Liturgy of the Word (N 1346-1349) This is one of the major parts of the Mass. It includes everything from the first reading to the Prayer of the Faithful. At the Sunday Eucharist there are three readings. An Old Testament reading is followed by the singing of part of a Psalm and then a second reading from one of the Letters or the Book of Revelation, except during the Easter season when the first reading is from Acts. A Gospel acclamation then precedes the Gospel reading which is followed by the homily, the Creed and the Prayer of the Faithful. The Liturgy of the Word is preceded by the Entrance rite and followed by the Liturgy of the Eucharist.

Magnificat This is the hymn of Mary on her visit to Elizabeth as recorded in Luke 1:46-55. The name of the hymn is derived from its first word in the Vulgate (Latin, ‘it praises’) translation of the Bible. The hymn is similar to that of Hannah (1 Sam 2:1-10) another woman favoured by God. The Magnificat praises God’s saving power which overthrows the mighty and favours the poor.

Messiah (N 436–40, 711–16) Taken from a Hebrew word meaning ‘anointed one’, a title applied in ancient Israel to kings, priests and sometimes to prophets. By the time of Jesus, many in Israel had the expectation that God would raise up a leader from the House of David, their greatest king, to be the Messiah who would rescue them from their afflictions. Some understood this in terms of political liberation, others in a more strictly spiritual sense. Messiah, was translated in Greek by the term Christos. Hence Jesus’ title, ‘Christ’, can be translated as ‘the anointed one’, or ‘the Messiah’. Jesus’ disciples came to realize that he was in the fullest sense of the term, the one promised whom ‘God has made both Lord and Messiah’ (Acts 2:36).

Miracle (N 547) From a Catholic perspective a miracle is an unusual or unexpected manifestation of the presence and power of God in human history. There is no Hebrew word for miracle and the Greek word for miracle does not appear in the New Testament. Instead the Scriptures speak of “wonders”, “acts of power”, “works” and “signs”.

171 So the miracles of Jesus are signs of the power of God at work. The reign of God was shown by Jesus’ power over evil, illness, disability and nature. Jesus did not want to be a miracle man in the sense of a ‘wonder-worker’ or magician. He refused to work miracles to convince doubters such as Herod. The greatest miracle for Christians is the Resurrection, which actually happened, and which proclaims the power of God among us and his victory over sin and death.

Nero Emperor of Rome 54 - 68 AD. He persecuted Christians.

New Testament (N 124-141) The New Testament is the second of the two sections of the Christian Bible or Sacred Scriptures, the first being the Old Testament. It is a collection of 27 books written between about 50 AD and the early part of the second century AD. These writings passed through several stages of editing before reaching their final form around 200 AD. While the 27 books of the New Testament have been generally accepted by the church since the end of the fourth century, the canon of scripture was declared definitively by the Council of Trent in 1546. The four gospels are the heart of the New Testament, “because they are our principal source for the life and teaching of the Incarnate Word our Saviour”. (The Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation N.18)

Old Testament (N 101-123, 128-133) The Old Testament is the first of two sections of the Christian Bible or Sacred Scriptures, the second being the New Testament. The Old Testament is a collection of 46 books of Jewish origin gathered together and edited over hundreds of years. Its final form (or canon) was not settled till early in the Christian era. The Old Testament has four main divisions. The Pentateuch (five scrolls) is the first five books, known by Jews as ‘The Law’. The second division is The Historical Books, followed by The Wisdom Books and The Prophets. The Church regards the Old Testament, along with the New Testament, as the inspired Word of God. The Old Testament is an integral component of worship in the Church which also recommends it to the faithful as a source of “strength for their faith, food for the soul, and a pure and lasting font of the spiritual life”. The Old Testament is sometimes referred to as the Jewish Scriptures or the First Testament.

Oral Traditions The stories, experiences, sayings and history of a people preserved through telling, speaking, preaching, or liturgical ceremonies rather than in a written form.

Parable The parables of Jesus are extended figures of speech, usually in the form of stories, which are drawn from everyday life and designed to catch the attention of the listeners and to challenge them to action. Jesus’ parables were told in a specific situation, often in answer to a particular question, and examples used were the ones the listeners would be familiar with. Jesus

172 wanted people to think out the answers to the question as it related to their own lives. We are meant to get involved in the story, to put ourselves in the place of the characters and in this way be drawn into seeing the implications of the question for us. Thus the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:29- 37) confronts us with the question ‘What does being a “neighbour“ mean?’

Passion Narrative The passages in the Gospels which recount the story of Christ’s suffering and death (Matt 26-27; Mark 14-15; Luke 22-23; John 18-19).

Pentateuch (N 702) The collective name given to the first five books of the Bible – Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.

