A UTIDY OP THEm FA TKORf RELATiD To TUBA1 ISrUfTIfN AND rrf OAE

7or ro ale s s or

mno Trofessor

Dean of the o dftof Music

D e a n o h e r c/o EA(j

A aTUDY OF THE FACTORS RELATED TO TA13 ITRUCT IO

AD pERFORMANC

THESIS

Present to the Graduate Council of the

North Texas State University in Partial Fulfilimert of the Requirements

For the Degree of

MASTER 0F NUSIC

By

Terry D. Sebress, B. M. Denton, Texas

January, 1965 PREFACE

The tubaist* is one of the most neglected performers

of the band and orchestra. Most instrumentalists can

consult outstanding references written about the histories

and techniques of their instruments, but the tuba player does not have one volume written in English about his

instrument. The tubaist has method books, but the expla-

nations of tuba techniques are too brief and, for the most part, quite carelessly written.

The tubaist is also at a disadvantage because few

serious composers have written for the tuba. This music

is also difficult to locate because there are few selective lists of tuba literature.

Another problem confronting the tubaist is that of the instrument. Few students can afford to purchase their own tubas; therefore the school officials become responsible for

the selection and purchase of the instruments. Often these

instruments are inferior since no guide for purchasing is available.

The two basic needs which motivated this study were instructional material and instruments. By investigating

these problems the writer hopes to improve not only his own

* This term, which is used throughout the report, refers to the performer on the tuba. iii techniques of teaching, but to present a useful source of information concerning the tuba.

iv TABLE OF 2CONTES

Page tIST F ILLUSTRTi C<...... a1e.....A.4.

Chapter

T:TEJNT I. OF Tc E PIiRiOBLXE. . . , . . 0 . 9 . . The Purpose Sub-Problems Definition of Terms Delimitations Basic Hypothesis Basic Assumptions eed for the 2tudy yethodology Flan for this Report II. :HLTORIA TrnOIOUD..,}BACKGU - - - - . -* - 8 s erpent Russian Bassoon Bas s-Horn Ophicleide Tuba

III. FAOR 31TRSCiNiCVERNI TA PERFORMANCE . . . . . 43 Physical Characteristics of the Performer Mental Characteristics of the Performer Technique of Breathing Technique of Embouchure Techniques of the Tongue Technique of Vibrato ;elected Tubas and Tube Mouthrieces Selected Instructional Material Solos Solo, Etude and Method Books

IV. UMmlLRY, COOLUW1W, AD IEQANMENDATIOIS . . 101

Summary and Conclusions Recommendations Recommendations for Teachers Recommendations for Publishers, Composers and Arrangers Recommendations for Researchers v

_ - - - APPENDIOS Page

Appendix A: Tuba Authorities ---. . *.... . 107 Appendix B: Questionnaire: Techniques of Tuba instruction ...... -*- . . . 109 Appendix 0: Letter of Transmittal...... 113

...... 115 Appendix D: Follow-Up Letter -

Appendix E: Card Sent With Follow-Up Letter. . . 116

Appendix : Letter Sent to Instrument Companies, 117

Apppndix G: Letter Sent to Publishing Companies. 118 Appendix H: Tubas: Specifications and Prices, . 119 Appendix I: Tuba outhpieces ...... 123

Appendix J: Tuba ,oo0 . . - . . - * * . . . . . 125 Appendix K: Tuba (ethod, Etude and olo Books. . 139

BBLIOG APHY. ... .---...... 145

vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. Serpents ...... 9 2. Serpent Fingering Chart ...... 14

3. Russian Bassoon and English Bass-horns . . . . 19

4. Ophicleide ...... 22 5. A Sketch of the Ophicleide and a Fingering a .a-t - # . . - . a. 25 Chart *. . . - - -

6. Tubas ...... * ...... 33 7. Diagram of the Respiratory Tract . *, . . . . 50

8. The Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchial Tubes . . 51 9. The Bones of the Thorax .. - - .-.-.-. .g . 52 10. Thoracic and Abdominal Cavities Separated by the Diaphragm-. ***-a. .-.... . -.- - 53 11. Organs of the Thoracic and Abdominal Cavities and the Diaphragm,. a -.-tee... -...t e.. 54 12. Diaphragm, Viewed from in Front ...... 55 13. Thoracic Cavity Before Inhalation and After Inhalation . . a * ...... 57 14. Principal Muscles of the Embouchure . . . . . 66 15. Graph of the Lower Lip Activity of Brass ...... 69 Players .

16. The Air Stream in Relationship to the Position of the Lips . . . . e * * . . . . .e . , . 71

17. Tuba Embouchure and Mouthpiece Placement . . . 77 18. Principal Muscles of the Tongue . . a . . . . 78

vii Figure Page 19. Tongue in "Ah" Position, . n.... .80 20. Tongue in "E" Position . - - O . . . . 81

viii "HAPTE2I

2TATE 1 2 OF T E PROBLEM

The Purpose The purpose of this study was to identify and describe the factors related to tuba performance and instruction.

Sub-Problems

Analysis of the problem statement led to subordinate questions, or sub-problems, which may be stated as follows: I. JWhat do the authorities consider to be the desirable e physic al and mental char acteristics in the tuba player? 2.How do the authorities teach the specific techniques of tube performances 3. hat are the authorities' opinions concerning tubas and tuba mouthpieces?

4. What are the authorities' recommendations concerning instructional materials for tuba students?

Definition of Terms I. The phrase "tuba performance" refers to proficiency in playing the instrument.

2. The word "instruction" refers to pedagogical procedures used currently by tuba teachers and authors. 2

3. The word "authorities" refers to tuba teachers,

performers, and qualified persons who have written about tuba instruction.

4. The phrase physical and mental characteristics"

refers to muscle and bone structure, lip formation, aural perception, musicality, and general intelligence.

5. The phrase "specific techniques" refers to definite factors involved in playing the tuba. These factors are

breathing, embouchure, use of the tongue and vibrato.

6.The obrate "tubas and tuba mouthpieces" refers to the makes and models of the instruments and their mouth- pieces.

7, The phrase "instructional materials" refers to

solos, method books, etude books, and solo books currently

available for tuba pedagogy.

Delimitations

I. This study was designed to investigate the various

factors concerning tuba performance. It was a study specifically on the tuba.

2. This study was not limited to printed or published materials. Additional information was obtained from letters and a qestionnaire.

3. The instructional materials do not include ensemble literature for the tuba. 3

Basic Hypothesis

The basic hypothesis of this study was that there was no systematic collection of pedagogical ideas concerning tuba performance.

Basic Assumptions

The two following assumptions seemed basic to this study:

1. It was assumed that a representative group of the

leading tuba authorities could be contacted and that these

authorities would provide information which could not be found in published materials.

2. It was assumed that the instructional techniques of the tuba were similar to those of other brass instruments, thus allowing materials to be used concerning brass instruments in general.

Need for the Study

The best way to learn to play any instrument is to study privately with a successful, professional teacher.

However, many do not have the opportunity for private instruction for various reasons. When it is impossible to study privately, a good textbook can be a great help. There are many outstanding textbooks concerning the history, as well as the techniques for most instruments. The Summy- Birchard Company lists the following: 4

Tark.as, Philip,-Ar of ?rench Horn . layin. iPnha amerLdwIr,3C rtitoTrombone _larfn. oencr, a. , Art of _Bas sooi Sprenl, RobertaRl~avid LedetArt of Oboe Pla r tein, fKeith, arb of lrinet i Toal, Larry, At of jao4one PFaIj.

Is company, as well As the other companies, has failed to pub ish a textbook specifically for the tuba. There seems to be o much emphas on ;ome instruments with many volume s

rittet each year,, wtile oher instruments are neglected

continuall y. The tuba s probably the most neglected of all the intrunents This may be th fl of eiher Zh leadin{ tuba authorities or the publishing companies. At

an , the tuba player has no standard textbook to which t he can urn for information ohistory, playing techniques, tubas, outpieces or literature.

For many instruments a atudy of this nature is not

necessary because of the volumes of material which are

compiled yearly. However, there is a definite need for

an organized source of information about the tuba. This

study was proposed and written to provide a source of this

nature as well as to help the writer learn more about his instrument.

Methodology

The material for Chapter Two, the Historical Background,

t was collected from four een books, thirteen magazine articles and articles from Grove's Dictionay of tusic and Musicians. 5

The datawere arranged in chronological order beginning with the late sixteenth century.

The evidence for Chapter Three, Factors Concerning Tuba Performance, was collected from. twenty-eight books and fifty-two articles from periodicals. Pwenty-eight of the

articles were specifically written about the tuba. Unpub-

lished materials used were seven theses concerning the tuba,

and two lists of selected solos and method books. One dissertation concerning the trumpet was also used.

Other key sources of evidence used in Chapter Three

were thirty tuba authorities (Appendix A, page 108) whose

names were selected from symphony programs and music school catalogues. These authorities were contacted by a ques-

tionnaire (Appendix B, page 110). The questionnaire was accompanied by a letter of transmittal (Appendix 2, page

114) which explained the survey and its relationship to the thesis. To encourage the return of the questionnaires a follow-up letter (Appendix D, pag-;e 115) with a self- addressed post card (Appendix E, Page 116) was sent three weeks later. A total of thirteen completed questionnaires were received from the authorities, representing a forty- three per cent return.

Letters of inquiry were sent to tuba manufacturers

(Appendix F, page 117) and music publishers (Appendix G, page 118). Complete lists of tubas (Appendix H, page 119) and tuba mouthpieces (Appendix I, age 123) were compiled 6

from the pamphlets received from the tuba manufacturers.

Jorplete lists of tuba solos (Appendix J, page 125) and eetho1 books (

Plan of This Report

chapter Two, the Historical Background, describes the historical development of the tuba. It will begin with the serpent in 1590 and present the four main cup-mouthpiece instruments which were ancestor of the tuba. Following the

serpentmthese instruments were the Pubsian bassoon, the tngisn bass-horn and the opilei. The historical b0 ek- uroun will conclude with descritiond of the developments which have taken place since the first tuba was invented in Ic 7. The Study of these earl; irstrujents i imnportant to the tubaist because he is often requesec to perform music originallywrittm for these predecessors of the tuba. Chapter Three will be divided into the following sections physical characteristics of the performer, mental character- istics of the performer, the technique of breathing, the technique of embouchure, the techniques of the tongue, the technique of vibrato, selected tubas and tuba mouthpieces, and selected instructional material. The acceptable and unacceptable physical and mental characteristics will be 7

presented. MAo of the opinions expressed will be quoted

from the questionnaires completed by the tuba authorities.

The specific techniques of tuba performance, which are

breathing, embouchure, use of the tongue and vibrato, will

be considered from physiological and pedagogical viewpoints. The ideas of the authorities do not always agree but all known ideas will be presented.

Following the specific techniques of tuba performance

will be a section concerning the recommended tubas and tuba mouthpieces. This section will be compiled from the

questionnaires. In addition a complete list of available

tubas and mouthpieces will be given in Appendix H andI.

In the final section of Chapter Three will be selected

lists of tuba materials. The :first list will be selected

tuba solos which are graded easy, medium difficult, and difficult. The second list will be selected method and etude books which will be graded beginning, intermediate, and advanced. In Appendix and K will be a complete listing of tuba materials, both solos and books.

Chapter Foui will be divided into two sections. The first will be the summary and conclusions. These will be based on Chapters Two and Three. The second section of Chapter Four will be recommendations to researchers, teachers, publishers, composers and arrangers. These will be made from an analysis of the material which was available for this report. CHAPTER II

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The main instruments which make up the historical

ancestry of the tuba are the serpent, the Russian bassoon, the English bass-horn, and the ophicleide. The purpose of this chapter is to describe the historical development of the tuba through these four instruments which encompass the period from the late sixteenth century to the twentieth century.

Serpent

The serpent (Figure 1, page 9) was developed as the bass member in the cornett, cornetto, or zink (zinck) family. Many stories exist as to the origin of the serpent, but the traditional historical account is given by Abbe Leboeuf in his Memoire Concernant l'Histoire Ecclesiastioue et Civis 'Auxerre, Paris, 1743. Leboeuf recounts how, about 1590, Edme Guilaumet*1 a canon of Auxerre and comptroller of Bishop Amyot's espiscopal household, discovered the art of making a cornett in the form of a serpent. He adds that the new instrument gave fresh zest to Gregorian plainsong and that after some improvement it was soon in wide- spread use in churches (23, p. 715). "Curt Sachs, in his Real-Lexikon _der busikinstrumente (1913) stated that serpents existed in Italy prior to this

8 tr o'

9

B. 7%udouin, Aetiherlnds, 3 keys, merly 19th entury.

% Key, London, 1 keys, c. 1840-1850 0, . 366).

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Amoo

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,-w a S '

fw

fig. I-- erpents 10 date and he gives Guillaume only the honor of having introduced the serpent in France" (5, p. 163).

Care added the following:

A few surviving serpents which are apparently of Italian origin, and are said to have been made prior to 1590, have been cited as evidence with which to controvert Lebeuf's CSC story; if the date of these instruments can be established without any doubt, the appearance of the serpent must certainly be placed earlier than 1590. In any case the serpentine bass instrument of the cornett family cannot be traced further back than the 16th century, and even if of Italian origin, it is certain that France was the country in which it became naturalized in an ecclesi- astical setting as a supporting instrument for the voices in Gregorian Chant (8, p. 268).

The serpent was a conical tube approximately seven and one-half to nearly eight feet long. The wooden tube made three U-shaped bends, and a final curve which ended abruptly without any expansion at the bell. The size of the serpent was reduced to under three feet by making the tube undulate in a zigzag manner (8, pp. 269-270).

The following specifications for Guillaume's serpent were given by R. Morley Pegge in the Galpin Society Journal:

1. Bore expands from 2 cm. to 10 and sometimes 12 cm. exclusive of the crook. 2. Large bore, thin walls and round exterior. No thumb hole. 3. No keys. Closed keys began to be fitted only about 1800, and openstanding extension keys were never used on the serpent. . . (18, p. 56).

Although it was developed from the cornett, the serpent differed from that instrument contructionally by its more pronounced coxical bore, much thinner walls and absence of the thumb hole (23, p. 713). 11

In the smaller end of the serpent a right-angled metal crook about eight to ten inches long was inserted,

into which the mouthpiece was placed. A description of the

mouthpiece and crook was given by farmerr in a letter to the editor of Musical Times on December 1, 1916. Starter

stated that: . . . the crook is of copper, and the

cupped mouthpiece of ivory (1 1/4 inches in diameter and slightly less than 1/16 inch thick at the rim)" (28, p. 549). Halfpenny described the mouthpiece as follows:

The rim diameter of the serpent mouthpiece is about the same as that of the F tuba, but there the similarity ends. The resonance-peaks on the serpent are weak and low-lying, and theyrequire great sensitivity of lip and a completely unorthodox positioning of the mouth on the rim. Once the faculty of eliciting them has been acquired, however, they come out clearly, in tune and as solid as anything on, say, the clarinet. The mouthpiece is of ivory, narrow-rimmed and practically hemispherical within, while the initial bore of the instrument at the crook end is enormous--about 3/4 inch. . . Any notion of the embouchure derived from experience of the heavy brass had to be jettisoned quite early on. . . (15, p. 9).

There were two methods of making the serpent. The

original method was to make it out of nut wood with the bore

hollowed out in two longitudinal halves which were later glued together and covered with leather (15, p. 9). The second method, favored by the nineteenth century English makers, was

to build up the instrument from fairly short overlapping half sections; after gluing and stapling it was covered with an undercoat of canvas and another coating of leather. The bell was usually embellished with an ornamental brass ring. 12

The noticeable difference between the outline of the English and continental serpents was that the proximal folds were closer in the English made instruments (23, p. 713). On the original serpents there were six finger-holes

in two groups of three. Those for the left hand were

situated just before the third U-bend, and those for the right hand were almost at the top of the final curl. The

finger-holes were about 1/2 inch in diameter, and were about

1 3/4 inches apart from center to center (8, p. 270). Their

smallness compared with the size of the bore caused them to

have little influence over the pitch of the notes when the instrument was over-blown (15, p. 9).

It was also obviously necessary to place the holes in

extremely segregated groups of three to be within the stretch

of ad jacent fingers on each hand. This factor caused the

intonation to be abominable, and the scale to be very uneven (29, p. 15).

Since the serpent was so large and awkward the playing

position varied from one individual to another. Originally

it was held in a vertical position, but Abbe Lunel, a celebrated serpentist at Notre-Dame, Paris, from 1772 until after 1780, inaugurated a method of holding the instrument diagonally with the second fold lying over the forearm. Yet another method, advocated in the serpent tutor by Hermenge, was to hold it in a nearly horizontal position with the first fold between the left forearm and the body (23, p. 713). 13

Later the rather precarious grip of the serpent was eased to some extent by hanging it on a ribbon or strap

which was ssed around the player's neck or else attached

to a button on his clothing (8, p. 271).

Because of the curves in the serpent the fingering was

quite unique. The left hand was used for the three holes

near the mouthpiece, and the right for those near the bell.

When the playing position of the serpent was changed from

vertical to diagonal or horizontal, the right hand was placed under the instrument for support. Therefore, the

left hand section of the tube was descending, and the right

hand section was ascending, so that the scale went down in

the left hand and up in the right. Instead of the two sets of three fingers, in a descending Kassage, running 123,123, they covered the holes in the order 123, 321 (13, p. 500).

When all the finger-holes were closed, the serpent

gave CC as its fundamental and the harmonics through the

eighth partial. By opening the finger-holes starting with the one nearest the bell, something like a major scale with

a flat seventh was produced. Much care was required in readjusting the intonation by means of lip compression or relaxation. The intermediate semitones were produced by varying the lip-compression without changing fingering, by half-opening the finger-holes and by forked fingerings.

French fingering charts always showed the natural scale of the serpent one tone higher than it really sounded. In 14

the chart (Figure 2.) the fundamental scale is D instead of C (, p. 271).

- " 1 -'j ;1-

R.42. a * * 0 O0 0 0 0 0 0 *"*"**r*a*a*0

. 0e000000 00 OS

*2Fi a.I2-- *erpent Igering aar (8,0 p. 8).

3ra ,adt . .. .0 *000 .. R.2a0 O *.This r 0 @nav 0h 1" 0 a pr eey 0p is *hy @rio ,nd " 0 .0 0 5a 0 0 O " a 0 0 0 " 0 0 , "

Notes penusitre 3rench0 huraesain he 0ih"e0n0 aen0 rya wasa0ton""elo s Fiug.2--Serpe t fingering chart (8, p. 38).

Maillon explamned that the customary pitch used in Frenoh churches in the eighteenth century was a tone below normal, and that the rotation wa therefore a tone above the real sourd. This probably explains why Berlioz and others stated that tie serpent was a B--flat transposing instrument

sounding tone belov. the wttten note (8, pp. 271-272).

Below the true fundamental it was possible to produce tones with the same fingering almost as good tonally within interval an of at least a fifth in the lower range. To produce these tones the lips forced the emission of tones

and modified their frequency (5, p. 162). Wagner did not 15 hesitate to write the "factitious" B natural and B-flat below the fundamental C for the serpent (14, p. 103).

The tore of the serpent is hardly possible to describe partly because the instrument, adequately played, is no longer heard, and partly because there is no wind instrument now in use with which it may in fairness be compared. As far as it is possible to ;Judge, the tone quality of the open notes of a serpent was quite pure, but it had a dry and somewhat choked quality which was without the metallic ring of brass instrument tone as we now know it (8, p. 275).

Berlioz had no use for the serpent and described it as follows in his Treatise on Instrumentation:

The truly barbaric tone of this instrument would be much better suited for the bloody cult of the Druids than for that of the Catholic church, where it is still in use--as a monstrous symbol for the lack of under- standing and the coarseness of taste and feeling which have governed the application of music in our churches since times immemorial. Only one case is to be excepted: masses for the dead, where the serpent serves to double the dreadful choir of the Dies Irae. Here its cold and awful blaring is doubtless appropriate; it even seems to assume a character of mournful poetry when accompanying this text, imbued with all the horrors of death and the revenge of a irate God. The instrument might also be used in secular compositions based on similar ideas ; but its use must be limited to this purpose only. Moreover, its tone blends poorly with the other timbres of the orchestra and of voices (4, p. 348).

3erlioz's description was written in 1848 which was even after the tuba was invented. At that time he was very impressed by the tuba's superior tone and intonation. 16

Father ersenne stressed the serpent's versatility of

tone as being able to accompany as many as twenty of the

most powerful singers and yet play the softest chamber music with the most delicate grace notes (25, p. 421).

One factor which turned people against the serpent was that it was often badly played. Burney compared its tone, in incompetent hands, to that of a "great hungry, or rather angry, Essex calf".--but he also said that, carefully used, it mixed better with voices than the organ (23, p. 713). The serpent, because of its very low normal register, did not readily lend itself to the display of virtuosity.

