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Groundwater Governance in the Central Bekaa Lebanon

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Groundwater Governance in the Central Bekaa Lebanon This is an IWMI project publication – 'Groundwater Governance in the Arab World – Taking Stock and Addressing the Challenges' This publication was made possible through support provided by the Middle East Bureau, U.S. Agency for International Development, under the terms of Award AID-263-IO-13- 00005. DISCLAIMER The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Agency for International Development or the United States Government or the International Water Management Institute (IWMI). Cover photo credit: Marie-Hélène Nassif. 2 Table of Contents Executive Summary ............................................................................................................ 10 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 17 2. The general state of groundwater resources in the ULRB .............................................. 18 2.1. Water supply on the Upper Litani River Basin ...............................................................18 2.2. The importance of groundwater in the history of water supply in the Bekaa ..............21 2.2.1. Groundwater as the main engine of irrigation development ................................21 2.2.2. Groundwater, the major resource for domestic supply ........................................23 2.3. Hydrogeology, geographic distribution of wells, and drawdown of water tables ........24 2.3.1. Past and present knowledge about the ULRB hydrogeology ................................24 2.3.2. Aquifer characteristics and geographic distribution of wells ................................25 2.3.3. Understanding aquifer recharge, a prerequisite to analyze groundwater governance ............................................................................................................................30 2.3.4. Water level drawdown ...........................................................................................32 3. Research objectives, presentation of case study and methodology ............................... 36 3.1. The importance of unpacking groundwater governance for the general water planning of the ULRB ................................................................................................................................36 3.2. Presentation of the study area ......................................................................................37 3.2.1. Selection of the study area ....................................................................................37 3.2.2. Division into sub-areas ...........................................................................................37 3.2.3. Towns and population ...........................................................................................40 3.3. Methodology .................................................................................................................40 3.4. Water authority and water rights ..................................................................................44 3.4.1. Governmental and public bodies ...........................................................................44 3.4.2. Water rights linked to surface water .....................................................................47 3.4.3. Water rights linked to groundwater ......................................................................47 3.5. Agriculture practices ......................................................................................................48 3.5.1. Crop types ..............................................................................................................48 3.5.2. Irrigation techniques ..............................................................................................49 3.5.3. Land tenure ............................................................................................................50 3.5.4. Problems in agriculture ..........................................................................................52 4. The evolution of groundwater use since the 1950s: Spatial heterogeneity and interrelated impacts .............................................................................................................................. 52 4.1. Hala Yahfoufa sub-area .................................................................................................52 4.1.1. Evolution of water supply for irrigation .................................................................52 4.1.2. Evolution of domestic water supply ......................................................................58 4.1.3. Impacts on direct users ..........................................................................................60 4.1.4. Identification of competing users ..........................................................................61 4.2. Litani-Fourzol sub-area ..................................................................................................62 4.2.1. Evolution of water supply for irrigation .................................................................62 4.2.2. Impacts on direct users ..........................................................................................65 4.2.3. Identification of competing users ..........................................................................68 4.3. Litani- Maallaqa sub-area ..............................................................................................68 4.3.1. Evolution of water supply for irrigation .................................................................68 4.3.2. Impact on direct users ...........................................................................................69 3 4.3.3. Identification of competing users ..........................................................................71 4.4. Litani-Barr Elias sub-area ...............................................................................................72 4.4.1. Evolution of water supply for irrigation .................................................................72 4.4.2. Impact on direct users ...........................................................................................74 4.4.3. Identification of competing users ..........................................................................75 4.5. Ghozayel sub-area .........................................................................................................76 4.5.1. Water supply for irrigation .....................................................................................76 4.5.2. Domestic water supply ..........................................................................................79 4.5.3. Impacts on users ....................................................................................................80 4.5.4. Identification of competing users ..........................................................................83 4.6. Anjar-Chamsine sub-area ..............................................................................................83 4.6.1. Water supply for irrigation .....................................................................................83 4.6.2. Domestic water supply ..........................................................................................86 4.6.3. Impacts on users ....................................................................................................87 4.6.4. Identification of competing users ..........................................................................89 4.7. Eocene sub-area ............................................................................................................91 4.7.1. Evolution of water supply for irrigation .................................................................91 4.7.2. Evolution of domestic water supply ......................................................................98 4.7.3. Impacts on users ................................................................................................. 101 4.7.4. Evolution of the access to land and water .......................................................... 101 4.7.5. Identification of collective users ......................................................................... 102 5. Unpacking the complexity of groundwater governance .............................................. 104 5.1. The difficulty of collective water management at the level of users ......................... 104 5.1.1. The individualistic nature of groundwater use and the lack of awareness of its collective dimension ........................................................................................................... 104 5.1.2. Conflicts around surface water allocation and unclear water rights .................. 104 5.1.3. The general absence of collective action ............................................................ 105 5.2. The difficulty of groundwater management at the level of the state ........................ 105 5.2.1. The unsuitability of groundwater regulations and administrative procedures .. 105 5.2.2. Weak enforcement of groundwater regulations ................................................ 106 5.2.3. Weak knowledge of hydrogeology and actual state of surface and groundwater resources ............................................................................................................................ 107 5.2.4. Weak coordination of present and future water allocation ..............................
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