Pentecost The word comes from the Greek meaning “the fiftieth day”. It is the name given to the descent of the Holy Spirit on the apostles fifty days after Easter (see Acts 2:1-41). It is also the name for the feast day in the liturgical calendar that celebrates this event.

Presentation (of Jesus) According to the Law of Moses (Ex 13:2,12) each first born child, or animal, among the Israelites was to be dedicated to God. In bringing the infant Jesus to the Temple for this ceremony Mary and Joseph are shown to be devout Jews. (Lk 2: 22ff)

Psalms (N 2585 - 2589) The Psalms are a collection of 150 Israelite lyrics, poems and prayers found in the Wisdom Books of the Old Testament. They represent the work of several centuries and some may be the work of King David to whom many are ascribed. The Book of Psalms (or Psalter) is the ‘masterwork of prayer in the Old Testament’. The Psalms contain many forms of prayer, such as lamentation and thanksgiving, but all in praise of God. The Psalms are part of the liturgy and for centuries have been among the best-loved prayers of Christians.

Redactor From the German word for editor, this term is often used to refer to the final editor or writer of the Biblical texts.

Resurrection (N 988 - 1004) The term Resurrection refers, in the first instance, to the central Christian belief that God raised Jesus to new life after his death on the cross and burial in the tomb. The New Testament describes a number of appearances of the Risen Christ to his disciples. Following St. Paul the Church teaches that Christ’s Resurrection is the ‘first fruits’ of many (see 1 Cor.15:20). All who die ‘in Christ’ will be raised to life with him and the Father through the power of the Holy Spirit. The Risen Lord appeared to the disciples as a glorified body. Those raised to life will also experience the resurrection of the body and not simply some spiritual or immaterial existence.

173 Revelation (N 50 - 100) From a Latin word meaning ‘to remove the veil’, the term revelation refers to the Self-disclosure of God. Catholic teaching is that people can reason their way to a sure knowledge of God’s existence. They can however only appreciate the full extent of the mystery of the nature of God (the Trinity), and of God’s plans for humanity, because God has freely chosen to reveal these things. God has most fully revealed this mystery by sending Jesus Christ, his Son, and the Holy Spirit. Divine Revelation is transmitted through Scripture, Tradition and the Teaching Authority of the Church. Through the guidance of the Holy Spirit, the faithful are able to grow in understanding of revelation.

Rome / Roman Empire The city-state of Rome on the Italian peninsula emerged as the dominant power in the Mediterranean area after defeating its rival Carthage in 146 BC. At first governed as a Republic, Rome became an Empire in 27 BC. It was during the reign of the first Emperor, Augustus Caesar, that Jesus was born. Palestine had become part of the Roman Empire in 63 BC. Most Jews regarded the Romans as oppressive rulers and there was much unrest. In 70 AD. a Roman army destroyed Jerusalem, killing many Jews and driving many into exile.

Saints (N 825, N 956) Sometimes, as in St Paul’s letters, the term saints is applied to all those saved by Christ, living or dead. But generally speaking, saints are those people who have died and are now with God. In some usages, saints are all those in Heaven. At other times the term refers particularly to those canonised by the Church – that is those who have been, after investigation of the holiness of their lives, officially declared to be in Heaven, as models and intercessors for believers.

Samaritan Samaritans were inhabitants of a city and its surrounding district, Samaria, in North-Central Palestine. Samaria was the capital of the Northern Kingdom, Israel, before it was conquered by the Assyrians in 721 BC. After the Exile, the Jews who settled around Jerusalem did not regard the Samaritans as true Israelites. The Samaritans were of mixed descent and differed in their beliefs. They recognised only the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Bible) and built their own temple on Mount Gerizim. Given the enmity between the two groups and the degree to which Samaritans were despised by Jews, Jesus’ dealings with the Samaritan woman (John 4:1-42) and his famous parable (Luke 10:29-37) are all the more remarkable.

Scripture The sacred writings of any people. For Christians the Bible, comprising the books of the Old and New Testaments, is their Scripture.

174 Scrolls In the ancient world books were written in a rolled-up form rather than with pages. These scrolls consisted of pieces of papyrus, leather or parchment sewn together and rolled smoothly round a stick. A reader would unroll the manuscript off the stick onto another. Much of the Old and New Testaments were written on Scrolls (See Luke 4:16-19)

Second Coming (N 668 - 682) This is the awaited return of Jesus ‘from the right hand of the Father’ to ‘judge the living and the dead’. This Last Judgement will announce the fulfilment of the Kingdom or Reign of God inaugurated by the first appearance of Jesus.

Synagogue A synagogue is a Jewish place of prayer, study and instruction. The name comes from a Greek word meaning assembly. Synagogues arose after the destruction of the temple of Jerusalem in 587 BC and the dispersion of Jews during the Exile. By New Testament times synagogues were found throughout Palestine and beyond in towns of any size where there was a sizeable Jewish community. Services were held on the Sabbath and feast days.