In consequence there were few players of such outstanding achievement. estrup has given us the name of the earliest known serpentist after Guillaume. He was Michel Tornatoris who was appointed serpentist and bassoonist to the Church of Notre-Dame des Do s, Avignon, in 1602 (30, p. 636).

There were only two exceptionally skilled French serpentists whose names meant something to the musical audiences of their day. They were Andrg and Jepp.

Andr, of the Prince regent's Band and later of the remarkable Montpellier Spa (Cheltenham) band, appears to be the outstanding serpent player of all time. It was for him that Christian Kramer arranged the Corelli sonata that Dragonetti, the great double-bass player, used to play as a show piece himself. It is on record that on one occasion at Montpellier Spa when Andre played this sonata, Dragonetti, who was present, loudly applauded the performance. Andre was held by his contemporaries to be fully as great a player on the serpent as Dragonetti was on the double-bass. Andre retired from active playing about 1853. . . 17

Jepp, of the Goldstream Guards, was another , exceptional serpentist. Somewhat younger than Andre, he never attained the latter' s outstanding position; his services were none the less in great demand at musical festivals and even for chamber music. He was a member of Sir George Smart's select band that played before Queen Victoria at the Guild Hall in 1837. Abbe Aubert, serpentist at Notre-Dame, Paris, from about 1750 to 1772, was said by Francoeur to have been the finest player ever heard up to that time. His successor, Abbe Lunel, also had a great reputation in his day. Both confined their playing to ecclesiastical circles and were more or less unknown outside the cloisrter...... Little is known of one Hurworth, of Richmond (Yorkshire), beyond that he was a member of George III's private band and could execute elaborate flute variations on the serpent with perfect accuracy (23, p. 717). There were probably many exercises written out by the serpent teachers but there were no known method books published until the serpent had been used over 200 years.

Riley lists the following serpent method books in the Journal of Research in Music Education:

Imbert, Nouvelle Methode, Paris: V. Ballard & Fils. Hardy, Methode de Serpent, 1800. Frohlich, Josephy, Schule fur die serpent, Bonn: Simrock, 1811. Hermenge, Methode Elementaire de Serpent Ordinaire et Ale, Paris: 182C724 .2 The serpent was used by most of the major orchestral composers during the time that it was in use. Geiringer said that "Handel, who first made the acquaintance of the serpent in Inland, employed it in his 'eater Music' (1717)" (12, p. 188). Handel also used the serpent in "Samson" (1742) as well as in "Solomon" (1748) (though it does not appear in the score) and in the "Fireworks tusici" (1749) (31, p. 269). 18

Galpin said that "Beethoven scored for the serpent in his 'March in F for Military Band' (c. 1816)?" (11, p. 225).

The serpent was also prescribed in Rossini's opera "Le Siege de Corinthe" (1826), Carafa's "'asaniello" (1827), Mendelssohn's

"Merresstille und Gluckliche Fahot" (1828), his oratorio

"Paulus" (1836), Wagner's opera "Rienzi" (1842), and Verdi's

"Les Vepres Siciliennes" (1855) (25, p. 422). It was used as late as 1858 in Bennett's "May Queen" (11, p. 255).

Russian Bassoon

Near the close of the eighteenth century improvements and modifications were made on the serpent such as adding keys (Figure 1B and 10, page 9.) and changing the shape.

An Italian musician J. J. Regibo, who lived in Lille, France, was the first to abandon the serpentine tube and bend the instrument back on itself in the shape of a bassoon (25, p. 422). This instrument was called variously, the Russian bassoon (See Figure 3, page 19), basson russe, sepent- basson, serpent droit, and ophibariton (22, p. 333). The exact date of the invention is questionable, but the first mention of it was made in 1789 in Framery's

Calendrier niversel Musical:

J. J. R gibo, Musicien la Collegiale de "t. Pierre a Lille, vient d'inventer un serpent nouveau gui est fait de mame qu'un basson: il se demonte en trois parties et est plus fort que le serpent ordinaire, etA plus raise a jouer: il a la meme embouchure, est du meme diapason et meme game. . . Ceux qui veulent s'en procurer peuvent s'adresser 'a I'auteur, rue Peterinck, Paroisse St. Pierre 'a Lille. Le prix est 3 louis (22, p. 333). 19

A. ------Ne n'S, h Bass-horn, 41 c. 1800 (5, plate v). . Tabard, Lyons, "Russian bassoon ," 3 keys, 1st aZ~ half of 19th century. 3

T y 0. ------Englsh asshorn, 4 keys, c. 1340,

. eantet, Lyons, "Russian bassoon," 3 keys, 1st half of Ith Century (8, p. 367).

MA

a.

i Il

R i

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lI 11 WI'

{

b

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Fi. 3--Kussian bassoons and English bas-horns 20

The Russian bassoon was usually made of wood in three or four sections with a gracefully curved swan-neck crook into which was fitted the mouthpiece. It had six fingerholes and three or four keys. "The bell was usually of metal, either trumpet-shaped or formed like a grotesquely painted animal's head, an old fancy revived early in the eighteenth century" (12, pp. 222-223). The Russian bassoon was really no improvement over the serpent in tone and range but it was more convenient to hold.

Berlioz in his Treatise said, "In my opinion it might be dropped from the family of wind instruments without the least injury to Art" (4, p. 348).

Bass-Horn

In England during the same period a similar instrument called the English bass-horn (See Figure 3A and 30, page 19.) was originated and used extensively. According to Gerber's

Lexikon (1812), Alexander Frichot, a French musician then living in London, designed a metal serpent in the bassoon shape in 1800. His idea was carried out by the London instrument-maker J. Astor. Frichot published A Complete

Scale and Gamut for the bass-horn in 1800 (8, p. 277).

The instrument consisted of a conical tube about seven feet six inches long which was generally made of copper.

The larger end terminated in a widely flared bell and the smaller in a graceful swan-neck crook. The crook accounted 21 for nearly one-third of the instrument's total length. The tube was bent at the distance of two feet eight inches from the bell. The two straight sections were set at a very acute angle into a short butt which ensured the continuity of the air-column. It had raised finger-holes and keys like

the Russian bassoon (19, p. 481). Frichot gave different names to later improved models

of the bass-horn. He submitted a basse-cor to the Paris

Conservatoire in 1806 and four years later he took out a patent on it under the title basse-trompette (25, p. 422).

The Russian bassoon and the English bass-horn could be distinguished from each other because on the former the two

tubes were close together in a parallel or bassoon formation

and were set into a regular bassoon-butt, in which the three lower holes for the right hand were bored. On the bass-horn

the two straight metal tubes emerged like a narrow V from a

sal butt (8, p. 278).

Several composers of distinction had written parts for

the serpent before it became obsolete, but the bass-horn was rarely allowed to join the orchestral family. One of the

few orchestral examples was a part for bass-horn in Spohr' s

"Ninth Syphony".*Perhaps this lack of orchestral literature

for the bass-horn was due to the fact that it never "went

to Church". Instead, it spent its short life in the rougher

society of the army bandsmen. The serpent, on the other hand, had a long record of respectability behind it. It had been 22 a regular "church-goer" for over 200 years and only joined

the army in its declining years (8, p. 281).

The b@ss-horn and the Russian bassoon had very few performers worthy of mention during the time that they were being used. The only one mentioned was Frichot, the inventor

of the bass-horn, who was said to have been a clever soloist

(23, p. 717).

The Enlish bass-horn was popular in England for about

thirty years but on the continent it never found much

enthusiasm. The same was true in reverse for the Russian bassoon (19, p. 481).

Ophicleide In 1817 the Russian bassoon, English bass-horn, and

serpent were victims of a losing battle against another

contemporary cup-mouthpiece instrument called the ophicleide.

(See Figure 4.)

13

Fig. 4--Ophicleide, 1817 (1, p. 98) 23

Sachs gives the derivation of the term ophicleide as

"ophis, serpent and kleides, keys. . ." (25, p. 424). The ophicleide appears to owe its origin not, as is often stated, to some Hanoverian variety of the serpent imported into Francs during the Napoleonic wars, but to the English or more accurately Irish key bugle patented in 1810 by Joseph Halliday, bandmaster of the Cavan Militia. Tradition has it that, while reviewing allied troops in Paris after Waterloo, the Grand Duke Konstantin of Russia was so impressed by the playing of John Distin, then solo Kent-bugle player in the band of the Grenadier Guards, that he requested Distin to procure him then and there a copy of the instrument. There was no time to get one from England, so Distin took his bugle to the Paris instrument maker Halary (Jean Hilaire .ste) to be copied. Shortly afterwards, in 1817, Halary submitted to the judgment of the Institut de France, the Academie Royale des Beaux Arts and the Athenee des Arts--the last awarded him a medal--a series of three key bugles which he called: 1. le Olavitube, ou trompette a clef (this was, in fact, an ordinary key bugle); 2. le Quinticlave, ou quinte a clef (this became known in due course as the alto ophicleide); 3. 'Ophicleide, ou serpent a clef (21, pp. 243-244)..

The third group was made up of the bass ophicleides in ; or Bb and a contrabass in F. These instruments were made in bassoon form and were patented in 1821.

The ophicleide was usually made of rather thin sheet brass hich was easily crushed. The bore was strictly conical; it was about 7/16 of an inch in diameter at the narrow end of the crook and widened steadily to the bell which measured from 7 1/2 to 9 1/2 inches across the mouth.

The ophicleide had four main parts; two main tubes, a crook, and a mouthpiece. The two main tubes were connected at the bottom by a U-bend which held them in a parallel 24

formation about half an inch apart. The crook was coiled

in either circular or elliptical shape and fit into the

small end of the smaller tube (8, p. 287). The mouthpiece, which was made usually of brass but sometimes of ivory, was both in cone form and in cup form. Caussinus, in his Methode- olfee pur Ophicleide-Basse, gave the following measurements for the mouthpiece: mm. Overall Length 72 AWidth across inside of cup 27 Depth of cup 34 Width of rim 5 opening at the choked7" Opening at the tail 10 (21, p. 242)

The ophicleide was superior in every way to the serpent

and bass-horns but especially because all the side holes were covered by keys instead of the fingers. For that reason

it was possible to make the note-holes larger and space them

more evenly along the tube. The earliest ophicleides were

provided wit nine note-holes and keys. Six of these were

on the wider tube and three were on the narrower of the two

parallel tubes. The levers of the keys were constructed so

that the right hand worked five keys and the left hand worked

four keys. The only finger not used was the little finger

of the left hand. The note-holes were covered with closed keys except the largest or number one key which was situated

about a foot from the bell mouth. It was covered by an open

key which, when closed, lowered the pitch of the harmonic

series a semitone. A screw was usually found on this key to 25

close it, presumably to avoid damaae when it was not in

use (8, pp. 286-288).

The later ophicleides had eleven keys which provided

them with a series of twelve fundamentals in chromatic

succession from B to B-flat (8, p. 289). Figure 5 shows

the approximate position of each note-hole and a fingering

chart taken from the Methode poLur neuf, dix et onze les by A. Heral.

ii w

0810 Key No. stands open 9 or It Tuning slide if provided ) Water key < ~~42. -,,.,. 1. hand rest

r6 5 1 0 2

r.hbs rest..

2 2or21 2r a 8 utt

Fig. 5--A sketch of the ophicleide an an ophicleide fingering chart (21, pp. 242-243).

At first sight some of the fingerings may seem illogical, since every note in the bottom octave is a fundamental and will overblow its octave, twelfth, double octave and so on, in accordance with the natural harmonic series. In practice, however, it does not work out like that, because, apart from any question of 26

intonation, it is a major failing common to all instruments of the side-holes-cum-cup-mouthpiece class that the farther a note-hole is from the bell the poorer and weaker are the notes it produces. T any notes are, nevertheless, common to the harmonic series of more than one fundamental, and of the note-holes available in such cases the player will choose the one nearest the bell. As in the case of the serpent, it is difficult to find two fingering-charts for the ophicleide where the fingerings agree throughout. This seems to have been due mainly to the inability of the makers to agree with one another as to the exact size and positioning of the note-holes, with the result that with a given fingering a note slightly sharp on one make of instrument may be a trifle flat on another (21, p. 243). any jokes were made about the ophicleidee'during its period of popularity and especially afterward. One story was that "Au Clair de la Lune" was arranged for twenty-four

ophicleides. (16, p. 203).

Berlioz gave the following description of the tone of

the ophicleide in his Treatise:

The sound of the low tones is rough; but in certain cases, under a mass of brass instruments, it works miracles. The highest tones are of a ferocious char- acter, which has not yet been utilized appropriately. The medium range, especially if the player is not skilled, recalls too closely the tone of the serpent and cornett. I believe that it should rarely be used without the cover of other instruments. Nothing is more clumsy-- I could almost say, more monstrous--nothing less appro- in combination with the rest of the orchestra than those more or less rapid passages played as solos in the medium range of the ophicleide in certain modern operas. They are like an escaped bull jumping around in a drawing-room (4, p. 337). The tone of the ophicleide, which was unlike any modern

instrument, was described by Dauheny as,

. . . not so melloxv or "woody" as that of either of its prototypes, the serpent and the bass-horn. Its extreme 27

loudness drew from one quarter the facetious nickname of the "chromatic bullock," but to have merited this it must have been shockingly overblown, for within recent times ophicleides have been revived on the variety stage, and their tone, though a trifle dry, was mellow and pleasing in the e extreme, and quite unlike any instrument used in the modern orchestra (10, p. 111).

,arse described the tone, when the instrument was properly played, as,

. . . full, resonant, and not unlike that of a euphonium; the instrument is also capable of giving forth quite pleasant and gentle tones, and should not be supposed to be a roaring barbarous monster as is suggested by many who have described it after the period of its decline. . . . Some of the terms which have been applied to this and other obsolete types seem to be merely the outcome of an irresistible desire to be facetious at the, expense of instruments which at the time of writing were reckoned out-of-date or "early Victorian"; such epithets as coarseet , "bellowing", or the nickname "chromatic bullock", could only be justi- fied when the ophicleide was badly played, and could be applied with equal truthfulness to any roughly-played tuba or euphonium of the present day (8, p. 291).

ten with its criticism the ophicleide was almost immediately successful and soon became popular in military and brass bands as well as some opera orchestras. It was first used in 1819 on stage in brass bands playing Spontini's

"Olympie." The ophicleide was used in Isouard's "Aladin"

(1822), Berlioz' s "Faust," Mendelssohn' s "Midsummer Night's Dream" (1832) and "Elijah" (1846) (16, pp. 200-201). It was also used in Schurann' s "Paradise and the Peri' (1843), Wagner's "Rienzi" (1842) (11, p. 226), Meyerbeer's "Robert le Diable" and "Les Huguenots" (12, p. 286), and was last used in Puccini's "Capriccio .infonico" in 1883 (16, p. 201). 28

In the brass band of optini's "Olympie, "the op hicleide art pwalayed by Mongin, who was presuabl one

of the first ophicleide players (21, p. 25). He was followed by player such as Riviere, Elison, solasanti, ayet,

Pavart , adley, Hughes and uilmartin, but the three Most

proficient were Caussinu, Ponder and Prospere (16, p. 202). Berlioz in a letter to Monsieur Humbert Lernerd cornpained:

We have no ophicleide class, and the result is that, out of a hundred or a hundred and fifty blowers of that difficult instrument tin Paris at the present moment, there are scarcely three fit to be admitted into a well-arranged orchestra. 4. ussinus is the oiLy proficient in it (3, p. 405).

a sinus was apparent l y the best teacher and author as

wel as being a virtuoso perfo:mer. He published at least

two eth od books : ethode Coolete d' 0hicleide (Paris,

Leissonnier, n. d.) and dofee-ethod 2our 9hiclei7d-e

Basse, (Pris,, Meisonnier, n. d.) (21, p. 246).

Iilliam Ponder was the leading English ophicleidiat.

It need hardly be said tht ever; opportunity was taken o making pun on Ponder and his "ponderous instrument." This hardy player had. the courage to play the cntraasc ophicleide at the Birmingham Musical 'es tipalii 18-4. Ponder died while at the loucester usict. estivsl in 1841;4 it was suggested thet his death wa- brought about by the exertion required in payin the ophi leide; an inquest was held, and the verdict was that Ponder "Died by the visitation of Goc" (9, p. I82).

ore widely known was the enrenchman Jean Prospere uievi, e ho, as on: 1 the stars of Jullien's Promenad cjorcerts, and ;a g under the name of Prospere, at- tract enough attention to have his portrait and a 29

biographical notice in the "Illustrated London News" (24 June, 1843). In addition to his work with Jullien, he more or less succeeded Ponder as contrabass ophi- cleidist in the major festival orchestras. Prospere stands out among ophicleidists rather as aganini does among violinists, though some of the correspondents to "The Musical World" took violent exception to the ophicleide as a solo instrument at the Promenade Concerts (21, p. 247). Those (and there are many) who imagine that the ophicleide was capable of producing nothing but loud and coarse noises should note that in 1842, when Prospere was playing at Jullin' s concerts in the English Opera House, his performance was thus described: "and last, but not the least, M. Prospere on the giant instrument the Ophicleide, which is as gentle and as docile in his hands as Hamlet would have the recorder to be. Truly this gentleman's execution and power of subduing this usually obstreperous instrument passes all under- standing, amongst those who have heard him; how vain would it be then to attempt a description to those who have not." It was also written that Prospere "has subdued his giant instrument, the ophicleide, to every shade of softness," and that he could make it "coo" as gently as any dove (9, p. 234).

Besides Caussinus, there were other ophicleide teachers who had their methods published. Pegge lists the following:

Corvette, Methode d'Ophicleide (Paris, n. d.) Garner, MeThod Te entaire et Facile d'Ojhicleide a Pistons ou a ares,~paris, conenberger, Ii.d.) leral, Methode dTOppicjeide, Contenant les Principes de usiue, Ceux de 'Instrument, LesGammes, 24 Lecons, LrDho~, ~Lyons, artroux, n. d.)~~~_ Heral, Methode pour Ophicleide, Neuf, Dix et Onze Oles, (Paris, Kelmer Freres, n. d.) Kastner, J. G., Methode Elementaire ipour1'nphicleide (Paris, Branus,d. j.) Schiltz, Tutor for the Ophicleide, (Bass and Alto), (No. 12 of~~.5Toks JT6T.sModern Tutors for rind Instruments), (London, 1853) Steiger, Methode Elementaire et Graduee d'Ophicleide, (Paris, Schonenberger, n. d.) (21, p. 247

Many instruments which were half serpent and half ophicleide appeared from about 1820 to 1850. Streitwolf of 50

Gottingen produced his Chromatisches Basshorn in 1820. It was made with two straight wooden tubes connected by a U-

joint. It had a metal bell and twelve note-holes which were evenly distributed and were controlled by ten or eleven keys.

The Serpent Forveille was invented in Paris in the early nineteenth century. It was half wood and half metal and it had six finger-holes and two to five keys (8, p. 280). In

1823 a contrabass instrument was patented by Rev. Joseph

Cotter, vicar of Castlemagner, which was called the HIternicon.

It resembled Frichot's bass-horn but was over sixteen feet

long and had eight keys (20, p. 272). In 1828 Coeffet, the

French raker, produced an Ophimonicleide which was a kind of

a serpent with only one key (11, p. 226). In June 1846,

Prosper, the famous ophicleidist, was reported to have played

a solo on a new instrument called the Serpentcleide which was

invented by the London serpent-maker Charles Huggett (7, p. 57). sith these rare species of serpents and ophicleides were other contrabass instruments which were also seldom

used. As late as the year 1834 a musical critic wrote: "The

ophicleide is destined to operate a great change in the

constitution of the orchestra" (10, p. 112). But this proved

to be a false prophecy, for the days of brass instruments

operated by keys and tone holes were at an end. The com-

plicated key mechanism and poor tonal quality, especially in the upper register, were a few of the imperfections of the keyed instrument which needed to be corrected. The valve proved to be the answer to these problems.

The first attempts at a valve-system were developed by combining two horns with one mouthpiece. This type of

experimentation began in the eighteenth century. One of the

first was Charles Clagget of London who patented the idea

of uniting a and E-flat horn or trumpet to a common mouthpiece in 1788. However, Clagget did not carry his

ideas much farther than the experimental stage (8, p. 64).

In the early part of the nineteenth century the valve,

as it is known today, was invented by either Heinrich Stolzel

or Friedrich Bluhmel in Berlin. There are many conflicting stories on the invention but the earliest evidence is stated

by Care.

. . . a short article written by G. B. Bierey of Breslau which appeared in the Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitun (Leipzig) on May 1815, headed "New Discovery"; the statement therein is to the effect that the Kammermusikus Heinrich Stolzel of Pleas had invented a simple contrivance by means of which all the sounds of the chromatic scale, over a compass of nearly three octaves, could be played with good effect on a horn without hand-stopping (8, pp. 64-65).

A later article (July, 1818) in the same paper gave

credit to both Stolzel and Bluhmel and announced a joint-

patent. Another account states that Bluhmel actually

invented the valve and sold it to Stolzel, who presented it

as his own invention. The real truth probably will never be known, but it is certain that it was either Stolzel or 32

Bluhmel or both who invented the valve in the early nineteenth century (8, pp. 64r65).

Galpin. described the early valves as follows:

These early valves were made in the shape of square boxes and the pistons themselves were con- structed of square blocks of solid brass. The windways were bored in them in the same horizontal plane, and they were actuated by long slender rods with finger touches (11, p. 231). $tolzel improved these square valves by making them tubular in shape in 1825. A few years later he used this improved valve on his "Chromatic brass instruments." In

1828 he issued a price-list which included the "Basshorn older Basstrompete inF oder Es," which was probably the first indication of a valved instrument in the bass range

(2, p. 379).

In 1832 an ophicleide was made by Guichard of Faris which had three valves. Pegge stated: "A curious feature of this instrument was that it was built in Eb but had extra slides by means of which it could be taken down to

0or Bb; in other words it was an alto that could be converted into a bass" (21, p. 244).

Tuba In 1855 an instrument appeared for the first time under the name bass tuba: (See Figure 5A, page 33.)

. . .In that year a patent was granted in Berlin to ilhelm Tieprecht, in conjunction with the maker J. G. Moritz, for an instrument in F with five Berliner- pumpen valves, two of which were operated by the 33

c

3

t

t

i*. t y , If ter!' 9

1

" kt1

LCf{ t

(F

s A { A

01

d

a

ri

Fig.5 6-Tiubas

A. Mriz, e.in G ;ma., Thua in F, I3> (2, plate 7).

B 81xhorn, 1845 (1, >. O7.

. asTube, 1ate 19th centuryy (2, pste 75). 34

L. hand, and three by the R. hand. The use of the valves lowered the open notes of the instrument as follows: 1st valve--one tone. 2nd valve--one semitone. 3rd valve--two tones when combined with the first valve. 4-th valve--one and a half tones when combined with the first valve. 5th valve--a perfect fifth. These valves could be used singly or together in the eleven combinations necessary to produce a com- plete succession of semitones between the fundamental and the second note of the harmonic series (8, p. 303). Later in 1835 Wieprec.t, who was director of the Prussian Cavalry Guard's Band, and Moritz developed a wider-bored instrument with three or four valves called the bombardon

(8, p. 303). "According to Berlioz the bombardon differed from the bass-tuba in having but three valves and inferior tone" (2, p. 580).

Carse stated that:

At the present time the difference between bass tuba and bombardon hardly exists, except in so far that the instrument used in orchestras in commonly called a tuba, whereas, when transferred to a military or brass band, it becomes a bombardon, or simply a "bass." The British tuba, however, is usually made in F, while the military bombardon is in E flat. The term "tuba," when used in I:rance or Germany, may include 8 or 9 feet instruments of the euphonium class, also contrabasses pitched an octave lower, but the E flat size is a basstuba in Germany, and a tuba contrebasse in France. The term "bombardon" is generally reserved for the instruments in E flat or BB flat, and does not usually designate any instrument pitched higher than 12 feet F. In England and Germany the qualification t"contrabassf" is reserved for tubas or bombardons in 16 feet 0 or 18 feet B flat (8, pp. 302-303).

The Wieprecht-Moritz tuba was quickly put into use in the German orchestras. In 1838, three years after it was invented, the tuba was used to play the ophicleide part in Mendelssohn's "Midsummer Night's Dream." Many German opera

orchestras never had a transition instrument after the

serpent but went directly to the tuba. Actually the tuba was invented before the ophicleide had time to become

established. Coarse said that '. . . in the 'forties all the large German orchestras had their tuba, and the serpents, bass-horns, and what ophicleides there were, retired into the lumber-rooms and museums" (9, p. 43). As early as 1840

Wagner had already scored for the bass tuba in his "Faust" overture and the "Flying Dutchman" (2, p. 580).

In 1843 in a letter to Monsieur Desmarest, a cellist at the Paris Conseratoire, Berlioz wrote: "The bass tuba, which I have already named several times in my former letter, has dethroned the ophicleide in Prussia, if indeed, it ever reigned there, which I doubt" (3, p. 326). Berlioz had used an ophicleide in the "Fantastic Symphony," which was written in 1830. While preparing a copy for a German edition in the 1850's, he added a footnote authorizing the substitution of the tuba. Two other early instances of the use of the bass tuba were in an overture by Otto Bach in 1858 and Wallace's opera "Love's Triumph" in 1862 (26, p. 1057). In France, which was the home of the ophicleide, it was 1845 before Adolphe Sax patented an instrument comparable to the tuba. It was called the contrabass saxhorn in E flat (See Figure 5B, page 33.) and was one tone lower than the ieprecht-Moritz tuba. .ax claimed to have a new instrument but the fact was contested by rival makers in Paris and Germany. Vieprecht contemplated taking legal action against

Sax, but after he met Sex in Coblenz in 1845, he decided that

it would not be worth his trouble (8, p. 309). The saxhorn had a conical bore of wide taper and was played with a deep bell-shaped cup outhiece. This co.-

struction gave to the instrument a distinctive tonal color which Schwartz described as ". . .,round, mello and on the dark side of the tona sectLrU." Schartz stated further

thit ". . . in America we hardly know what -this tonal color

is like; for our instruments have a straighter bore and are more tlC liant in color" (27, pp. 240-241).

Crs questioned ax's contribution.

If there is anything, it is certainly difficult tofind. ax's out-and-out supporters seem to have been unable to di stimguis between designing and inenting an instrument. They claimed that he had created a new instrument, whea he had only. redesigned an instrument whic .had already been in . variety O desig, both in Frace and in Germany. . . . deserves every credit for his one great invention, the saxophone (6, p. 199).

In Ity tubas were made byleitti of Milan under the name wlittoni. Theie instruments were very similar to the

a>xhrn. .. arse told that1c when the Italian maker Pelitt was asked i ahe ma.de da's instrument at .',ila, he replied t . .It is Sax who is making yinstruments i Pris "

({, p. 20?). About 1850 English bands began using tubas built like

French models. The largest was the "Bombardon in Eb," which is now known as the Eb bass. Baines comments that,

the Royal Artillery Band had four of these by 1857, but symphony orchestras retained the ophicleide until considerably later. In 1887 Richter ordered a 5 valved tuba from the maker Hillyard, and this was played at his concerts by the ophicleidist Guilmartin. But the programme of the Gloucester Festival of 1895 still contains, in the list of the orchestra, "Ophicleide & Tuba, ir. Guilmartin, J. H.1" (2, p. 580).

The shape of the American instruments is said to have been modified from the saxtromba or saxotromba which was

also patented by Sax in 1845. Schwartz describes the sax-

trombas as being,

. . . designed with small tubing, about one third of which was straight, or cylindrical, the other two thirds being conical. The mouthpiece was not so deep as that of the saxhorns and was shaped more like a bowl. The resulting tone was brighter and more solid. Most European countries prefer the saxhorn family because of its mellow tone. In Italy and England especially, the conical-bore instruments are used almost universally. In America the saxtromba family is preferred, or at least the modified saxtrombas which we have developed. The American instruments are larger in bore than the original saxtrombas and are played with a more shallow mouthpiece. However, the fundamental principle in the bore construction has been followed, the bore having less taper than the bore of the sax- horn. While these later instruments of Sax' s had no wide acceptance in Europe, they have come to be, in their slightly modified form, America's choice (27, p. 247).

In 1845 the BBb contrabass tuba was invented by Cerveny of Koniggratz (2, p. 580). In that same year the helicon tuba was reported to have appeared in Russia. In 1849 the helicon was imitated by Ignaz Itowasser in Vienna. Sachs 38 said that the helicon was ". . . a spiral circular form wide enough to allow the player to carry the heavy instrument over the shoulder" (25, pp. 430-431). Geiringer said that the term helicon comes from the Greek word "helikos" which meant "winding" (12, p. 289).

In 1898 the helicon tuba underwent a change designed by John Philip Sousa and Ted Pounder of the C. G. Conn Company.

This instrument was called the Sousaphone (17, p. 21). Sousa described the instrument in his book Marching Along on p. 334. I strove in every way to improve the quality and variety of the instruments. Way back when I was with the Marines they used a helicon tuba wound around the body. I disliked it for concert work, because the tone would shoot ahead and be too violent. I suggested to a manufacturer that we have an upright bell of large size so that the sound would diffuse over the entire band like the frostiness on a cake (32, p. 19). In 1908 Pounder redesigned the bell of the Sousaphone and turned it toward the front. Mr. Conn was horrified at this "sea serpent," declaring that it was "the most ridiculous

instrument" that he had ever seen and threatened to discharge the designer (17, p. .21). In the same year the bell-front recording tuba was invented. These were the last major changes in the tuba. Nevertheless, no two companies make their tubas alike. Carse adds:

The modern or 20th-century tuba is likewise far from being a standardised instrument. Various makers in different countries now construct tubas or born pardons which may differ slightly in width of bore, and considerably as regards to the valve-scheme; individual players even, especially in concert or- chestras, sometimes play on tubas made according to 39 the ir own plans, and embodying valve-arrangements which demand particular systems of fingering (8, p. 305). CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Apel, Willi, Harvard Dictionary of Music, Cambridge, Harvard Universit Press, 19b2.

2. Baines, Anthony, "Tuba," Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5th ed., edited by uric Blom, Vol. VIII, New York, MacMillan and o. , 1954.

3. Berlioz, Hector, Jemoirs of Hector Berlioz, translated by Rachel Holmes and Eleanor Holmes, annotated, and the translation revised by Ernest Newman, New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1932.

4. , Treatise on Orchestration, edited by Richard Strauss, New York, Edwin 7. Kalmus, 1948. . :sessaraboff, Nicholas, Ancient uropean Musical Instruments, Boston, Harvard UniversityfPress, 1941. 6. Case, Adam, "Adolphe Sa, and the Distin Family," Music Review, VI (November, 1945), 193-201.

SThe Life of Jullien, Cambridge, i. Heffer ons, 1951.

8. , usical Wind Instruments, London, cacMillan and o.,1939

9. , The Orchestra from Beethoven to Berlioz, ThiiWrYig, I. H Efr,14r.T~ ~

10. Dauheny, Ulric, Orchestral Wind Instruments, London, Yin. ieevs, l97.

11. Galrin, Francis W., ' Textbook of European Musical Instruments, uondoi WilIia3 iorgate 1937.

12. Geiringer, Karl, Musical Instruments--Their History in Western Culture from the Stone Ae to the Present Qa, translmatecb Bemrnardia, tedit b~ Y.F. Blandford, New York, Oxford University Press, 1943.

13 . Grace, H rvey, A Note on the Serpent, " The Musical Times, LVII (November, 1916), 500-501.

40 41

14. HalfpCfly, , "DefenseVi de la IBasse de Cornet," Lsi a ev e, VIII (ay, 1947), 102-105.

15. , "Playing W Serpent," JmpQho-,

16. ingdom-aid, 7., "In Defence of the Ophicleide, " The Monthly Musica1 Record, KTXII (October, 1952),

17. "Oi

18. Pesggte , 7 . Mor.l y , "The ' Anc onide ' " The Galin oc.t ournal, XII (June, 1959), 53-5g.

19. , "Bas s-Horn.," Grove's DictiiLary of &IC~a~d fU5~sicians, 5th ed., edite-d y r'i BloM, Vol.I,~eYor k,~acMillan and o., 1954.

20. , "Hibernicon, " Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5th ed., edited by rcLm, .7 ,V~~New 6rk., atcMl.an and Co., 1954.

21. ______, "Ophicleide," Grove's Dictioar of Usic adusicians, 5th ed., edited byE ric Bo, ToI. /7I,New York, MacMillan and Co., 1954.

22. , "Rus sian Bas soon, " Grove's Dictionary f Musia andTsiars, 5th ed., edited b Eric 1lm, 'ol. VII, New York, Mac Millan and Co., 1954.

23. , "Serpent," Grove's Dictionary of MUSIC edLusicians, 5t ed. , edieT riaaj B31 m, Vol. VI, New York, MacMillan and Co., 1954.

24. Riley, Maurice 0. , "A Tentative Bibliography of Early Yind Inxru ent tutors,'" Journal of Researoh in music Education, VI (Spring, 15 77T- 4.

25. Sachs, Curt, The Histor of Musical Instruments, New York W. W. Norton & Co., In., 190.

26. Scholes, Percy, Oxford Loianion to Music, 9th ed., London, Oxford Uivensitj Press71973.

27. Schwartz, H. W. , Th Str of Musical Instruments, Elkhart, Ind iana, Pan-American Band Instruments, 1938.

28. tarmer, 4. W., "The Serpent," Musical Times, LVII (December, 1916), 549. 42

29. Stauffer, Donald W., "A Treatise on the Tuba," unpublished master's thesis, Eastman School of Music, Rochester, New York, 1942.

30. Westrup, J. A., "Sidelights on the Serpent,"aMsical Times, LXVIII (July, 1927), 635-637.

31. White, Alvin C., "The Musical Serpent, " Etude, LXVII (April, 1949), 269.

32. Yingst, G. L., "A History of the Bass and Contrabass Tuba with an Analytical Survey of Six Selected Beginning Bass and Conttabass Instruction Books," unpublished master's thesis, School of Music, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, 1960. CHAPTER III

FACTORS CONCERN ING TUBA PERFORMANCE

The factors concerning tuba performance are divided into four sections: physical and mental characteristics, specific techniques, tubas and tuba mouthpieces, and instructional material. It is the purpose of this chapter to present the recommendations and opinions of the various tuba authorities. Because there is very little published material concerning the tuba, many of the authorities are

quoted from their completed questionnaires. (See Appendix

A, B and C.) These include Thomas Beversdorf, Roger Bobo,

Rudolph Brhel, Albert Buswell, Rex Conner, Carson Johnson,

David Kuehn, J. E. +cAllester, Harold McDonald, and Ross Tolbert.

Physical Characteristics of the Performer

Large physical size is apparently one of the least

important factors when considering a student for the tuba.

Bell states: "To be big and strong are desirable assets for

tuba playing but are not necessary ones" (4, p. 3). He continues: "There are many good tuba playing five-footers

as well as good six-footer piccolo players" (4, p. 3). In the questionnaire Brhel adds that the tuba player ". . does not need to be a giant but it helps to play the 43 44 instrument if the person is muscular--not obese--and has an inner reserve of physical stamina." Beversdorf calls this quality physical "vigah. " The person who is large sometimes does have certain advantages over the smaller person. Tolbert states:

". . . players who are tall with long torsos usually have a much greater air capacity.t " Brhel contends that '".. a petit, fragile, delicate type of person be it male or female would not play in the same robust and solid manner,

as a healthy, physically strong and rugged type of individual. "

Sometimes a negative mental attitude is developed by the smaller person after he has played the instrument for a short time. This results from a feeling that his size is holding him back. Loop tells the following story: Many times I had the so-called blues because I was not larger. One day I was down in the basement of our Army barracks doing my daily dozen when a sudden blue spell began to predominate and I put down my instrument and started to walk up and down. Suddenly I was interrupted by a voice behind me, "Well, Corporal, what are you so blue about?" I turned around quickly to find the bandmaster standing there. "I amdisgusted," I replied. . . "Here I am about the smallest man in the outfit and I picked on the largest instrument, and I'm beginning to wonder whether or not I'll get very far." The elderly man smiled and said, "Don't let anyone tell you that the size has anything to do with the amount of tone that comes out of an instrument--it is the lip, the ambition and practice that count" (25, pp. 41-42). Physical size has little to do with success on the tuba although large physical size SEgems to be a characteristic 45 of tuba players. Smaller persons can succeed if they are muscular enough to carry the instrument and have the mental attitude that their size will not hold them back.

More important than physical size is the bone and muscle structure of the face, jaw and mouth. Most experts agree that i' the face appears normal and fairly symetrical, it will not handicap the player. McDonald explains: "A student with symetrical features and teeth are easier to teach with other factors equal.4 "

A characteristic which may handicap the player if it is too extreme is an overbite or underbite. Since the teeth support the lips, they cause the lips to fit together at an angle and cause the mouthpiece angle to be altered. In other words if the person has an extreme overbite the mouthpiece meets the lips from below the proper angle. This changes the direction of the air column when the air reaches the mouthpiece. Although extrem.es should be avoided Prescott

says that ". . . a slightly receding lower jaw is advan- tageous" (30, p. 35). Prescott (30) does not give a reason for saying this.

The thickness and thinness of the lip is an often debated subject. Johnson states: "I feel the lip thickness

or thinness will not hurt, except in most extreme cases of thinness which are very, rare." Brhel offers the opinion that

" . .. a fleshy lip covers the opening of the large mouth- piece and prevents air from escaping along the corners of the 46 mouth." Conner says: "Those with thick lips seem to do better." Prescott adds: "Pupils with very thin lips usually have difficulty in developing a full tone on a larger mouth- piece" (30, p. 35).

On the other hand, Bobo states that "there is a theory that thin lips give better response than thick." Nevertheless, the most important factor again seems to be the avoidance of extremes, especially in thinness although extreme thickness can be as much of a handicap.

Buswell says the important factor is lip texture and, ability for muscular control. He adds that, lips must be able to vibrate with very little mouthpiece pressure and with a larger vibrating surface than other brass player's lips.

Other physical factors sought are coordination and quickness of reaction. These are important to all instru- mentalists.

To summarize, the most desirable physical qualities to

the tuba player are physical stamina, symetrical facial

features, coordination, and quickness of reaction. Lesser

important qualities are physical size, slightly thick lips

and a slight overbite of the teeth.

Mental Characteristics of the Performer Mental factors play a very important part in the success

or failure of a tuba player. The most important of these 47 factors are aural perception, musicality and general intelligence. Experts agree that aural perception and musicality are of equal importance while the general in- telligence should be at least normal, perferably above average.

Aural perception is extremely important to all instru- mentalists but probably even more to the tuba player. Kuehn says that it is important ". . . because of the relatively few vibrations per second in the sound produced by the tuba."

Brhel adds that aural perception is important ". . because every tuba has certain notes which are out of tune."

Although aural perception is inborn, it can be developed to a certain extent. Bell explains: "Since there are so many different pitches to be played with each combination, it is necessary for the player to HEAR EACH PITCH BEFORE E

PLY T. If you are not adept at this make it a necessary objective to practice vocalizing your exercises with the aid of a piano" (3, p. 3).

Musicality, which is the mental sensitivity to music,

is regarded by some authorities as more important than aural perception although both are necessary. Brhel says: "Every musician must have that, otherwise he would not be a musician." east rates musicality so high as to say:

Concerning rate of progress, the development of an individual is in proportion to his musical abilities. In regard to the physical aspects of performing, it is repeatedly demonstrated that players with good basic musicianship progress much more rapidly than those 48

lacking it. Ironically, once a non-musical person develops volume and range he then becomes a liability, since Che) can then be heard (36, p. 2).

Although the preceding physical and mental character- istics are of great importance to the success of the tuba player, the absence of the proper characteristics can usually be overcome by the desire to perfect his playing abilities. Desire includes patience and enthusiasm. Bobo says: "The most important thing is how much the student loves his instrument--in this line the teacher fulfills his most important duties.t"

In summary, the most important mental factors to the tubaist are aural perception, musicality, and general intelligence. Nevertheless, desire and attitude can influence their effectiveness.

Technique of Breathing Most authorities agree that breath control is at least forty per cent of brass playing although Herbert Clarke thought that the figure should be as high as ninety-eight per cent (29, p. 67). Jacoby says: "The manner in which you breathe determines to a very large extent the quality of your sound and the confidence and ease with which you are able to control that sound" (21, p. 1). Although no exact figures can be calculated, breath control is one of the most important techniques that the tuba player must develop because of the long phrases that he is required to play. 49

The ordinary "man on the street'" never thinks about breathing unless he has trouble breathing. Normal breathing

or respiration is an unconscious act by most everyone ; the muscles of respiration work involuntarily. Although the

muscles do act in an involuntary manner they can be made

to act voluntarily or controlled to a great extent by the

individual. It is this controlled breathing that is utilized

by tuba players in performance.

Before teaching breath control, one should understand

the breathing or respiratory process. Without a basic knowledge of this process it is difficult to analyze it and present breath control to the student. There are basically two types of breathing, abdominal

(diaphragmatic) breathing and thoracic (chest or costal)

breathing (38, p. 10). Both types are involuntary but can

be controlled voluntarily. Wilkins continues by saying:

The student must remember that there is no such thing as pure diaphragm breathing any more than there is exclusive chest breathing. There must always be a combination of the two. One supplements the other; neither exists alone. It is necessary that the wind player use both types of breathing in which the diaphragm and the chest play a part (38, p. 11).