Synoptic Gospels The Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke. They are called ‘synoptic’ because they can be ‘viewed together’ or compared in a parallel fashion. Scholars believe that Matthew and Luke are based on Mark and on another source called “Q” -from the German Quelle meaning “source”. This common basis would account for their similarity.

Temple The great temple of Jerusalem was the centre of Jewish worship. First built by King Solomon in the 10th century B.C. it was destroyed by the Babylonians in 587 BC. After the exile it was rebuilt and King Herod began substantial improvements in 19 BC. This was the temple that Jesus knew. In 70 AD it was finally destroyed by the Romans as they crushed the Jewish Revolt.

Theophilus The name of the otherwise unknown person to whom St Luke dedicated his Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles. The name, in Greek, means ‘beloved of God’.

Torah A Hebrew word meaning ‘guide’ or ‘teaching’. It is usually translated by the English word Law. The Torah consists of the first five books of the Bible, namely Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy and is the most important part of the Hebrew scriptures for Judaism. It is often called the ‘Law of Moses’ but it contains much more than legal material.

175 Tradition The word comes from the Latin and means to pass on from generation to generation. It can apply either to the content of what is handed on, or to the process of handing on. In the Church, Tradition (with a capital T) refers to the living transmission of the Gospel from the Apostles through their successors to each generation. Tradition is closely bound to Sacred Scripture as they flow from the same divine source. The writing of the New Testament in the early years of the Church demonstrates the process of living tradition. Within the great Tradition are numerous traditions (with a small t). These are the ways of expressing the faith (e.g. styles of worship) which, while they may be important in various times and places, are not essential, and should not be confused with Tradition.

Witness (N 2044) Give evidence of or testify to the truth of one's claims or beliefs. A person may give witness by what they say or teach, or they may show the truth of what they say by the way they act and how they live their lives.

Worship (N 1066 - 1112, 2096 - 97) The First Commandment calls on people to put God before all else. Jesus said, citing the book of Deuteronomy, “You shall worship the Lord your God, and him only shall you serve”. To worship is to adore and venerate, to give praise and thanks, acknowledging our dependence on God. Worship may be private or public. For Catholics the greatest act of worship is the Sacred Liturgy. In the liturgy of the Church, God the Father is blessed and adored as the source of all the blessings of creation and salvation with which he has blessed us in his Son, in order to give us the Holy Spirit.

176 GLOSSARY OF MĀORI TERMS

This glossary gives explanation of Māori terms which are italicised in the text.

Pronunciation – correct pronunciation of Māori comes only with practice in listening to and speaking the language. The English phonetic equivalents provided under each Māori word are intended to give help, for teachers who need it, in providing reasonably accurate examples for students. If in doubt please seek assistance from someone practised in correct pronunciation of Te Reo Māori.

´ indicates stressed syllable

Aroha (úh-raw-huh) In general, means love and/or compassion. Note that the word is used in two senses:

1. A joyful relationship involving the expression of goodwill and the doing of good, empathy.

2. Sympathy, compassion towards those who are unhappy or suffering.

Atua (úh-too-uh) The Māori word Atua has been used to describe God in the Christian sense since missionary times. Before the coming of Christianity, Māori used the word atua to describe many kinds of spiritual beings (in the way we now use the word “spirit”) and also unusual events. Only the priestly and aristocratic classes of Māori society (ariki, rangatira and tohunga) had access to knowledge of the Supreme Being, Io, also known as Io-matua, Io-matua-i-te- kore, Io-te-wananga, etc. It seems that many, but not all, tribes had this belief in Io before missionary times. Māori use several words to refer to God in the Christian sense:

Te Atua – God, the Supreme Being

Ihowa – Jehovah

Te Ariki – Lord, more correctly used of Jesus

Te Matua – the father (literally, parent)

Io – a term used for God in some, but not all Māori circles. (Te Atua is acceptable in all circles).

Hākarameta (háh-kuh-ruh-meh-tuh) Sacrament.

He Tangata (héh túh-nguh-tuh) People.

177 Hehu Karaiti (héh-hoo kuh-rúh-ee-tee) Jesus Christ.

Hohou Rongo (háw-haw-oo ráw-ngaw) The restoring of tapu and mana, by a process of reconciliation which involves acknowledging violations, accepting responsibility and giving redress.

When written with initial capital letters, Hohou Rongo, refers to the Sacrament of Penance or Reconciliation.

Karakia (kúh-ruh-kee-uh) Prayer, ritual.