In the respiratory process there are two distinct stages: inhalation (inspiration) and exhalation (expiration).

Inhalation is the act of inhaling or drawing air into the

lungs and exhalation is the act of exhaling or pushing air

out of the lungs. 50

During inhalation the air reaches the lungs by way of the mouth or nose, the pharynx, and the trachea which leads

into an inverted Y-shaped pair of tubes called the bronchi which are attached to the lungs. (See Figures 7 and 8.)

r Pharynx

Larynx

Trachea -w Left bronchial tube

Thorax

Fig. 7--Diagram of the respiratory tract (13, p. 9)

The lungs are made of a very flexible connective spongy

tissue. Noble (29) gives additional information about the lungs.

In adult males the average lung dimensions are 25-27 cm. high by 7-10 cm. wide, with an expanded volume of 6500 cc. . . During normal respiration adults take an average of 16-18 breaths per min., inhaling about 550 cc. of air in each breath, but we use only 1/8 of our vital capacity in respiring this Vital air. Deep breaths required in brass performance generally amount to 3000 to 4000 cc. . . (29, p. 67). 51

When these figures are converted to inches, the average lung dimensions are ten to eleven inches high by three to four inches wide with an expanded volume of over

396 cubic inches. The average breath amounts to over thirty-three cubic inches while the deep breaths required for brass performance amount to 183 to 244 cubic inches.

This means that the deep breat. is five to seven times gre ater in volume than the normal breath.

Larynx Thyroid body

Trachea Apex of the lung

Right bronchus Left bronchus Inner, or Ventral bronchial mediastinal, surface branches of the lung upper lobe a chVentral bronchial Bronchial branch Brncia branches of the of the upper lobe middle lobe tv

Ventral bronchial Ventral bronchial branches of the Dorsal bronchial branches of the lower lobe branches lower lobe Fig. 8--The trachea, bronchi, and bronchial tubes; the tissues have ieen removed to show the air tubes (24, p. 491).

The lungs get their shape from the surrounding bones, organs and muscles. They are enclosed inside the thoracic cavity by the bones of the thorax (See Figure 9.) and are supported from the bottom by the diaphragm. 52

Fig. 9--The bones of the thorax (24, p. 110)

"The diaphragm is the chief muscle of respiration, its movements being responsible during deep breathing for about

60 per cent of the total amount of air breathed" (6, p. 474).

"The diaphragm is a dome-shaped, musculofibrous partition

which forms the convex floor of the thoracic cavity and the

concave roof of the abdominal cavity" (24, p. 181). "It is arched higher on the right side than on the left and is

somewhat higher ventrally (in front) than dorsally (in

back)" (29, p. 68). (See Figure 10.)

The liver, stomach, spleen, kidneys, and intestines

are below the diaphragm in the abdominal cavity The lungs

and the heart are above the diaphragm in the thoracic cavity. (See Figure 11.) 53

r '

THORACIC CAVITY

\TA TAN

EXTERNAL OBLIQUE

INTERNAL ABDOMINAL OBLIQUE CAVITY

TRANSVERSE

Fig. 10--Thoracic and abdominal cavities separated by the diaphragm (13, p. 14). 54

1 -- L AR YNX

C7 TRACHEA

------ESOPHAGUS

-- CLAVICLE

LUNG BRONCHUS

I SERRATUS MUSCLE

HEART

EXTERNAL INTERCOSTAL MUSCLE

LIVER DIAPHRAGM

+ tf iS TOMACH \\ SP LEEN PANCR EAS

COLON

Fig. l--Organs of the thoracic and abdominal cavities and the diaphragm (29, p. 68).

The shape of the diaphragm is partially determined by these organs which push against it. Yimber illustrates this in Figure 12.

At A the liver and at B the cardiac end of the stomach are underneath the diaphragm and push it up; at 0 the tip of the heart pushes the diaphragm down. At A and E the esophagus and aorta are shown (24, p. 181). 55

; t etRightft ,

Fig. 12--Diaphragm, viewed from in front (24, p. 181)

Winter describes the action of the diaphragm as follows:

Like all muscles, the diaphragm can only contract. . . aWhen the diaphragm contracts, it pulls downward, losing its dome shape, causing a partial vacuum in the chest cavity, which automatically draws air into the lungs (which are inert, having no power either to inflate or deflate themselves) (39, p. 12).

In deep breathing the diaphragm is contracted more to let greater amounts of air into the lungs. Of course the abdominal uscles assist the diaphragm in deep breathing by relaxing and the result is that the waist expands both

laterally and forwardly. This displaces the organs of the

abdominal cavity downward and outward but Farkas explains

that "this is one of the reasons that deep breathing is advocated by o many Physicians as an aid to good health-- because of its massaging effect and the exercise which it

contributes to all the internal organs" (16, pp. 57-58). 56

There is much confusion on the part of the authorities as to what really happens to the diaphragm during inhalation.

Some uay that the diaphragm is dome-shaped and goes flat like a pancake when one inhales. This is a very picturesque explanation but more authoritative sources say that the diaphragm remains roughly dome-shaped even though the height of the dome is greater before than after inhalation (12, p. 2 1).

The main point is that it does move and air is pulled into the lungs because of the vacuum left in the lungs when the diaphragm contracts.

During inhalation, such as that required for tuba playing,

the thoracic cavity is not only enlarged by the lowering

of the diaphragm but by the expanding of the rib cage which

increases the diameter of the cavity (16, p. 57). (See

Figure 13.) This expansion of the rib cage is done by means

of the external intercostal muscles. "The intercostal muscles are the layers which occupy the spaces (intercostal

spaces) between the rib-arches. In each space there are

two muscles, an external and an internal and the fibres of

one cross those of the other like the limbs of the letter

"1" (13, p. 15). In tuba playing the exhalation of the air can not be

the passive release used in everyday breathing but must be controlled, held back and forced out as needed. The main muscles used in exhalation are the abdominal muscles 57

TMH OR A CC WHOAI A Before -W-LL contraction

LUNG LUNG

A/g

THORACICAfe A'--Lcontraction

LUNG: L UNG'

Fig. 13--Thoracic cavity before inhalation. (A) and after inhalation (B) (13, p. 22). and the internal intercostal muscles--not the diaphragm.

Although the diaphragm is active during exhalation, it is not considered one of the Main muscles.

Jisensen gives the following explanation of exhalation:

In exhalation the diaphragm merely relaxes. The diaphragm returns to its former position because of the pressure of the abdominal contents upon it. In controlled muscular activity necessary for the playing of a wind instrument, the muscles of the front and sides of the abdominal wall contract and press inward on the liver, stomach, and intestines. These organs 58

exert an upward pressure on the under surface of the diaphragm, which in turn exerts pressure against the lungs and so causes the air to be expelled. . . The diaphragm maintains some degree of muscle tension at all times. In relaxing as a result of pressure of the abdominal contents upon it, it does so slowly and gradually as the breath is expired. If the diaphragm were to lose all the muscle tone at once, and to relax suddenly and completely, the air from the lungs would be expelled with a sudden rush. Such an expulsion of air would be useless for instrumental playing purposes. By maintaining some degree of muscle tonus, a steady stream of breath is provided which can be used for blowing an instrument (15, pp. 21, 24). Forced expiration is used as the last part of expiration to push additional air out of the lungs. Haynie states two ways to force expiration:

1. by forcing the diaphragm farther up into the thoracic cavity, a result obtained not by direct actions of the diaphragm, but by contracting the muscular walls of the abdomen and back. 2. by depressing the ribs which is accomplished by the internal intercostal and other related muscles (19, p. 8).

At this point there is a great deal of discussion and controversy over whether the abdominal muscles are pushed out or pushed in during exhalation. Based on his experiments,

West states:

Although many players can successfully apply pressure inward or upward at the waist, greater compression can be secured on the Air Tube by forcing against the belt. So great in strength are these abdominal muscles, that they can be contracted to the point of pain. Some brass men have been known to wear supports around their waists for the muscles to push against (36, p. 21).

The main purpose for this system is to achieve greater compression of air. The tubaist may never need this extreme compression of air but some trumpet players use it to achieve 59 great volume ad an extremely hig4 range. Even for his i seems rather impractical according to an unknown authority

o ted by to1Ia a. uhir the ">ut"aacInt the belt to ascend has caused more trumet hernias than all other reasons com ied . I have seen hundreds ruptured in this manner. I had 18 teachers and all stated that the lower extremities ust be pushed out to ascend. I am sorry, but all 18 were wrong, as my life of teaching has proven (5, p. 0).

There are various resistance points that occur dusint

exhalation which may be used to regulate or control the

flow of air after it leaves the lungs. -arkas (16) lists

them as () the glottis, (2) the back of the tongue,

(3) the tip of the tongue, (4) the lip-aperture, (5) the bore of thr mouthpiece, nd () the instrument itself.

Farkas addr: ". . only one has complete flexibility

froi fully opened to fully closed, a natural, voluntary

means of obtaining this flexibility, and no other conflicting

duties to perform. That point is the glottis. . .'

(16, p. ).

The 2ottis is never mentioned as a resistance point

by any other authority. Farkas continues:

many brass Players react in horror when I suggest using this valve for purposes of playing our instruments. They evidently feel that I am advocating the use of a "tight throat", a condition all teachers haJve carefully avoided fr a th inception of brass playing. To me, the bad habit of playing with "tight throat" means the forcible tighte;ing of the neck muscles, or worse yet, the sounding of the vocal cords, resulting in a lox moaning or groaning noise, heard while the instrument is played, and I have fought these bad habits just as diligently as any 60

other brass teacher. The proper use of the glottis is natural and effective and is quite likely being used by most successful brass players, either con- sciously or subconsciously (16, p. 62).

When teaching deep breathing, the first step ".

is to convince the student that such breaths are really necessary and that the teacher, in spite of appearance, does practice what he preaches" (16, p. 59). Once the student

sees the need and advantages of diaphragmatic breathing, he will be easier to teach.

The first physical aspect that should be discussed

is posture. Leonard Smith says: "If we sit or stand in a slumped or slouched position, the lungs, as a consequence, will be stretched into an abnormal position" (33, p. 14).

Some students in an attempt to do the right things sit up almost too straight. -Winter explains:

. . . an exaggerated uprightness will tend to cause the student to "throw out his chest" and try to breathe much too high. He should strive for a normal, relaxed upright posture, with the spine straight, the shoulders somewhat back, but down and relaxed, and the head and neck normally upright (40, p. 15). Ahen teaching the mechanics of diaphragmatic breathing,

it is easier if the student understands the respiratory cycle.

The length of the explanation will depend on the student.

Nevertheless, even the youngest student should know where the diaphragm is located and what happens when he breathes correctly. Tetzlaff stresses: "Teach the body muscles the feeling, and the automatic habit of the complete inhale, 61 which is like 'the natural breath', but about four times greater in volume" (34, p. 27).

The quickest and most efficient means of getting this big volume of air is through the mouth. West says, "brass players should always inhale through the corners of the mouth so as to get quick gulps of air" (36, p. 20). When breathing through the mouth, the breath should be taken as

quickly and as silently as possible. Farkas describes this

as ". . . a sort of huge silent, rapid gasp caused by

the reaction of stepping into an ice-cold shower on a hot day" (i1,p. 60). Particular care should be taken to be

sure that the br death i ssilen t, Sometime sdeep bre thing through the mouth causes an audible wheeze or inhaled whisper. "Ye must prevent this by opening the glottis (the

space between the vocal chords) fully, and by keeping the tongue well down and out of the way" (16, p. 60).

Breathing through the nose is advocated by some tubaists under certain circumstances. Bel gives two reasons for nose breathing:

First: the replenishment of the breath supply through frequent Sniffs. s econd: nose breathing enables one to maintain his mouth position. In addition it insures separation of notes that otherwise might be run together at the wrong time (3, p. 1).

Ereathng is explained in many different ways. In the questionnaire Johnson and Brhel give these approaches to the teaching of breathing. 62

Johnson says that when inhaling, the student should learn to breathe in by expanding about the waist; "to fill his belt." The abdominal wall relaxes outwardly as well as the lower ribs. The chest should be high at all times and need not be lifted more here. When exhaling, the air should be pushed out by the abdominal muscles and other muscles about the waist. As the air is expelled the chest stays high and the abdomen gradually goes in as the air is pushed out.

Brhel describes the breathing process by saying,

". . . fill the lower points of the lungs first then keep drawing in air until the very top of the lungs are filled.

In exhaling, control the flow of air so that it is not blown out in one sudden rush. In other words use the diaphragm in inhaling and exhaling the air." Several devices to teach breathing are given by W'east (36) and Winter (40):

Persons having difficulty expanding around the waist should lie on the floor and breathe slowly and deeply, relaxing the abdominal region to permit easy and full expansion. Young people and women have a greater tendency to breathe costally. The proverbial fat man in a hammock with the rising and falling waistline is a good example of diaphragmatic breathing (36, pp. 20-21).

Have the student, while seated, bend downward, so that his chest is down on his knees, with his hands hanging down, his neck relaxed, and his head bent downwards. Instruct him to exhale completely, then to inhale at given signal; it is surprisingly difficult to inhale incorrectly when one is in this position. Direct the student's attention to the expansion of his lower chest cavity, and in particular 63

to the expansion of the lower ribs just above the small of the back; the fact that the back, as well as the front, of the chest cavity is involved in proper breathing is too often missed. He should then be able to transfer this process to his normal playing position (40, p. 16).

Another exercise is given by Charles R. Shoults, head

of the brass department of the U. S. Naval School of Mvusic,

Washington D. C. 1. Stand up. Stand tall, chest up, shoulders back. 2. Exhale, force all the air out of your lungs. Don't allow the chest to cave-in or sag but push in with the abdominal wall of muscles until it almost hurts. 3. Now hold that position until you just have to breathe. 4. Then, relax the abdominal muscles and breathe. Deeply and completely. Let the air rush in and down as far as possible. Notice that the abdomen will protrude slightly as the abdominal muscles are relaxed. 5. At the instant you have filled your lungs completely, place the tip of the tongue against the base of the upper teeth as though you were going to say the word "Too" and contract the abdominal muscles slightly. This muscular contraction forces the diaphragm upward creating air pressure in the lungs. This slight air pressure is important in playing a wind instrument as it is basic to tone, intonation and attack. 6. Hold a strip of paper at arm's length in front of you. Whisper the word "Too" and form the lips as though to blow out a candle. Continue contracting the abdominal muscles, forcing air upward and out of the lungs. Direct the column of air against the strip of paper and try to make it flutter horizontally for eight or ten seconds. When completely exhaled, repeat steps 4 through 6 five or six times (32, p. 60).

The important thing for the student is to be conscious

of deep breathing and to practice it at times other than when playing the tubas-walking down the street, sitting in

the classroom, and driving the car. "Five minutes of correct 64 diaphragm action exercises the vital organs more than a five-mile walk" (23, p. 6). Finally, Mendez says:

"BREATHILG FOR YOUR PLAYING IS AN ART: TREAT IT A1 SUCH--

WORK TO PERFE IT. . . " (27, p. 16).

To summarize, breathing is one of the most important techniques to the tubaist. The type of breathing used in tuba playing is both abdominal and thoracic but abdominal breathing is the most important.

The breathing cycle consists of the inhalation and exhalation processes. During inhalation the air is taken in through the mouth and nose and controlled by the action of the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles.

7During exhalation the air is expelled through the mouth and controlled by the abdominal and internal intercostal muscles, as well as various resistance points. The amount of air taken in duing inhalation and the efficient control of the air during exhalation are the two most important factors in breath control.

Technique of Embouchure

After learning the correct breathing process, all is lost if the embouchure does not use the air correctly.

The word embouchure is derived from the French word, bouch, meaning mouth. To the tuba player its meaning is: "The mouth, lip, chin and cheek muscles, tensed and shaped in a precise and cooperative manner, and then blown through for 65 the purpose of setting the air-column into vibration when these lips are placed upon the mouthpiece. . . " (16, p. 5). The embouchure is made up and controlled by thirteen

sets of muscles. Noble gives the scientific names and

specific functions of each muscle as follows: (See Figure 14.) (1) the masseter closes the jaws; () the elevator labii superioris alaeo ue nasi raises the upper lip vertically; (3) the levator labii superiorIs raises the upper lip at an angle; (4) the zyomaticus minor draws the left and right id-sections of the upper lip back and diagonally upward; (5) the caninus (levator aguli) raises the upper lip, as in a snarl; (6) the zygomaticus major draws the corners of the upper lip back and diagonally upward; (7) the buccinator (Italian buccinatore = trumpeter) retracts thercorners ofTheTTmh, flattens the cheeks, and controls the expulsion of air; (8) the risorius draws the corners of the mouth back laterally, as in a smile; (9) the orbicularis closes and protrudes the lips, as in a pucker; (10) the platysma retracts and depresses the corners of the mouth; (11) the trianularis (depressor anguli) draws the corners of the lips downward, as in grief; (12) the mentalis raises the skin of the chin and protrudes the lower lip; (13) the depressor labii inferioris draws the lower lip down in antagonism to Te menTalis (29, pp. 53-54). (See Figure 14.) The tuba embouchure utilizes these thirteen muscles in

a different way than other brass instruments; they are used

in a much more relaxed manner. The embouchure must be formed in a way so that the relaxation can be controlled.

There are two extremes to the tuba embouchure , the smile

and the pucker. A smile is made by the contraction of the 66

MASSETER

(2) LEVATOR LABI SUPERIORIS ALAEQUE NASI

(3) LEVATOR LAB I SUPERIOR IS

(4) ZYGOMATICUS MINOR

(0)0 CANINUS (LEVATOR ANGULI)

ZYGOMATICUS MAJOR

BUCC INATOR

R ISORIUS

-- (7) ORBICULARIS ORIS

PLATYSMA a-" (t)

TR ANGULAR IS (DEPR ESSOk ANGULI)

(1,Z) MENTALIS

(13) DEPRESSOR LAB I INFERIORIS

Fig. 14-Principal muscles of the embouchure (29, p. 53)

zygomaticus major (6), the risorius (8), and other muscles in the cheek area. This causes the orbicularis oris (9)

to relax, leaving the lips vulnerable to injury because

they are stretched thin by the cheek muscles. A pucker

embouchure is made by contraction of the orbicularis oris (9)

and the relaxation of the aomaticus (6), the risorius (8), and the other cheek muscles. Because of the relaxation of the cheek muscles, the cheeks naturally "puff" out and because of the extreme contraction of the orbicularis 67 oris (9) muscle, the lips protrude and do not vibrate properly. It is easy to see that the proper or most ideal

embouchure is somewhere in between or a compromise of

the smile and the pucker. This embouchure is called the

"puc ered smile" by Farkas (16).

In terms of muscular action, Noble states: The player essentially must contract muscles No. 7, 9, and 10 in balanced opposition to the contractions of muscles No. 4, 6, and 8 (as numbered in the drawing, Figure 14, page 66). It is also important to keep the chin pulled dowr rbycontracting muscles No. 11 and 13 and relaxing muscle No. 12 (29, p. 54).

Farkas describes the same action as follows:

The drawstring of muscle around the mouth contracts in an attempt to form a very small circle of the mouth, but at the same time the cheek, chin and jaw muscles, in fact the complete network of muscles radiating out from the mouth, are striving to pull the- mouth wide open in all directions. . . . The cheek and lip muscles, and consequently the mouth corners, do not move, even though they might try, because their contractions exactly offset each other. o the muscular feeling while playing throughout the instrument's range is one of varying degrees of tension and relaxation but not one of lip motion or commotion (16, pp. 13-14).

Finally, Cramer says that in the proper embouchure,

". . . the situation will be one of muscles opposing each

other" (12, p. 47). these descriptions are only the basic outline of the

tuba embouchure for there are many more fine points which

are equaly important to successful performance. 68

The function of the embouchure is two-fold: to set the air column in vibration, and to direct the air column out of the mouth into the mouthpiece. The lips are often compared with an oboe reed; this is to say that they both vibrate. West (36; 37) has made extensive studies on lip vibration and he reported his findings from tests made on forty-two brass players; twelve trumpets, ten horns, twelve trombones, and eight tubas. He found that the upper lip was consistent and fully active. The lower lip was erratic and varied from player to player. There was no correlation between its activity and tone quality.

However, from the graph (Figure 15) made of lower lip activity of the four instruments we see that the tubaist has more lower lip activity in the low range than any other brass player. In the upper range there is very little lower lip activity on the part of any brass player. From this discussion we conclude that the lips of the tuba player must be in a more relaxed state, especially in the lower range, than those of any other brass player.

The second function of the lips, that of directing the air column into the mouthpiece, is accomplished by the formation of the aperture which is the small opening between the lips. Farkas (16) compares the aperture with the oboe reed and illustrates the shape like this: 0- . The size and shape are, to a great extent, controlled by the lower lip and the factors controlling it, mainly the lower 69

Inactive

French horn Pulse effect

Trumpet 50% active

Trombone Fully active Tuba______Low register Middle registerHigh register Fig. 15--Graph of the lower lip activity of brass players (37, p. 45). jaw. West supports this by saying that the ". . . lower lip. . . is our most efficient way to change the size of the lip opening. . ." (36, p. 29). When the lip aperture does change, the dimensions must change in proportion to each other. In other words the shape stays similar through- out the range of the tuba. Farkas explains this by saying

"I. .. that the opening must change in size for the various ranges in pitch and volume, but must not change in shape"

(16, p. 42). The aperture becomes smaller on higher pitched notes and larger on lower pitched notes. It also becomes smaller on softer notes and larger on louder notes. Farkas states:

The highest, softest, note one can play is the result of the smallest lip aperture he can produce. . . . The lowest, loudest note one can play will require the largest lip aperture he can produce. . A perfectly calculated crescendo during an ascending 70

scale passage could conceivably be produced with no change in the size of the lip aperture. . . . An ascending passage requiring a diminuendo will necessitate a drastic lip contraction during the ascent. (16, p. 41).

According to Farkas (16), the air column should remain straight as it passes through the lip aperture into the mouthpiece. The controlling factor is the lower jaw.

Because of the normal formation of the teeth with the upper teeth biting over the lower teeth, the upper lip is usually over the lover lip since the lips are supported by the teeth. This tends to direct the air column downward and according to

Farkas (16, p. 7) should be corrected by thrusting the lower jaw forward so that the upper and lower teeth are in line with each other. (Figure 16) Farkas adds: "The thrust-

forward jaw position is not only normal, but, in my opinion

is an absolute necessity if one is to get that air-column directed straight through the horn for a big, rich and free

tone" (16, p. 7).

Weast says that ". . . probably more than 50% of

the brass players pla with a certain amount of their upper

lips extending over their lower lips. . ." (36, p. 36).

le continues:

Excessive extension of the overlap is prone to cause a cramped, restricted tone. Persons with this problem find that they can produce the lower register with good alignment and good sound, but as they ascend the upper lip gradually extends over the lower until the lips are forced to a clamp position (36, p. 36). 71

UPPER LIP

UPPER FRONT TOOTH

ALSTREAM

" a .e, ,,r ar ,,, w.+I aa e ~ aa fla K s.; s

LOWER FRONT TOOTH

LOWER LIP

Fig. 16-The air stream in relationship to the position of the lips (16, p. 8).

Nevertheless, a modification of this embouchure called the pivo system is used by many tuba teachers. For the upper register Conner says to blow the air stream toward the bottom of the mouthpiece and to place the lower lip slightly inside the upper lip. For the lower register, Conner says to bring the lower jaw forward with the lower lip out mo:re. Kuehn advocates a slight pivot toward the bottom lip on high tones and more pivot toward the top lip on low tones, although Buswell comments to direct

". . . the air stream up for the high register. . . and down for the low."

When the mouthpiece is placed on the lips, the player should be able to blow the air column straight through. 72

Also, the pressure should be equally distributed on both lips. Farkas says: "If the pressure of the rim is properly balanced between upper and lower lips, the air should continue straight ahead" (16, p. 10). West (36) does not stress the even pressure as much as Farkas (16) because he says: "Even distribution of contact would be alright if it meets the requirements of a free lower lip and good support to the upper, but this is not always the case" (3, p. 33). West contends that ". . . mouthpiece contact must be reduced so as to permit the movement of the lower

lip. This is achieved by transferring the point of contact

to the upper lip" (36, p. 30). This is probably true during

the playing of wide intervals but normally the pressure is equal on both lips.

A minority of brass teachers advocate "no pressure" playing. This is really quite impossible and most authorities

agree with Raymond who states: "I have never heard of a

performer attaining great heights who suspended his horn by a string and blew into it" (31, p. 10). Noble explains:

"t. . . It is mandatory that some degree of pressure be applied to insure an effective hermetic seal between the

lips and the rim of the mouthpiece" (29, p. 54). Farkas

says: "We apply variable amounts of pressure, depending

on our state of fatigue and the altitude and volume of the

passage being played" (1, p. 16). The most pressure will

be applied when a player with a tired embouchure tries to 73

play a loud, high note. In an attempt to make the aperture small and tense the lips, he uses great amounts of pressure instead of muscle control and breath control. Vieast

stresses replacing pressure with breath control by stating:

So as not to put undue stress on the lips and embouchure, it should be emphasized that the actual burden of physical effort should be placed with the air--those muscles engaged in creating air control and support. . . . The sooner one transfers the work load from the embouchure to the air, the sooner will his endurance increase (36, p. 5).

One other small point of controversy is the use of wet or dry lips. Farkas says: "I have concluded that a

large majority of brass players--I would estimate aout

eventy-five per cent--prefer to keep their lips moist while playing" (16, p. 35). The main point in favor of wet lips is that the mouthpiece and embouchure can move more freely (16; 36). This freedom of movement is important to the tuba player because the lips are moved farther to accomplish the same results than those of any other brass player.

Teaching the formation of the embouchure is explained by the authorities with many different illustrations and comparisons, but they are used to achieve the same results. Bell gives the following illustration:

If there is any doubt in the player's mind as to how he should properly produce his sound, let me suggest that he use his lips Just as he did when he had water fights as a youngster. The one who pro- jected a mouthful of water the farthest was the winner. Try this position on the mouthpiece. Release 74

the breath, and the result should be a very satis- factory sound. Keep this position at all times (3, p. 2). Winter states simply: "The first step is to say 'em' and hold the resulting position" (40, p. 21).

The main point that should be made is that the corners of the mouth are the focal points of the embouchure. As the focal points, it is very important that they remain as stationary as possible while changing registers. The corners of the mouth control the flatness and openness of the lip aperture. If the corners are back too far, as in a smile, the lip aperture will be too flat. A flat lip aperture tends to cause the tone to be thin and sometimes causes the tone to go sharp (16). Jardin says that "the corners of the mouth are in the same position as when blowing across the mouth of a 'pop' bottle" (22, p. 8).

Finally, Bell describes this action as bringing ". the corners of the mouth slightly forward so that they act as anchors and hinges for the lips. . ." (4, P. 7). The placement of the mouthpiece on the lips is the next aspect to be considered. Raymond states:

There is no arbitrary law which compels the placing of the mouthpiece either two-thirds on the upper or on the lower lips. If the mouthpiece is in the CENTER of the lips--midway between the corners of the mouth--the conformation of your mouth, teeth, and chin will determine the position of the cup (31, p. 8).

In the case of the tuba, the nose is the most determining factor in the upward movement of the mouthpiece. Hindsley 75 comments that the mouthpiece ". . . should be centered on the lips in a comfortable position, usually well up against the nose" (20, p. 8). "Usually this results in a half-and- half relationship although it can vary as much as 60-40 one way or the other" (4, p. 7). In his survey of brass teachers Bellamah reports:

The tuba authorities were the only group to be unanimous in the matter of embouchure and mouthpiece placement. They taught the identical embouchure that the majority of trumpet teachers advocated; this is, 1/3 on the upper lip and 2/3 on the lower lip (5, p. 11).

Contrary to this, east explains: "There is much less danger in getting the mouthpiece too high than too low"

(36, p. 32). Since Weast (36) proved that the upper lip is the principal vibrating member, he believes that as much of it should be in the mouthpiece as possible.

In conclusion, the mouthpiece should be placed in the center of the mouth. The up and down position depends on the student and the teacher. They should find the point where the lips vibrate with the most freedom and the position where the tone is the clearest and fullest.

For development of the embouchure, even the beginning

student should practice long tones. Neilson says: "There

is no way to exercise the important muscles controlling diaphragmatic action other than to play sustained tones.

. . . The playing of sustained tones serves another purpose

in strengthening the muscles forming the embouchure" (?8, p. 20). 76

Even though Neilson is a trumpet player, most tuba

players agree with him on long tones. Out of twelve tuba

players contacted, ten answered yes, when asked if they had

their students practice long tones. Tolbert gave the

following four reasons: (1) helps to center pitch, (2) helps to build (strengthen) embouchure muscles, (3) increases air capacity, and (4) promotes better tone and control. Eight of the ten authorities who answered yes said that

long tones should be practiced at the beginning of practice

or during the warm-up. Conner said to practice long tones

at the beginning and at the end of practice. cAllister

said to practice them anytime.

In summarizing, the embouchure is formed correctly when the following characteristics are evident according to Parkas:

1. Lips are puckered, cheek muscles are not stretching lips. 2. Cheeks have tension, as though smiling. 3. Lower lip is not tucked-in nor swallowed behind upper lip. 4. "U" shaped valley formed by muscle tension. 5. Lower jaw is thrust forward so that lower front teeth align with upper front teeth. o. Chin arched down. No horizontal wrinkle. 7. Instrument kept quite horizontal. 8. Jaw is not clenched shut, but is held quite open, teeth well apart. 9. Mouthpiece correctly placed on the lips in its up-down position. . . (16, p. 44). 77

In the following picture of Artold Jacobs, tubaist with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, notice the characteristics which are listed by Farkas on page 76.

F 9

>tFf ' _ +ak. _

MI,

Ilk

P y? - ft q d... { f

d N . _ F 'Ity F

JON,

IN"

716.

4.4

Fig. 17-Tuba embouchure n mouthpiece placement (16, r. I1).

Techniques of the Tongue

The tongue, when used correctly, is an important part in the technique of tuba performance. Noble gives the following description of the tongue:

The tongue is a highly flexible organ formed by a group of intrinsic muscles covered with mucous membrane. Prominent among these muscles are the longitudinales and transversus linguae, which shorten ornarrowtetongue, respJ5Tiv Y,5Tus making it bulge upward, and the verticalis linguae which flattens it out. The root or bas rTh TguTJ Wbeongs to the pharynx while its sides are continuous with the palatine tonsils. The apex or tip is used to form an air valve ("T" articulation) with the hard palate behind the anterior upper teeth to release the air 78

stream through the lips. The base and mid-section are used to form another air valve ("K" articulation) at the junction of the hard and soft palates. . There are three major extrinsic muscles which control the tongue's actions: (1) the fan-shaped genioglossus can retract the tongue and depress the tip, or draw the base forward and depress the mid-section; (2) the styllossus retracts the tongue and raises the base and sides; (3) the hyoglossus retracts and draws down the sides (29, pp. TF5. .(ee Figure 18.)

TRANSVERSUS LINGUAE MUSCLE

VERTICALIS LINGUAE MUSCLE adr LONGITUDINALIS MUSCLE APEXr- ROOT

STYLOGLOSSUS MUSCLE

TEETH

HYOGLOSSUS MUSCLE

BONE

GENIOGLOSSUS

Fig. 18--Principal muscles of the tongue (29, p. 56)

The tongue serves two basic functions: (1) ad justing the size of the aural cavity, and (2) articulation. The tongue can aid the tubaist in register changes, especially when slurring up or down. This often described as change of the vowel sound. Magnell says: "The position of the tongue. . . can be changed from low to high in the roof of the mouth by enunciating syllables through these stages: 79 tah, oh, oo, e, for four pitch levels'" (26, p. 61). Farkas adds: "There is a natural (and., in my opinion, quite correct) tendency to form. the inside of the mouth for the vowel 'ah', while holding low notes, 'ah' or 'oo' for the middle register, and 'ee' for the high register" (16, p. 52).

Hall states the following contradictory conclusions in his dissertation:

1. It is indicated that trumpet performers tend to assume their own individual physiological formations. The most common formation assumed by the sub jects of this study was that of "a" (ah). However, other players used the "u" (oo) formation or intermediate formations between the extreme vowels. 2. It is indicated that trumpet performers tend to use the same basic formation in every register. Variations in formation between different registers were not large. In nearly all cases, the changes were not as great as the changes between extreme vowels. 3. It is indicated that, in changing from middle register to low register, three different patterns of physical change are used. Each is identified with a particular movement of the tongue . The most common pattern is that of lowering the tongue. The second pattern is that of moving the high point of the tongue to the rear. The third pattern is that of moving the high point of the tongue slightly forward and upward. 4. It is indicated that the method of changing from middle register to high register varies greatly with individuals. The most frequent tendencies are as follows: a. To raise the lower jaw b. To move the high point of the tongue forward and/or downward. . . (18, pp. 246-247). As a result of the study, Hall developed the following teaching concepts:

1. If the "a" - "i" (ah-ee) change is used with inexperienced students as a device to aid in register change, it should be done with an awareness that eventually that method of playing should be altered. Normally, the "a - "i" change would not be used. 80

2. In order to develop a consistent tone quality in all registers, emphasis should be placed on changing registers by use of the embouchure and breath support alone. By minimizing the use of the tongue for register change, it can be freed for other action. 3. A tone quality which is consistent in all registers should be the controlling factor in deter- mining basic tongue position. Initially the student will be encouraged to develop one tone quality which this writer believes is most suitable for all occasions. 4. After advanced students have learned to play in all registers with one basic tongue position and tone quality, they can be taught to produce different qualities of tone by changing the tongue position (18, pp. 253-254).

Even though Hall (18) proved that there is basically no vowel change in different register ,many brass teachers advocate the use of vowels for a help in slurring. Autrey

(I) gives the following tongue positions for the "ah" and "e" technique :

LARGE OPENING

TOGEDOWN f. ;

Fig. 19--Tongue in "ah" position (2, p. 6) 81

SMALL OPENING

TIPOF TONGU

Fig. 20--Tongue in "e" position (2, p. 6)

Parkas states this vowel change procedure in the following manner: "By the subtle use of vowel formations in the oral cavity, aid upward slurs with 'oh--ee& and down- ward slurs with 'ee--oh' " (16, p. 52).

Teachers probably use the change in vowel system so that they will have an explanation for the student. Out of twelve questionnaires received for this thesis from tuba teachers, six used the change of vowel sound system and five used the same vowel sound or no syllable at all. One did not answer the question.

Even if the student thinks of the vowels he should also be conscious of the changes in embouchure and constantly support the tone with breath. Farkas gives three additional rules for slurring:

1. Keep the lips buzzing between the slurred notes. 2. Carefully time the up or down glissando buzz so that the slurs are smooth. . 82

Sport the continuous buzz with a steady ir-column, one which does not sag or weaken between the slurred notes (16, p. 52).

The main objective in slurring is to listen to the tone quality and make it match from register to register. The sound of the tone should be the controlling factor in the use of vowels. If the tone qualities do not match in a slur, the tongue is probably doing too much of the york and more support should be given from the breath and embou- chure. If the tone qualities do match from register to register or when slurring from low to high or high to low, the use of vowels may be satisfactory.

The second and the most important function of the tongue is articulation. Although a tone may be started by wind pressure alone or a sort of "ha," Farkas says:

"It is important for us to remember that the fundamental reason we apply the attack is to start the lips vibrating at the exact moment they should " (16, p. 45). In other words, ". . . articulation is. . . the manipulation of the tongue in the production of tone" (31, P. 10).

The tongue works in more of an up and down manner than a back and forth direction. Tetzlaff (35) compares the up and down motion of the tongue to one finger going up and down, and the back and forth motion to the whole arm moving the finger back and forth. From this illustration, it appears that the up and down motion is faster and more efficient. 83

The tongue is often compared to a valve in the mouth which seals off the air and lets it through at precisely the correct moment. One of the first to describe it in this way was Arban in 1850. He stated that the tongue did not strike and that the purpose of the tongue was to act as a valve in order to resist the onrushing column of air. In order to attain this effect he said that the tongue should be placed against the teeth of the upper jaw (9, p. 3). There is a great variety of thought as to where the tongue should contact the upper jaw. Most of the time the contact takes place behind the teeth, but on high notes it may contact the gum-line above the upper teeth or on low notes it may contact down as far as the edge of the upper

lip. At no time should the tongue go between the lips during a correct, musical attack (10).

Most teachers like to think of the tonguing process as being built out of the long tone process (35, p. 30). In other words, articulated notes are thought of as one long air column cut into parts by the tongue. Farkas describes it with the following illustration:

A long sausage lies horizontal on a cutting In board. order to cut it into slices, one must move the knife up and down vertically. This is exactly function the of the tongue on the air-column. Its tip must move up and down in order to cut the long horizontal air-stream into segments (16, p. 46).

The various shades of articulation from legato to marcato depend on the amount of tongue which contacts the 84 upper jaw and the speed of the wit

One approach to the teaching of tonguing is the "natural approach. " Kuehn says: "Unless a student has trouble tonguing, the place where his tongue goes automatically is the best location for him." Sometimes the student will get more confused about tonguing if he reads what the method books say than if he just lets his tongue go where it normally will. Here are explanations from two of the best tuba method books:

The correct position is for the tip of the tongue to rest easily and naturally against the upper inside edge of the lower lip. While holding the tip in this position, the tonue is slightly rounded and raised until the upper surface of the tongue comes in contact with the lower inside edge of the upper lip (14, p. xii).

Articulation is another subject I would like to discuss briefly. Since the proper placing of the tongue can become confusing to the tubaist, especially in his low register, my suggestion is to keep the tongue behind the teeth at all times by placing the tip of the tongue behind the lower teeth (3, p. 1).

Both explanations are rather confusing. Eby (I4) gives the wrong position for the tongue and Bell (3) somehow gets the lower teeth mixed into articulation.

lost teachers tell beginning students to use a "t" sound to start the tone. Later some teachers change the 85

consonant to "d" especially if the attacks are too explosive.

Conner explains the reason for using the "d " instead of the

"t" in articulation.

First of all we find that voice teachers call the letter "tt " a breath consonant and the letter "d " a voiced consonant. Pronounce the letter "t" slowly and you will hear air before you hear the voice. Pronounce the letter "d" and you will hear the voice immediately. Two other things happen that are worth noting. First, we find that the throat is more relaxed; and secondly, we find that the diaphragm tends to pull up and in more intensely when pronouncing the "d" than it does with the "t. " The "t" attack, in contrast to the "'d" attack, has a tendency to give an explosive beginning to notes. For a number of years I have been favoring the "d" tongue more and more for practically all purposes on the tuba. It gets faster, surer responses, especially in the lower register. It eliminates the "cracking sound" tuba players often get while playing marches fortissimo. Above all, it greatly enhances the tone quality. If you want a big organ-like tone attacked fortissimo on a half or whole note, then use the "d" attack. The beginning of the tone will sound more like the middle and end of it, and the breath follows thru more surely and solidly (10, p. 56).

Some teachers advocate the use of syllables when tonguing in different ranges. Buswell says to use "tu" or "ta" in the middle register, "tee " in the high register, and "toe" in the lower register. Brhel says to use "tu" in the middle,

"ti" in the high, and "too" in the lower. 0onner, even though he advocates the use of syllables, explains: "To set vowel can be given for individual notes. Each person possesses a mouth and tongue of different size and shape; therefore, his resonating chamber is different in size than another's would be while pronouncing the same vowel" (10, p. 57). 86

Farkas gives the four following aids to help the student develop good attacks:

1. Focus the lip "buzz" accurately on the desired pitch, 2. move only the tip of the tongue, and only in an up-and-down direction, 3. make the stroke of the tongue as short as possible, and 4. do not create a tight hermetic seal, but let the tongue t ouch lightly--almost to the point of letting air escape between notes (16, . 49).

Parkas explains number one with the following:

If the lips are not held so that they will vibrate exactly in sympathy with the pitch of the instrument of that moment, no amount of careful tonguing will produce clear attacks. . . . he tongue simply determines the starting moment of the vibration, whose pitch the lips must have already predetermined. . . Qbviousy, it is important to develop this ability to focus the lips before each note particularly before the first note of a group (16, p. 4). To correct this situation Farkas (16, p. 45-46) advocates playing slow scales for ten minutes a day, starting each note with a slow, gentle push of air using the articulation

"ha. " alsoCe advocates the use of mouthpiece buzzing .

Farkas states: "If you c can't play it on the mouthpiece, you can't play it on the instrument" (1o, p. 46).

Another problem that the tuba player has is playing behind the beat. The tuba player sometimes does not realize this because he feels that he is right on the beat.

Butterfield explains:

There is an odd natural deficiency in human hearing in that the ear does not absorb low frequency sounds with the same clarity it hears mid-register and high frequency sounds. The natural, mechanical and math- ematical reasons for this are quite involved. . . . 87

Performers on musical instruments that sound in the bass clef usually find it out from instinct and experience. One of the many blessings of the development of high fidelity sound equipment is that it has helped to develop a keener awareness of sound by the need of better compensating controls. hat does all this mean to the performer? It can be demonstrated electronically that the player may be playing his part metronomically "right on the head " but to the listener it will almost sound late. . . . The player should try to keep almost on top of the beat; almost to the point of rushing. Should he fall behind in articulation even the slightest bit, upon him will fall the responsibility of causing the entire ensemble to sound "muddy". . . (8, p. 36).