Mana (múh-nuh) Spiritual power and authority. Its sources are both divine and human, namely, God, one’s ancestors and one’s achievements in life. Mana comes to people in three ways: Mana tangata, from people, mana whenua, from the land, and mana atua, from the spiritual powers.

Please note: when mana refers to Mana of God it is written as Mana.

Noa (náw-uh) Free from tapu restrictions, which have been lifted by ceremony or ritual. This form of noa is positive, it is the freedom to go on with life after being released from restricting factors, e.g after a pōwhiri or welcoming ceremony; on leaving a cemetery; after a reconciliation; etc. Noa can also be negative: a state of weakness and powerlessness which affects both people who have suffered violation or abuse and also those who have caused violation or abuse.

Rongopai (ráw-ngaw-puh-ee) Gospel or Good News. Ngā Rongopai (plural). Te Rongopai (singular).

Tangata Whenua (túh-nguh-tuh féh-noo-uh) Indigenous people of the land, or their descendants. Local people, home people, people of a marae are usually spoken of as hunga kāinga, iwi kāinga or tangata kāinga, not tangata whenua.

Tapu (túh-poo) This word is used in three senses:

1) restrictions or prohibitions which safeguard the dignity and survival of people and things

2) the value, dignity, or worth of someone or something, eg the holiness of God, human dignity, the value of the environment

3) the intrinsic being or essence of someone or something, eg tapu i Te Atua is the intrinsic being of God, the divine nature.

Please note: when tapu refers to the Tapu of God it is written as Tapu.

178 Te Ao Wairua (teh úh-aw wúh-i-roo-uh) The spiritual world.

Te Aranga (teh úh-ruh-nguh) The Resurrection.

Te Kupu a Te Ariki (teh kóo-poo uh teh úh-ree-kee) The Word of God.

Te Rangatiratanga (teh ruh-nguh-tée-ruh-tuh-nguh) The Kingdom or Reign of God.

Te Tiriti O Waitangi (teh tée-ree-tee aw wúh-ee-tuh-ngee) The Treaty of Waitangi.

Te Wā (teh wáh) A period of time in which a series of events, affecting people and their lives, take place, which enable people to reach goals, or moments of achievement.

Te Wairua Tapu (teh wúh-ee-roo-uh túh-poo) The Holy Spirit.

Tika (tée-kuh) Justice.

Whakapapa (fúh-kuh-puh-puh) Genealogy or family tree.

Whakapono (fúh-kuh-paw-naw) Faith.

Whānau (fáh-nuh-oo) Extended Family.

179 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

FIRST EDITION (1992)

This booklet was part of a series prepared by the members of a Writing Party:

Anna Heffernan (Auckland) Lorraine Campbell sm (Auckland) Steve Jorgensen (Hamilton) Mary Lynch (Palmerston North) Gary Finlay (Wellington) Mervyn Duffy sm (Wellington) Sharon Alexander (Wellington) Karaitiana Kingi sm (Christchurch) Richard Walsh cfc (Dunedin)

SYLLABUS CO-ORDINATORS Gary Finlay (NCRS, Wellington) AND EDITORS: Elizabeth M Russell sjc (NCRS, Auckland)

THEOLOGICAL CONSULTORS: † John Mackey DD Paul Williamson sm, S.T.D., M.A. (Hons)

PROOF READERS: Margaret R Bearsley (NCRS, Auckland) Ann Hodge (NCRS, Auckland)

TYPESETTER: Mary Wright (NCRS, Auckland)

PRODUCTION CO-ORDINATOR: Catherine Stanaway rndm (NCRS, Auckland)

SECOND EDITION (2003)

CO-ORDINATOR/EDITOR: Charles Shaw

THEOLOGICAL/LITURGICAL CONSULTORS: Mons Vincent Hunt Rev Anthony Harrison

CONTACT FOR MAORI CONSULTATION: Rev Bernard Dennehy

NCRS: Gary Finlay, Director Joan Parker rndm, Editing Nuala Dunne, Secretary

180 Titles of the Topics in Year 12 12A Religions of the World 12B Justice and Peace 12C The Church's Story -- The Modern Age 12D Loss, Death, Grief and Dying 12E Biblical Studies 1 12F Christian Morality and Moral Development 12G Christian Art, Architecture and Music 12H Commitment and Ministry

STRANDS Human Experience 12A, 12G Scripture and Tradition 12E Church History 12C Theology 12F Sacrament and Worship 12D, 12H Social Justice 12B

Back cover: Horsemen of Apocalypse, bas-relief on Jean de Langeac tomb in Limoges cathedral. By unidentified artist, published in Magasin Pittoresque, Paris, 1842. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION PROGRAMME

FOR CATHOLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND

Biblical Studies 1 BIGSTOCKPHOTO.COM

12E

TEACHER GUIDE

CEP1221