One type of tonguing that often bothers the tuba player is staccato tonguing. The reason is that both the attack and release have to be precise4 when a staccato note is stopped, it should be stopped, not with the tongue, but by stopping the air column. Farkas (16) calls this stopping the air column with the glottis. He continues:

Instead of enunciating "tu4," which stops a note dead, or "too" which might allow it to ring too long, try the enunciation "tuh. " This achieves a very short note, but does not permit the tongue to go back up into its preparatory position, where it would forcibly stop the air flow. The "uh" of the "tuh" articulation successfully stops the air-column short, but allows a little tail-end wisp of air to follow through the lip aperture. This creates that tiny diminuendo so necessary for a live, ringing quality in even the shortest staccato (16, p. 48).

After a good solid, dependable attack is developed, the

tuba player should be taught different mutiple articulations such as double and triple torguing. These should be used

sparingly by the tuba player and only when the notes are

too fast to single tongue because the cleanness and clearness of

single tonguing is far superior to the double and triple 88 tonguing. Nevertheless, double and triple tonguing should be developed.

The principle of both double and triple tonguing as explaI ed by Farkas,

. . . is based on the premise that resetting the tip of the tongue takes time--too much time for passages--and this resultant wait should be filled in by some other means of articulation. This "other means" in both double-and triple-tonguing is the quite forcible pronunciation of the syllable "kih". (16, p. 49).

The "k" sound is produced by touching the middle of the tongue to the roof of the mouth. The problem for the tubaist is achieving a "k"sound that is forward enough in the mouth to be usable. The "k" sound must be as close to the "t" sound as possible to achieve rapid double or triple tonguing.

Those teachers who advocate syllables use tu-ku (tu-tu-

u, tu-ku-tu), or to-k (ta-to-ka, ta-ka-ta). For a lighter double and triple tongue effect, Conner says to use du-gu (du-du-gu). Many brass teachers and trumpet teachers say to use ti-ki (ti-ti-ki, ti-ki-ti) as in the word "kitty" or

"kCd" (; 16; 17). This does not work on the tuba except perhaps in the extremely high range because it restricts the sound in the lower and medium registers. east, vho advocates the use of different syllables in different ranges, gives the following table of llables: low register ta-ka ta-ka-ta ta-ta-ka m i.ddle register tu-ku tu-ku-tu tu-tu-ku high register ti-ki ti-ki-ti ti-ti-ki (36, p. 25) However, none of the tuba authorities, who were con- tacted by questionnaire, stated that they used different syllables in different ranges for triple and double tonguing.

To summarize, the tongue serves two basic functions:

(1) adjusting the size of the aural cavity, and (2) artic- ulation. Some teachers advocate different syllables to teach the proper movement of the tongue in the various ranges.

However, Hall (1), in his study, found that trumpet players did not move the tongue to the extent of changing the vowel sound although the tongue did move when changing registers.

The controlling factor when changing registers or slurring is the tone quality. The tone quality should match through- out the range.

In articulation the tongue moves in an up and down motion rather than a back and forth motion. The various shades of articulation from legato to marcato depend. on the amount of tongue which contacts the upper jaw and the speed of withdrawal from the contact point. The letter "t" is used to teach articulation but some teachers recommend "'d" to soften the attack. Double and triple tonguing should be taugh to the tuba player,,but a good,clean,single tongue attack is most important. 90

Technique of Vibrato

Vibrato on the tuba is a very questionable technique.

Brhel writes the following about the vibrato:

I do not advocate the vibrato because the tuba does not lend itself well to that kind of sound. The tone of the tuba should always sound "noble," not pompous, organ-like, bombastic or any other way. Can you imagine playing Wagner with a vibrato? The Ride of the Walkure, the delicate shading of some passages in "Tristan und Isolde ," or the Flying Dutchman to say nothing of Tannhauser. Or other examples: The ew World Symphony; the D minor Symphony--Franck; lieutenant ije ; Pictures at an Exhibition; Fantastic Sypeony. Would it not sound ridiculous to play the part of the dancing bear in "Petrouchke" with a vibrato? The only tine that a vibrato is permissible is when burlesquing a piece of music or when making a joke. Besides a vibrato comes of itself without artificial ways of ,roducin it.

There are others who do not teach vibrato because they say that '. . . a good sound has a natural vibrato; work on sound, vibrato will appear with purity of sound. " Kuehn says: ". . . I speak very little about vibrato; a natural one works best for each student. I simply make sure that it is not too fast. M4cAllister says: "I teach students that intonation must stand independent of crutches, otherwise let them develop their own method naturally."

Out of the thirteen authorities contacted, six stated that they teach vibrato. Four of the six teach the jaw or lip vibrato. The lip vibrato is taught by using the syllables tu-wu-wu-wu or tah-wah-wah. Bobo teaches it as an up and

u down movement of the jaw. B swell says to start at a slow tempo and :radually increa se the tempo. with 3, 4, 5, 6,7 91

to the beat. For the peed of the vibrato Johnson states

four sixteenth notes per beat when a quarter note equals

72-84, while uswell says four sixteenth notes per beat when

a quarter note equals 60-80. Hobo states: "Vibrato speed

should be variable as well as wideness of vibrato. Speed and

ideness should change from piece to piece and even within

one phrase of a piece."

Connor and Tolbert both teach the diaphragm vibrato.

Tolbert says: "I have students sing a pitch and vary

pitch ihthe diaphragm.. hen they should practice the sane effect while playing." Tolbert adds that the speed

should be about four notes per second, while Conner says to ". . . begin pulsations slowly and work up to six per

second." in.all, Tolbert states: ". . . I think vibrato

on the tuba should be used with utmost caution, vhen in doubt about the musical effect, I don't use vibrato."

Selected Tubas and Tuba 'outhpieces

All three valve tubas have basically the same intonation problems. Some manufacturers have made attempts to correct these faults but no perfect Solution has been developed, The Besson Company has invented the compensating echanism and the Reynolds Company installed triggers on the first valves of their instruments. However, these are not the recommended tubas by most authorities for various reasons. Their recom- mendations seem to favor the four and five rotary valve tubas. 92

Some of the best tubas are made in Europe and imported to the United States. The Iirafone Corporation, which was

established in Germany in 1898, makes its . tubas with four rotary valves although a fifth valve can be added for an additional $165.00. The tubas are pitched in BBb, W', b and F. (See Appendix H.) Some of the leading tubaists who play the Yiraphone Tuba are William. Kearney, Buffalo (N. Y.) Philharmonic; Roger Bobo, Corcertgebouworkest,

Amsterdam, Netherlands; and William Rose, Houston (Tex.)

Symphony. The Eastman School of musicc Symphony Band owns six Ca Nirafone Tubas and one T? irafone Tuba.

The Alexander Tuba is also made in Germany and is distributed by the Custom Craft Music Company. It is favored by many symphony tuba players. Virgil Ester, Oklahoma City Symphony Orchestra, owns a six-valve BBb

Alexander Tuba which was built to his own specifications.

Another European tuba, the W. Meinl-eston, is made in e st-Germany and is distributed exclusively by Oskar

Paul lasperski in Cincinnati, Ohio. (See Appendix H.) Rex Conner highly recommends this tuba in his questionnaire by writing:

The einl-Peston tuba, recently introduced to me, is really a great horn. It is of the iirafone, Alexander type but, I believe, better. Intonation is fine and all draw slides and valve assembly are of solid nickel-silver for long wear. Compression in the valves is amazing. 93

erican made tubas which are recommended by the authorities, especially for concert band work, are the Conn,

King, and some of the older models made by the York Company.

According to the authorities the most suitable mouth- pieces for students are the Bach 18, Bach 22, Conn 2, and the King 26. Others mouthpieces mentioned on the question- naires were the Bach 7, Bach 24A, Conn Helleberg, and

Shilke 67. (See Appendix I for a complete listing of mouthpieces.)

Since there is less variety in tuba mouthpieces than an; other brass instrument mouthpieces, some tubaists prefer specially made mouthpieces. Johnson uses a mouthpiece which was specially built by the Schilke Co., Chicago;

Ester uses a modified Conn 2.

To summarize, the authorities recommended the use of Mirafone, Alexander, and eirl-Weston tubas and recommended the Bach 18, Bach 22, Conn 2 and King 26 mouthpieces.

Selected Instructional Materials

Solos

The following is a list of selected tuba solos which was compiled from solos which appeared on at least three out of the following eight lists:

(1) Beversdorf, Thomas, "'A Course of tudy for the Tuba."

(2) Brown, Leon F., "The Tuba and Its aterial,"South- xesterr usician--Texas musc educator, XII (April, 1955), 18. 94

(3) orner, Rex A, Tuba Literature.l"

(4) ihavlicek, Bron, "eiectd Solos" (from thesis).

(5) Kuehn, David, "A Selecteo Li s of Tuba Literature, "

Instrumentalist, XI (December, 1962), 48-49.

(6) Prescribed L.is, ustin, The University of Texas,

1963.

(7) 2elecive LYus'c Lists, NIMAC, 1957.

(8) Selective Tusi f is o 1iC, 1961.

Note: o Appendix J for kyt publishers and mu si -n companies.

tsy 'olos

Be1, >., Gavotte, "F Jig Elephantine, CF

-onheur-Walters, The L acer, Ru

Huber-Price, The e from oncertino M. IY xF

Isaac, ., The 'roj_; Dutcilman, CF martin, G,

CF Mattei-Walters, phe Mriner, chlenu.ller-Price, Crae bQ, CF

lrwyer, CF

Medium Difficult Solos

Bach-Bell, Air and Bourree, CF

Bennett, 9. , Voice of the Vik CF Buchtel, F., I Lenseroso e L'AIlegro,

Cohen, 0.0,1 Romance and Scherzo, Bel 95

Del Negro, Polka Craziosa, GFB

esornd, H., The SeGa Gi2J, Bel

7rangkiser, O. , Caven Ijpswrssion, Bel

Geib-Forst, Cavtina, op. 6,

Vocttre, op. 7, Iil Handel-Harvey Honor and Arms from "Samson,"

-Ostrander, Arm, Arm Ye Brave,

Harris, J., Tpeta, CF t Holre, G. 'E Emmet s iLullaby, Ru

Ke nar , k.[, Fre lude , CB

Painpare- oxmen, Concert 5iece, R u

Purcell-Ostrander, Arise Ye Subterranean IWinds, El

Sowerby, L., Chaconne, CF Tcherepnin, A., Andante,

ialters, Concertante, Ru

Difficult folos

Beethoven-Bell, Variations on a Theme of CF "Judas~ Iac c ?s,r Bernstein, L., Waltz for Mipy III, GS Beversdorf, T., >onata, IF

Castellucc i, Intermezzo Capriccioso, Mil Goltermann-Bell, Excerpts from "Concerto 4

Hindemith, P., Sonata, c h, (AMP)

Holmes, G. E., Carnival of Venice, u

Kroesc, F., Down In The Deep Cellar CF

Sc~ay , G. F., Suite for Bass Clef Instruments ~~~~U P~~, Q FT) 96 uellr, 1'., gorcert 7usic, UMvP, (SF)

-ossini-Aum, F00Una ,5 rI . Gol. .. i t , BH

Sthrcer-$pencer, Fantasy ie, CB

'F Scbumann-Bell, The lay Farmsr G-os to ,

Tro je-ile. , . , onatina l sica Bel

Vaughan , R., Qoroertpiece To, 1., IP Vaughan -Ilins, oErto, Ox

iiams, E..,, 0orceto 4 _2, Cohn

solo, &'de d ethod Books

The follwing is list of selected solo, etude and

method books rhich was compiled from books appearing on at

least two of the following five lists:

(1) Beversdorf, T., "A Course of Study for the Tuba."

(2) Brown, Leon P., "The Tuba and Its Material."

(3) Cnner, Rex, "Tu> Literature."

(4) Hnlick, Byron, "Selected Tuba studies. "

(5) Jarire, Earl, "Select List of Tuba Literature."

Note: See Appendix J and K for publishers and music companies*

BeAinning Books

Beeler, 1., Method for Tuba, KPH

BelI, , Fourd'ation to Tuba Plan, CF

Geib, i. , Method for Tuba, ('F

Hindsley, M. ,1 Basic Lethod for iousarhone, f F Hovey, K. L., ;ElementQry method for Bass, Ru Kuhn-"imera, e thod for Tuba, Bel 97

Intermediate Books

Arban- rescott, rirst and Second Years, CF

Bell, ., oundation to t uba Playing,

imera, J., 73 Advanced Studies, Bel

Eby, V.* Scientific Method for Tuba, B3 Supplementaytuies, Ru

Getchell-Hovey, Practical Studies, Bel

Larngey, Carl Fischer Tutor for Tub, CF

3kornika-Boltz, Intermed iate ethod for Bass, Ru

andercook, H. E., Etudes for Tuba, .u

whistler, H. S.,y Modern Pares, Ru

Advanced Books

Bell, W., Tuba Tarm Ups and Daily Routine Tolin Bernard, P., Quarmte Etudes, Al Ciinea, T,7 73 Advanced Studies, Bel

;Eby, ., ;ciertific Method for Tub, B3

oter-xman Advanced ethod for Bass,Ru

Langey Carl Fischer Tutor for Tuba, CF lama, A. , 66 Etudes in All Tair and Minor Kedys, O Trrell, H. W., Advanced Studies, BH CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Autrey, Byron L., a'sic Gide to rumpet Pi n, ?hioa;o, 1. :. Cle C o., J~1963.

2. Bell, William, DiU Routine for the Tuba, Vol. I, Te York, Charles Colin, 19

3. , Dai "Routinefor to iuba, Vol. II, New York Charles cii, 195

4. , "n :laying the Tuba," y ony, III Anuar 7 u1950), 7.

5. Belam4,hJ. L., Brays Fao ,an Antonio, Southern Wasi Co., 1960.t

6. Best . H. and N. S. tiaror, The J aio7icI Basis of rotaia]Practice, 7th edh., Ulti.ore, illiam s and 71I kTT Jf

7. Burkart, 2icard, "'evelopin Dotble and Triple Tonguing Te chnique, " Southwe t ern Musician--T exas us ic Educate,

8. Butterfield, eon, 'T luheTua and Jazz," Metronome, XXII (May, 195"), 35-36.

9. Colin, Charles, ital ras Notes, Kenosha, G. Leblanc Corp., 1955.

1t o nn, oRex . "he Tongue and the wb," Instrumentalist, XII (My, 1958), 55-57. 11. Costello, William, Ebouchure chnTue, New York,

illiam Costello, -93s.

12. Cramer, Willi f. , "Enbouchure Control and Development," nstrunntlis>t, XII (April, 1958), 46-

13. Dodds, George R., Ce Control of the Breath, London, Oxford University Press, 1925.

14. Eb, Walter s.., Scientific Miethod for BEB_-Flat Bass, Souaphonje, E-lat Tuba, and CC Bass, TewfYork, 7 alter acobs, IncT. 93

98 99

- riisene, , J "Diaphrag p.ti Breathing,3" Glarhiet4., XIII (Sumer, 156), 21-24.

16. Farkas, Phillip, The Art of Bras Playing, Bloointon, Indian,$ rs >ubicatios,9

1'. Qro&;.k, 1ob.rt . a, "Teachngr of Double mi andTriple ?onguiz," fInstrum ent.ist, VIII (Bpril, 1954), 28-29.

18r 1, o>y C., "xw1 {21,_:cvh- . h o y raic , .gpe c trograpaic , and hri tudy h -Libt IoghePhysical Ohanges htich tccur in the Trasitioi roi id Kto Low and MicV1l to Hi4 >reitters IDurhiIt Trmt Perfornance," unpublishe dissertatin.o, Indiana University, 1954.

19. I rrie, John, "You Too anBreathe," published paper, ort Texas State University, Denton, Texas.

20. Hitsey, 1rk H., The usi> Educato t r' Basio Kethd for -the v-Kt Tuba afthe B-FIat Tuba, rew Yo: 7 l~FasVhr, InET.~7 193$

21. 1Jc'7oby, Don , GoodBr ath Cotrot....The Iaturl WeQX KenOS ItOiscOin (. Leb.an 0Qorp., 19r4.

22. Jrdri, il D., "A tudy 0 th bistOry, Te2hniqu,

anid .iterCC4u.r e rof the Tupt" npubl i+;hed ma t er'!s

thesis, Depiartm{Jentaof 4usi ,.pprigham e ungTUniversity, 1951.

25. ellogg, Irvim, c rath. _., thew York, G . chirmerI., Ix3K91.

24. * r, D. ., . E .! ', .. . tkpol, L. C. e.veil, Textbook of Anatomy an .hsi7o oyw CnYork, ;a. il

25. ,. Loo,)' Clinton, "Teo Lowon or the Bass ction, "h ihoolmusician, XII (ay, I941), 41-42.

26. e gell, 6lmr P., "ounr ihat 'Tah','" Instru.Yelit, X I (February, 2162),158-61.

25. :e:d.z, aiaeI, Prelude to Brass Plyin', Pew York 2arl Qic er, rn. gmcir

28. Neilson, jm'c, "How uo oC toe Lost of Practicc Time, " Itrumentrlist, V( nte r, 1950), 20. 100

oils, ye ., T Psychljo _ rne drp ., Missola7 tortaa, sountair P s, > 64. 3C. Prescott, cr a ., and rce 7. ,

Getin6 wsl>s wIth ____ :ans .New ionk, &arl T s -nr, .nrC.

31. cayLona, . P., Th iTr e a' Its PLayers, 0inCi nnti, >illore 2ro. o.c137

32. . hoults," .R. , indInstrum ent 1Playing:. The Art of Br e thiL, " usIc Journal, XX (Noveber-jecemrber, 1962),

rr Ti' eciu', r33 , Kouthwstrn Brass Jomural, I(Spring, 1952), 11-14.

34. Te f , In, "Ten Mirutoc TO<&d Breath Developmert,1" 1 9 6 3 Inrntio&1 1usician:, LXII (October, ), 27.

. p s on eveloping.=Ythe-Rapid dingle Twngue Stroke," Intrtiornl Musicisn, LIX (Jarnuary, 1961), 30.

3. weatt, obert, Brass KYr.orrma"e, Nw fork, it M 4innS 3-1ar ,1961

t i AC- *7 "A S robosCpi nlyIjs of Tjp iunotiorn," utrumrtalist, u II (June, ,4-.

8. ;ij1is, 4redik " oanic s of Breathing, " Corm Chord, VI (May, 1963), 10-15.

a9. i B," oind orKd, II (aC, 195n), 12.

40. , The Brass IntrWments Boston, Allyn, 3con Incv., 19 0 T7. CHAPTER IV

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary and Conclusions

The most important ancestors of the tuba were the serpent, the Russian bassoon, the English bass-horn and the ophicleide. The serpent was developed as the bass member of the cornett family in 1590 by Edme Guillaume. Even though the tube was eight feet long, the three U-shaped curves reduced the size to about three feet. The serpentine shape was changed to the bassoon shape in the 1780's by J. J. Regibo on an instrument named the Russian bassoon. Less than twenty years after Regibo's invention, Frichot developed a similar instrument called the English bass-horn. The invention of these instruments was followed by the ophicleide. The credit for this invention was given to a Paris maker Halary in 1817. However, the valve was invented about 1815. This invention paved the way for the first tuba in 1835. It was invented by Wilhelm Wieprecht with the help of the instrument maker Moritz. In 1845 Adolphe Sax, the French instrument maker developed the saxhorn which looked more like the modern twentieth century tuba.

Many improvements have been made on the tuba since 1835 but it is still neither a standardized nor a perfected instrument.

101 102

These imperfections greatly influence the teaching techniques of the tuba.

Because of the size of the tuba , desirable physical

qualities are physical stamina, coordination and quickness or reaction. Less important qualities are symetrical

facial features, large physical size and slightly thick lips.

Desirable mental characteristics are aural perception, musicality and intelligence quotient. However, unacceptable characteristics can be overcome by the pupil's desire and

attitude.

Also because of the size of the instrument, large amounts of air are required for a full, big tone. For that reason breath control is very important. The breathing process is divided into two parts: inhalation and exhalation.

During inhalation the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles control the amount of air which enters the lungs through the mouth and nose. During exhalation, when the air is expelled through the mouth or nose, it is controlled by the abdominal and internal intercostal muscles. A certain amount of control also cones from the diaphragm during exhalation, not so much by pushing the air out but by keeping the air in and by not letting it rush out immediately after inhalation.

During inhalation the student should feel an expansion both of the abdominal region and in the rib area. The shoulders and chest should remain relaxed and stationary. 103

During exhalation the abdominal muscles are pushed inward

and upward. Although

Great volumes of air are of no advantage as far as tone is concerned if the embouchure muscles do not function properly. The embouchure of the tuba player, which is called a "puckered smile " by Farkas, should be formed by muscles of the lips, cheeks and chin in balanced opposition to each other. The illustrations of this are saying the word "em" or trying to blow a stream of water out of the mouth.

The lip aperture formed by the embouchure controls the size and direction of the air column. The lower jaw is the controlling factor in the size and shape of the lip aperture.

Farkas says that the lower jaw should be thrust forward so that the air column is directed straight into the mouthpiece.

However, miny teachers advocate a system in which the air is pivoted in order to play higher or lower tones.

Tne most important factor in mouthpiece placement is that it be centered between the corners of the mouth. The up and down movement is restricted oy the nose and varies according to the physical qualities of the individual.

A great majority of the teachers advocate the playing of long tones for development of the embouchure and breath control. ost authorities agree that they should be played during the warm up session. 104

The tongue is used to control the shape the oral cavity during changes in register. Although some teachers

say htat this is a change in vowel sounds, Hall proved that the tongue does not move enough to effect a change in vowel

sounds during changes in register or while slurring.

The most important use of the tongue is in starting a

tone. The tongue moves in an up and down motion and acts as a valve to control the flow of air. The various shades

of articulation from legato to marcato depend on the amount of tongue which contacts the upper jaw and the speed of the withdrawal from the contact point. The letter "t" is used to teach articulation but some teachers recommend "d" to

soften the attack. Double and triple tonguing should be taught but a good, clean, single tongue attack is most important.

One additional technique that some authorities teach is vibrato. It is a very questionable technique and should be used sparingly and only in solo work.

Many good tubas are manufactured both in the United

States and in Europe, but the authorities contacted for this study recommended the Mirafone, Alexander and Meinl-eston tubas. The recommended mouthpieces are Bach 18, Bach 22,

Conn 2, and King 26.

The tuba instructional materials have increased in quality during the past ten years but still fall short of other instruments. .any fine French solos are written for 105 the trench F tuba but are not too well suited for the BBb

American tubas.

In conclusion, the techniques of tuba instruction are

similar to those of other brass instruments. Nevertheless,

the tuba does have its own specific problems. These problems can only be understood by- a person who is a performer on the

tuba.

Recommendations

Based on this analysis of the tuba, its history, its teaching techniques and instructional materials, the following

recommendations are submitted:

Recommendations for Teachers

1. The tuba player should be carefully selected.

2. The tuba player should be instructed by a specialist who understands the specific problems of the tuba.

3. The tuba player should be required to reach a higher level of proficiency than that required in ordinary band

parts.

Recommendations for Publishers, Composers, and rranes

1. There is a need for a published authoritative source book specifically concerning the tuba.

2. There is a need for a thorough, well written, explan-

atory section in method books for tuba. 106

. hee 'is a need for more difficult instructional material for the tuba.

4. There is a need for carefully adapted transcriptions for the tuba; the piano parts need to be rewritten to accompany the tuba.

Recommendations foResearchers

I. Further research needs to be made on the instruments which preceded the tuba, especially the contrabass instruments.

2. Further research needs to be made in the development o the tuba in different countries.

3 Further research needs to be ade in the early pedagogical ideas andinructional maueriJs of the ttba. 4 Further scietifi research needs to be made on the tuba and .tuba mouthpieces. APPEITDIE

107 APPENDIX A

TUBY AUTHrIl

The questIonnaire in Appendix B was sent to the following

tuba authorities:

Bell, Ciln, pJUniversity of Indiana, Bloomington, Indiana

*Beversdorf, Thomas, University of Indiana, Bloomington, Ind.

Bishop, Ron, San Francisco Symphony, San Francisco, Calif.

*Bobo, Roer, Concertgebouworkest, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Bragunier, DavidL., National Symphony Orch., Washington D. C. *Brhel, Rudolph, Cleveland Institute of Wsic, Cleveland, Ohio

*Buswell, Albert, Oklahoma University, Norman, Oklahoma

*Conner, Iex A., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky

Emode, Jmes, it. Louis $sp1hony, 5t. Loutis, Missouri *Ester, Virgil, Oklahoma City Symphony, Oklahoma City, Okla.

Green, 'Samuel, Cincinnati Conservatory, Cincinnati, Ohio

Harstine, Emmet L., Public Schools, Canton, Ohio *Holloay, Sugene, San Diego Symphony, San Diego, Calif.

Jacob, Arnold, Chicago Symphony Orchestra, Chicago, Ill. *Johnson, Carson, Public School , Carterville, Illinois

*Kearney, William, Buffalo myiohony, Buffalo, New York *Kuehn, David. L., University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

* Denotes persons who returned the completed questionnaire.

108 109

Knaub, Donald, Zastman School of 'usic, Rochester, New York *iAIeste:-, J. E., Indianapolis 2phany, Indianapolis, Ind.

*c DOnld, Haold, Pittsburgh Symphony, Iittsburgh, Penn.

Novotny, Joseph, Juilliard School of .Mic, New ork City

Phillips, Harvey, % 0. G. Con Corp., Elkhart, Indiana

Rasmussen, Mary, Box 111, hDurham, New Hampshire

Roberts, Chester, Cleveland Symphony, Cleveland, Ohio

0ase , dillim, Houston Symphony, Houston, Texas mith, K. Vina1, Boston Symphony, Boston, Mass Torchinsky, Abe, PhiladelphiaSymphony, Philadelphia, Penn.

*Tolbert, Ross, New Orleans phony, New Orleans, Louisiana

Vanni, Vincenzo, Dallas Symphony, Dallas, Texas

Walton, Paul, Minneapolis Symphony, ineapalis, Minnesota APPENDIX B

UE IoNN, s TEC I UE OF TUBA INSThCTION

nate o: Authority

IF ADDITIONAL IA I i NEEDED ANS EW ONTE BACK. IF DITTOEDAR AA TEAI AR T AIABL, >IEASE~ $E TS:EM W>T{ TWE QUSTrNAIE

AU PRYICAL AND t4ENTAL 1 A/EI I Ak, n .wer thi s etion vi-h the idea o' a highsol or college tuba player working toward a profe; in tuba care e.

S Is I Is otat the tubaplayer?

2. Is a copartvaowPandTructurofk he face and'sl ne ?

3. Is the physcal Astuctur tof the Up important to the t$ba pIayer? at Is thick e S ciprtt ? b. Is thinne s )O Kr Comment

. Doyoilook rther chacteristies?

5. Comment on the ratv aora t tthe ucessful tuba darer c the following hrcteriti : a. Aural perception (ear

h4 D>si caliy (mat Wal s en t ivity)

e arGeneraL te g I (, )

6, Do you look for other ta characteristic?

110 SPECIFIC TECHNIQUES OF TUBA PERFORMANCE sb

I. How d you teach the rga ,i r ee (Use back of page if necessary)

2 ow o;U teach Your sud form the tuba erbowur a for the middle register?

be for the upper reg4

a* for the lower register?

3 Do you have yourda? students play oneWh

a. Why should they be played?

b. hen shou3A they be played?

4. What exercises do you give gor students for: a. warm-up?

. development of the upper register?

a. development of the lower register;

d. development of slur technique?

5. How do you teach your students totg & i the middle register?

b. in the upper register?

e. in the lower register? 6 what Stables do yo teah for 112 a. double tonguing?

b. triple tonguing?

alurring up?

slurring down?

. legato tonguingt

7. What method of vibrato do you teach?

a. How do you teach it to your students?

What speed of vibrato do you prefer? beats per inn

C. EQUIPENT: Comment on any or all of the following tubas and mouth ieces: I. Alexander 2. lesson 3. Conn 4. King 5. Mirafone 6. Olds 7. Reynolds 8. York Add other tubas recommended:

I. Bach 18 2. Bach 22 3. Bach 24AW 4. Bach 25 Add other tubas recommended:

What combination of tuba and mouthpiece do you suggest for your students? 113 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS. Crnt of any or all of the following mbho1 and etude books

0, Bell, Wiltia, DilRu< e 'e , TL I and II

2 Eby, Walter, Scientific Method for BUt3Basa

3w Geib, Fred, Geibethod orT-b

4. Rolins t dra Shol ifor Tuba on, T H. ,Roi on s e

5. Rubank Method Books or Tuba

6. Tyrrell H. V., Advanced Studies for Bb Bass

Please add other method books used.:

PLEASE INCLUDE DITTOED SOLO LISTS WITH THIS QUESTIONNAIRE IF A I LABL APPENDIX

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

June 10, 1964

Dear Sir:

The tuba has special importance to me as it has

to you.

I am seeking information from you as an authority for my aster's degree thesis which is titled Techniques

o Instution for Tuba. Your views and opinions are

earnestly solicited and you will be given credit for

thew in thethesis.

On TED QUESTION NAIE ILL YOU PLEASE lfTyTHE M

tS QKJL &0OILE OR BY JUIE 22, 1964.

When completed at the end of the summer, this thesis

will be on file at the North Texas State University Library. It will be iosble to send you a copy of it but I will

send you the results of the survey taken from you and the

other listed authorities.

Thank you,

Terry Segress

114 APP)NIX D

FOLLOW UR LETTER

July 3, 1964

Dear Sir:

Three weeks ago you were mailed a questionnaire which was titled Tihnius of Tuba Instruction. I was wondering if you had misplaced the questionnaire or if you ha not received it?

Wil you please return the enclosed card immediately?

Thank you,

Terry Segress

115 CARD h T tTp. q wU 0 ?yM L iTE

Dear r. Seress,

I did not receive the questionnaire; lease send another ore.

Ihave misolacd. the uestiomnaie; )lGse send t there one .

I will complete the questiomaire and return it within two dys.

Sincere,

1 ..J.. . L

116 APPENDIX F

July 16, 196

Dear nir:

As a graduate student at North Texas State University in the School of Muic, I am writing my thesis on Technigues of Tuba I:struction. One c2Ttr will contain information about the well-known tubas and tuba mouthpieces,

Will you Please send me available history, sweciiatons. price lists and other information about your tubas and tuba mcuthtiec

Sincerely,

T erry Segress

117 APPENDIX G

LETTER SE 0T IJPBLISING eOPIESp

June 14, 1964

Dear . ir:

A a graduate student North Texas State University, my master's degree thesis is titled Techniques of Instruction for Tu*.Please send lists and catalogues of tuba solos and method books as well as any complimentary materials which are published by your company.

hen completed at the end the summer, this thesis wi1l be on file at the North Texas State University Library.

Your company will be given credit for all materials used in the thesis,

Tha you,

Terry egress

118 APPENDIX H

SUBAS: SPEIFlATIONS AND PRIEJ

Model 9ey No. of Bell: Bore Price Valves- Upright (L) atar (R) Bell Front (BF) Bell Diameter

Ale xand(

451 F 4 UP $750 F Lig. 51 5 'UP $900 461 B:Bb, CC 3 Lg. $895 B:Bb, xt 3 BF Lg. $1070 461 BBb, C UT Very Lg. $1050 461 BBb, IJC 4r BlE Very Lg. $1260 661 F-BBb 5:R ' L $1170 (.Eb-C)

Barcone

r. Size BB 3 BF Small $500

ss or 3 BF (Not Given) $720 210 $720 211 3 212 71 $900 21 3 Comp. UP $900 4 UPBP $1000 214 Comp. $1000 215 E~b 4 Comp.Comp.*F U 220 3 BEp $795 221 B:Bb 3 $795 222 3 Comt . BFE $925 223 B:Bb 3 $925 . ULw $1025 224 Bb 3 Camp 4 Corr * BE $1050 225 BBb 226 4 tComp. ULw $1050 227 :BBb 4 aom. ULw $1150 ULw 585 Ehb 3 $430

* Comp. - Automatic 'ampensating h ecbaism 119 120

Model Key To. of' Bell: Bore Price Jalves-- Upright (UP) Rotary ) Bell Front (SF) Bell Diameter

Besson (continued)

588 Sb 3 590 h430 Bb 3 UP $490

Con

10Ji Eb (Not 'Given) 55 1 J 3 $44 20J BBb BF 5 21J BBb 3 $895 $895 24J Eb 4 BP 25J BBb 4 UP 1000 UP uesnon

X2165 Ebb 3 .570 X425 X2166 Eb 3 BF X2168 . 570 450 BBb 3 SFUP X2169 BBb .650 $485 3 .650 $525 UP Epre

507 3 509 BBb (Not Given) $450 3 X550

1240 BBb 3 UP or BF 22"' *687 1241 BBb 4 X995 UP or BF 22" .687 $1095

La Monte

1909 BBb 3 (Not Given) 312 1909 B' 3 2jX280 121

o del Key No. of Bell: Bore Price Valves-- Upright (UP) Rotary (R) Bell Front (BF) Bell Diameter

Linz 102 F, -Bb 3R 15 3/4" . 748 K., 575 102 Bb UP 16 1/2" C, 3R *787 $650 102 Bb 3R UP 17" . 836 1695 103 Bb 15 3/4" .748 x625 103 4R UP 16 1/2" .787 X695 103 Bb 17" .836 Btj UP X745 91 F, Eb 3R UP 14 1/2" .669 X550 91 F, 3R UP 15" .708 $625 92 F, 4R UP 14 1/2" .669 $600 92 ab UP 15" .708 X675

TB20 BBb 3 or 4 UP or BF (Not Given) k950

einl- eston

BBb 4R UP 17 1/2" Large $950

Mirafone

190-4U BBb, 0C 4R UP 20"1 .835 $1100 186-4U EBb, 00 4R UP 16 1/2" *778 $900 186-4 BBb, CC UP or BE 20" .778 $950 185-4U EBb, r0 4R UP 16 1/2" *740 $900 184-4U BBb, CC 4R UP 16 1/2" .705 $900 l83-4U Eb 4R UP 15" .712 $645 183-4R EbF 4?4R UP or BF 20" .712 X675 180-4U F UP I" .681 $675

Olds

0-98 EBb 3 or4 UPor BF (Not Given)(Not Given) 0-99 BBb 3 UP 16" 560 122

Model Key To. of Bell: Bore Price Valve s-- Upright (UP) Rotary () Bell Frnt (BF) Bell Diameter

Orsi

1438 Eb 3 UP (c ot Given) 265 1439 BBb 3 UP 310

TBll BBb 3 BF .TB (Not Given) X875 I3 BBb 3 UP 1875 TB15 3 BF $805 TBI 7 Et 3 UP $805

Sansone

507 Eb 3 UP (Not Given) 4500 509 BBb 3 UP 600 510 BBb 4R UP $900

U. ;. Bandmaster

710 3 UP (Tot Given) $270

York

52 4b: 3 UP 15" . 532 $545 54 BBb 3 UP 15" .630 $545 56 'Bb UP 18" .670 $599 75 Eb 3R BF 20 1/2" .690 $875 78 3 BF 17" *532 $695 8Q BBb 3 B' 20 1/2" .715 81 $795 BBb 4 BF or UP 22" *750 .999 85 EBb B 26" 715 31250 APPEIDIX I

TUBA MOUTHPIECES

1,odel Approximate Depth of Rim Shape Price Cup Diameter Cup

Bach Du I

5/16" 'aide 7 I liediuni led. 13.00 12 IL 19/S4" He dium hed. ide 1 8 C dium ed. Wide 9/52 1fe ft I 2 2 1/4"1 mei Wide it"1 24- I ed um eide i e I 15/6411 "viade " it 24-Z, 1 IE/:4" Deep ide I "111 25 13/64" Ced. I t 30-E 3/16" lvi. ie hle d.0 32-E 13/6411 2 e. Ihalow A ide

aril

2 (Not ivex) $11.00 (Not Given) $8.50

(NTot 'ive) 12.OO 26 (Bb) (Not Given) 12.00

*Irafone

(Not ;iven) '12.00 Eb (Not Given) 10.00 F (Not Given) 10.00

Olds

Tub a (Not Giver) <15.00

123 124 tM de Approximate Depth of Price Cup Diameter up

Reynrrolds

BBb Bass 1.281"1 1.531" (Not Givn) Eb Ba: 1 .214"I (Not Given)

Schilka

62 (formerly a el A 120.00 67 (formerly Model H 320.00 APPENDIX J

TUBA SOLOS

Key to Publishers and Music c panies.

ACA American Composers Alliance, New York AL Alphonse Leduc, Paris AMP Associated Music Publishers, New York AV Avant Publishing Co., Los Angeles B3 Big Three Music Corp., New York Bar C. L. Barnhouse & Co., Oskaloosa, Iowa Bel Belwin, Inc., Long Island, N. Y. BH Boosey . Hawkes, Long Island, N. Y. BY Boston Music Co., Boston, Mass. BI Broadcast Music, Inc., New York Brog Brogneaux, Brussels, Belgium CB Cundy-Bettoney Co., Inc., Boston CF Carl Fischer, Inc., New York Colin Charles Colin Music Publishers, New York Du Durand Company, Paris EB M Edward B. Marks Music Corp., New York E Edition usicus, New York sc Max Eschig, Paris EV Elkan-Vogel, Co., Inc., Philadelphia Fill Fillmore Music House, New York FS H. T. Fitzsimons Co., Chicago GFB Geroge F. Briegel, Inc., New York G8 G. Schirmer, Inc., ew York Hof Hoffmeister, Leipzig, Germany IP Interlochen Press, Interlochen, Michigan JS Jack Spratt =usic Co., Stamford, Conn. King Robert King, North Easton, Mass. Ken Kendor lusic, Inc., Delevan, New York Leed Leeds Music Corp., New York Lud Ludwig Music Publishing Co., Cleveland 1B 1. Baron Co., Long Island, N. Y. Men Mentor Music Company, New York 'i' Mills Music Inc., New York MC M. M. Cole Publishing Co., Chicago KPH Music Publishers Holding Corp., New York NAK Neil A. Kjos Music Company, Park Ridge, Ill. OP Oliver Ditson Company, Bryn Mawr, Pa. Ox Oxford University Press, Lew York Pied Piedmont Music Company, New York

125 126

Pro Pro-Art Publications, Long Island, N. Y. Rem Remick Music Corp., New York Ri G. Ricordi Co., Inc., New York R{ Robbins Music Corp, New York Rubank, Inc., Chicago Sal Salabert, Inc., Paris Bch Schott & Co., Mainz, Germany; London SSam Fox Publishing Company, New York Sha Shawnee Press, Delaware Water Gap, Pa. StC Southern Music Co., San Antonio, Texas TP Theodore Presser Co., Bryn Mawr. Pa. UMP University Music Press, Ann Arbor, Mich. Volk Volkein Bros., Inc., Pittsburgh, Pa. 'it ,. ?itmark & Sons, New York

Note: In the following list of solos the music companies in parenthesis serve as distributors, not publishers, for the solo.

Adam, Airs from "Gir alda,T" BH Adams-Buchtel, Holy 9y, NAK Aletter-Knight, Dee ea Stories:, CF

Ameller, A., Concerto, op. 69, Eso, (King, MP)

Bach-Bell,Ai a d Bourree, CF

Bach, , rinff. 's Awakeri.ng, CF

Bach-Ostrander, Patron of the ind, M

Barat, J .. , Introduction and Dance, A, (16B, sMC)

,_Introduction and Serenade, AL, (MB, tC)

, Lorceau de onoours, AL, (Qw, EB01, st )

Reminiscences de Navarre, A L, (MBI, $C, King)

Baril ler, R. , Has_ de chnokeloch, AL, (MB, 3C

deaiUt-Jean, AL, (MB, .L;) _____L'enterrement S

Barnes, Aroso and Caprice, (B)

___ _, aJl1e Iwcr u t (B3) 127

Barnhouse-Buchtel, Barbarossa, Bar Barr.ine,e., Adante et A4e ro, Sal, (Ric)

Baseie, J., rap huhts, F

Beach, Lamento, 40

Beaucamp, A., Cortee, AL, (King, HB, 3MC)

Beethoven-Bell, Variations on E Theme of "Judas acabeus," CF

Bell, 4., "hief John, Bel

Gavotte, F

__Ji ul E,eThaine, C

ffly Jumbo, Bel

Lo Dcwn Bass, 0?

.elodius Etude, Bel

Naut ical john, IF

j jptarjn, Bel

_... Tu

Benrett, ., Basses Beserk, CF

__,_ Voicel_ of the Vikin , CF ens, ".*, irioso, Ped, (BM) Berntein, L., altz for ippy _III, Beversdorf, T., Qonata, IP

Bigot, Carillon et Bourdon ,AL, (King, MB, II0)

Bitsch, M. , Impromtu, L, (ALB, 30)

Blemrnt, L., ndante et Allegro, AL, (43)

, Vulcain, AL, (I'B)

Bo heur-alters, The Lancer, Ru

Boutry, R., Tubacchanale , AL, (King, MB, SM 0) 128

Boutry, JR., ubaro AL, (MB, tC, King)

Bozza, 7., bAlle2r et Finale, AL, (MB, 3To)

New Orleans, AL, (MB, 3T)

Prelude et Allio, AL, (MB,

Theme VaTarie, AL, (MB, >0O, King)

t Brahmstedt, Stupendo, u

Bratton-MacLean, TedBy ear's Picnic, MPH

Brieel, G. F., Basso Profundo, GFB

, the Deep Cellar, GFB

, Mulber street Tarantella, GFB Brooks-Buchte, T_he Mesa JAK

Brown, Recitatif, Lied et Final, AL, (MB, JLC) Luchtel, F., Adonis, JK

A a A? Apollo, il

At The NAK ' Ball.,

Attila, A7

Chant d'Amour, yolk Flatterer, ml

' Gladiator, NAK

# Golden Dreams, NAK

Golden Glow Naltz, 1il Harlequin, NAK Hercules, NA[

Hermes &l

a 2 Penseroso e L'Algro, Fill, (CF) 129

Buchtel, F., Introduction and Rondo, Bar

Iil Sailor, Mil

Kin Mdas, Fill, (OF)

Pied Piper, TAK

Reluctant Clown, Nil

Salamander, Bar

9ong of the Sea, NAK

Valse ozantioue, Volk

._1 ., _: 'otan., iA

Carissimi-Barnes, Heart Victorious, J$

Carles, Introduction et Toccata, AL, (MB, 'Liv)

asey-BuchteI, oneysuckle Polka, NA.

, eembrance of Liberati, NAP

Castellucci, Intermezzo Capriccioso, Mil

Casterede, Fantaisie Concertame, AL, (MB,

... _ , Sonatih.e AL, (s5o, King) Catozz-redy, Beelzebub, C

.ambers-Buchtel, The C ommodore, NAK

C arpentier, J., prelude and Iero, AL, (MB, EB, King)

Christensen, J., Ballad for Tuba, Yen Clarke-Lillya-Isaac, Trumpet Volunay (Purcell), OF Clement, IilvertonaPolka, Volk

Teri se, R., 1dJ2le, A, ('B, 3MC, rB)

.. , Pieca L

Romance , AL, (1B, :M')

VoceNo oile, AJ, (B, ) 130

Cohe, ., Romance and scherzo, Bel

Danks, Old Negro Melody, CB

edr ck, A., A Touch of Tuba, Ken Dea mter, ., Auld Lan: wye, Ru

Rocked in the Cradle of the Deep, u

__ , Tramp, Tramp, Tramp, Ru Del Negro, Polka Graziosa, GFB

Demeresseman-Wilson, vatina, op. 47, 31, (SM0) Desmond, 1V., The S ea Gong, Bel

DeVille, ., Atlas, CF

HappyBe Thy Dreams, 07 Ye Banks and Braes of Bonnie Boon, CF

Devos, Deux ouvements Contrastes, AL, (MB, King)

DeWitt, L., Pride of America, CF

Douliez, V., Andante, Bro,(, ()

introduction et Andante, Brog, (MB) Doling, R., His La estmThe Tuba, Bel

Duboi , P., Cornemuse, A L, (M:B, 9BH)

_____, Piccolo Suite, A L, (MB, MC, King)

Fayeulle,: . , Bravaccio, AL, (MB, S C, EBt, King)

Fillmore, H., De Bass, Fill, (CF)

Frngkier, C., 'avern fIpression, Bel

,_ elodie Romanza, Bel

Gabaye, Tubabill! , AL, (MB, 2MS, iBM, King) Geib, F., price in Bb Minor, Mil

,_In the F orest, C3 131 seib, F., A oous Dialoue, op. 11, Mii

iolka iuant e , M ii Geib-Forst, Cave2ina, op. 6, uil

A Heroic Tale, CF

Nocturne, op. 7, il

.erenade, Viii

Geib-Morse, Yelody, theme and Variations, CF

Lon withoutt Words, CF

Godfrey, F., Lucy Lon, BH

Goltermann-Bell, Excerpts from "Concerto No. 4," op. O5,CF

Sod.e , J. ., tuba Time, (Manuscript) J. 0. G., Wilmette, Ill.

o..kovsk, I.,t, Sal, (KRing, Rtic)

Grant, 2., oicert Duo for Tuba n Piano,4d (Manuscript), AC

Gray, LI)outu in G, CH

Grie -Holmes, I nthe Hall o the Mountain iz, Ru

Guentzel, G., La todon, Mil

Guy, E. , ,QJTr Ye - . tck 07I. L irginny, iu

Handel, Air "0 Ruddier Than the Cherr 2 ," BH

-Barnes, Sound an Alarm, JS

-Harvey, Honor and Arms from "amson,"itS

-Ostrander, Arm, Arm Ye Brave from "J. Maccabeus, i"E

Harlow-uchtel, Old Home Down on the Farm, NAK

Harris, A. 1., The Kir's Jester, Lud

. ______Little aesar, Lud

-_ _. ,Little Fiesta, Lud Harris, J., Tempesta, CF 132

Hartley, ., Sontina, IF

,uite for U companied Tuba, EV Hatton-Hume , imon tie ellarer, BH

Hayes, A., Solo Tompos, Fill, (SF)

Hinde.iyh, P. , Sonata, Leh, (AMP)

Holmes, G. E, arnival of Venice, u

Mnett's___ Lullaby,_ Ru

Poles, P., Lento, Sha

H e. -Price , Theme from Concertino o. IV, CF Hu e, Sohemian Romance, BH

In theDee p, DeepDths, BH

Soliloquy, BR telAnau, " fantasia, B

Sakatipu, SB

Jhan~aroo, BH

Hupfield-vMacLean, 'hen Yuba Ils the umbaon the Tuba, MPH Irons,?E., Cedar Vale, Fill, (OF)

SFleur de i, Fill, (OF) Isaac, M., the Jolly Dutchman, CF Jenkins, Ghanson Triste, SH

ondelay, B Jude-DeVille , The fihtyfeep, CF

Kai, N., Legende,A,(BS)

Kappey, Introduction and Alle r , TR

Kay, U., Prelude and Air, (Maanuscript)

, Serenade for Tuba and Piano, manuscriptt) 133

Keihley, Roiace inFffinor, B

e na, ., Prelude, GB

ewitsCh-roth, _Am Neck, CF

King, ctopus and the Mermaid, Bar Kleinsinger-Roach, Tlubby the Tuba, G

Knigh - legent, Rocked in the Cradle, Volk

Knight-Hume, Rocked in the Cradle of the Deep, BH

Kottaun, C., Billy Blowhard, C Kroepsch, F., Down In the Deep Cellar, F

Krotov-B lazhevich, Concert Etude, Moscow, State Music Pub., (L) Laont, The Challenge, BH

, The Invincible, :3

, The Victor, BK

Land.es, B., Elephant's Tango, M

Laurendeau, L. P., Elephantine Polka, CF

LaValle-Taruo, B;ig Joe, The Tuba, SF

Lebedev, Concert Allegro, UMP, (3F) -Ostrander, Concerto in One Movement, :E Lebed Jew, A., Konzert, Hof, (ATP)

Le lercq, E., Concertino, AL, (MB, ztC)

Tnk, T. D., :on~atine, Hof, (M ', A7P, King)

Long, L., Home, Sweet Home, Volk

Lotzenhiser, G. W., _ HoLrroi e, Bel

____, Solitude, Bel

&cKay, G. F. , ' uitae for Bass fInstruments, UMP, (SF)

cQuaide , a onian Polka, Lud 134

Marc-Garles, Introduction et Toccata, AL, (MB)

Marteau-Barnes, Morceau Vivant, JS

Martelli, H., Suite, op. 83, Esc, (AMP, King) Martin, C., Aeola, CF

Pomola, CF Mattei-Walters, The Mariner, Ru

Merle, J., Demetrius, CF

Mummers, CF

inter, CF Meyerbeer-Hume, On Heaven's Just Cause, BH

, Ratapan Chorus from "Les Hugenots," BR Miller, V., Tuba Tantrum, Pro

Monroe-Isaac, In the Garden, CF

Moquin, A., King of the _rs, Fill, (OF)

Sailingthe Mighty De e, Fill, (CF)

, Sa aphonium, Fill, (CF)

Mozart-Barnes, feruesta Bella Mano K612, JS -Smith, 0 Isis and Osiris, (Manuscript)

, Within This Sacred Delin , (Manuscript) Mich. U.

Mueller, F., Concert Music, UMP, (SF)

Mueller-Ostrander, Praeludium, Chorale, Variations and , EM

Murgier, J., Can ertstuck, Paris, Editions Musicales Trans. Mussorgsky-Ostrander, Sons of the Flea, EM Neuling, Konzert-Cadenz, (King) Nevin, E., The Rosa BM

Newton, Modern ulb, BR 135

O'Neill, 0., 2pring Fan=y, CF

Ostrander, A., Concert Piece in Fual Style, EM Painpare-Voxman, Concert Piece, Ru

Panseron, ui olli, BH cal, 0., ate en 6 minutes 20, Du, (King, EV)

Pergolesi-Barnes, Canzona, JS

Pershetti, Serenade l2 for Solo Tuba, (unaccompanied), EV

Petrie-uchtel, Asleep in the Deep, NAK

-Teague, AMlee in the Deep, P

__-

Pierre-Petit, Fantaisie, AL, (nB, S(, King)

, Grave, AL, (MB, > , Bm, King)

"vwaenia, " AL, (MIB)

Poot, v., Improm2tu, Esc., (AMP)

Poppe r-Bell , Gavotte, Bel

Prokofieff, Romance an Scherzo, E% Purcell-Ost-rander, Arise Ye Subterranean Winds, EM

Putnam, C. '., Ej nblean's Dance, CF Pingleben, Storm jing, CF

Rollinswon, I., Colombia, NA

, Rocked in the radle of the Deep, CB tossini-Hrm,,UnaH Voca .'a Clpito, BH

-Ostrander, Lord Preserve I"e, EM

Rubinstein-Long, Romance, Volk

Suef , J., Concertstuck, AL, (1B, King)

Sabathil-Wilson, Divertissement, Rem, (MPH) 136

;carla tt i-Barnes, iia from Ti4graine, t " J 5

Sc armolin, A. , Introduction and Dance, Lud

_ olka Giocoso, Bar

______a and Dignity, tro Schaefer, a Caballero, Fill, (CF)

Schlemuler-Price, .Cradle SG CF

A rxer, F Schmidt, i., erenade, AV Schroen-pencer, Fantasie, B

Schubert-Ostrander, .wan 112r, EV

Schumann-Bell, Te l armer Goes To xn, &F

Semler-Collery, J., Barcarolle et Chanson Bcic e, AL, (B)

, Cantabile and Divertissement, Esc, (AMP)

,_

hietert, !., Bombastic limbardon Iii

Southe2l1, I_ Tu=a Solo, Volk

SLwerby, L., Chaconne, 1>

, wo jSongs, Lid St. Clair, . P., Ldniration, Volk

, Dream. Times, Volk

SGolden Tas, Volk

Stolz, R., A Love Letter, GB

Storm, Bouet for Basses, Volk

Stradella-Felix, Pieta, Signore, EM

Suppe-Long, Andante aestoso, Volk 137

Swann,. To R OwCs or Tub ,

1cherepmn, A., Andante, BH

Tomasi, P., Oinq Danses, Sacres et Profanes, AL, (MB, 211)

Tro e-.iIIer, I., Sonatina lassla, BeI i j2JCI gmt., omtI leR, L ont r a ., (antswript,, Long Beach State Vandrcoo,tbBeu, Cali

Vander ook , ¬rbut, NAK

-a Asl ninDtejeep, NAK Behemoth,Ru

Bombasto, Ru

hrysanthemum JA

Colossus, Ru

olumLine, NAK

I Daisies, AK

I De drops , A

-I yacenthe, N

Liy, uAK

.ali I

, jarlgold, NAKdAK.

t I Morning 2Lur AK

'oss ose, TA

I Pan ss, TAK

I eony, NA K

I Rosebuds, NAK

I Tuli, NAK 138

Vandercook, gild. iose, 1A

Vaultan, R., Concertpiece 9o. 1, IP Vaughan--i Iliams, R., Concerto, Ox

Verdi-Ostrander, Aria, E Villette, P, Fantaisle Conertante, AL, (MB, AC) 11he, e Bell Ringer, BH

>a'tors, H., Blow the Lan Down,

, Chrictmas Nocture, Hu

Concertcnte, LU

, Down in the Valley, Ru Forty Fathoms, Fu

, Leprohaun's Patrol, Ru

Scherzo Poipo s, mu

Tarantella, Lud

arre, D . , enis Dance, Lud

;ebb-leent, 7 ani . yolk

'Weber, F., Big Bo, Bel

--- '--, leph art Dance , el

,h ree Favorites, Fel

iss-PrndivillThe Vilae Blacksmith

iegandG, G., Leviather, CF hilliams, 1., Concerto 2, Colin

, r Con. erfo [, Colin

+orth, C., Serpnt of th Brass, Ru APPEIDI IK

TUB PEToD, 2TUE AND SOLO BOOKS

Key to publisher anod ius Comparies

kFPC . F. Peters Corp., New York a C. 1. Schuberth Co., New York Cos Costallat anr Cie, Paris David Gornton, Nev ork In International :us.ic o., Pew Fork Ja v Walter Jacobs, New ork UWiv GUnivrsal Publiashing .a, New York Wilhelm Halter, Germany

Tote: ee "ppendix J for additional publishers and music JOW&anies.

Ab n- :eso tu, :irst and lecond Years, CF

taneur, Snul u , (ahe), as, (LB)

B a r tn- BP e r g e 3 h r ) C sn t , L i po Bu i ld er s , B B c -, -. , Yethod. for Tube, Vol. 1 and TI, aPR

Bell, a., ountion to .PTuba a.Inr, CF

, L.a 'I m. __sand .aiy Routine, (Two Volumes), olin

e em, J., Tnstumental ours or tuba, BH

ernard, P. , too.za liee telodiques, AL, (wn, :1;;, King)

u, ethode completee, A , (/t, S , iing)

,__uAL (t;e ttude , AL, (jq', YLQ, Kin)

,a Trait. . iYiules in Four Volumes, AL, (ND)

ertlold, Or hest rstudixn us ja mphoiscen qerken, 0FF

139 140

Blazewitsch, V., =eveny -etudes for Tuba - strander, Advanced Daily Drill, E

Bleger, Nouvelle MMethode Complete De Base, A, (M3)

&-Couilicaud, 31 Brilliant Studies, AL , (._B)

._, _I10 Caprices, AL, ('B) ,12 Corcertante Duos, AL, (1B)

Brown, T. C., Tuba sags (English Band Music), BH Bruca, D., TIenty Etudes Melodique, AL, (MB)

Buchtel, F., Young Artist's First Book of Solos, MMC

Buck, L., Elementary Yethod for Tuba, NAK

Carnaud, Complete Method for Bass, (Two Volumes), Sal, (CMP0)

Thirtv Pryres ive Duos, Sal, (CMPC)

Caton, Progressive Instructor, Volk

Che ette, I., elements of Siht Headinp, Pro

,_Three-ay >Method, Leed

hristensen, TubaSkole, (King) Cimtera, J., J Advanced Studies, Bel

Clarke, H. F., IEeentary LAet hod, ,ii

Aodomir-Job, Lethodes oupletes Pour Les Sahorns, AL, (MB)

, ethodes Elementaires Pour Les Caxhorns, AL, (IM)

cOlin, C., Dai ar sjwith Vita Brass lotes, Coin

----. Lip Flexibilities for iba, (Two Volumes), Colin

, 100 Original 'arm Ups, Colin

Collins, F., Tally Embouchure Drills, B Lornette, V., Grande Methoe 3oJlete, (Sa horn), Cos 141

Cundy-Bettoney (Edition), liliar Band Studies, B

Del iudice, ., 12 Etudes 9rthmic and elodic, Esc, (AMP) De~ille, A., T'ub laye's uio uF

ippolito-Thompson, Modern j Method, Volk

Du bois, 9. 12., .ouze Soli en Forme d'tude, AL, (M2B, ,B 2

Eby, 4., Scientific Method for Tuba, (Two Volumes) <, (B3) Enres e r. . Tuba Tsethod, M C

___ upleentr Studies for Tuoc, AK

_uplementary Studies, Ru

Fischer (Edition), clisoe Self-Instructor, CF

.__, Tuba Player's Tade Mecun, rF

Font booonne , . , Jetod2 plete Element aire , Cos reb, F., Method far uba, F

G-etchell-yovey, First Book of Practical tudies, Bel

,->econd Book of Practical studies, el

Glantz, i Gmeut r aderr a Sols, olin

Goldman, ,. >., -Dail Embouchure studies, (ESb), F

Gornstn ,D., The dery First b and BBb Bass Method, uS

-!yiusser, Tbab Dailies, NiK

- __s-Paisne , Funwith caes, (Bass Clef Book; oer-Jaxan, Advanced Method for Bass, (Two Volumes), Ru Kregoriev, ift Studies for Tuba

Hawke's, Lipci t Tutor, BE

eJdca, A., Etdes, Frague, jK*L 142

crAurth-willor, Tune-A-Day for Bass, BM

Hindsley, k.,, Bsi0 Method for Sousawhone, OF

Hovey, M. x. , I e entry Method for Bass, .u

,.Belwin <-Bass Method, Bel Hovey, H. , Universal Funamenta. Yethod, Uriv, (TP)

International (Edition), Orchestral Studies, Int Joo, iol c chant Du 'tle, 30 Airs olassiques, AL, (MB)

Johns on, F. . . , AeoLia retho , Kiniyon, J., "Breeze Easv" ethod for Tuba, (Two Volumes), it

- . . "Breeze asy" Recital Pieces, Wit (M)PH

opprasc-Seyffarth, echzi usewahlte Etuden fur 'uba, (Two Volumes), Hor

Kuhn-Cimera, Metod for Tuba, Bel

Lachman, H., 25 Etuden fur Kontrabass, Hof

_ ., 26 Tuba-Etuden ur Das 1 Studien'jar, Hof

Langenus, G., jG.ythn Builder, F

Langey, Carl Fischer Tutor for Tuba, CF s _, Practical Tutor, BR

Linderman, Melodious Fundamentals, Colin

Little, L., Embouchure Builder, Pro

Lorenz, 0., mIerial Method, TP IcNauthton, P. -. , Three for All Collection, OMP

Boore-3eig, Prearatory Instructor for Bass, CF

Muller-Teuchat-eyw.arth, Orchestral Studies, (Six Volumes), Hof

Ostrander, A., -oncert Album, EM

,_2_-Vinute aerm p, Colin 143

fai ner, B., B. 0. E. Trainers (Rhythmic), D

Pare, G., cale rtudies for F and B b Tuba, CF

Pease, i., Bass Methood, Pro

Tichaureau, irente Recreation en Form d'Etudes, (SMC)

Pro-Art (Edition), 50 Standard Tuba Solos, Pro

Rindersoacher, K., iciule fur Tuba in B oder 0, YH tollincon, T. , method for Bass B3 Rou a, Studies and Lip frills, F

Rubank (Edition), American Airs for EPeryoe, Ru

soloist Folio, Ru

usct, H. ., 24 rbar-KYlose- ocone tuades,Bel

, 25 Lazarus-Concone Studies, Bel

us so, Duets--21 Etudes, Colin

:kornicka-zoltz, lntermediaKte ethod for Bass, u

Slam, A., 6 Etudes in All Major and Minor >y, CF

Stefaniszin, K., 20 Jzial-Etuden fur 1s'osaune

Stoneberg, A., toderne Orchesterstudien fur Posaune and Bass ubajf( 7t Volumes), JTn7) tre ton, Unison Scale Studies, BH

Teuchrt, S. , Orchesterstuder, (AMP)

, zcahule fur basstuba in F or E and Contrabass- uba in or Bb, Hof

Tyrrell , U. .,

_ __,_Advanced Studies for b Tuba ,B

Tan sek-orruMntoe, Modern j sjjj of Natur lain , pi.

Vandercook, H. S., Etudes for Tuba, u

Vasiliev, 24 Melodic tuds for Tuba 144

Volkwein (Edition), ioloist Folio for Tuba, Volk

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9 tele, Grande 'ethode, (King)

hiJsler, F. :., Lodern ares f o b Lass, Pu

____ odern res for Bb Bass, lin i Ce, . t, mioneh aes, (hords and lRhy mic s tudies,*

Yaus G. 7. , 20 Rythmial Studies, Bel

_,40 ThythicaSudites,UBel

, Studies , Bel BIBIGRAPHY

Books Ape:, v4illi, Harvard ictionry of Music, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 19b2

Autrey, Byron L., Basic uide ToTrupt Iing, Chicago, . . ml Ftublising ., 6. Bach, Vincent, What E4ery musical Director and Instrumentalist Shoul fox About Brass Instruments and Kotthpieces, ot rVe:on, New rork, Vincent Bach r7orato, 0955,

Bell, Jilliam, DailyRoutine for the Tuba, Vol. I, New York, Chre CoJir, 1954.

,_DailRoutine for the Tuba, Vol. II, New York,

&harlesColin, -1V9V5.

Bellamah, J. L., Brass Facts, San Antonio, Texas, Southern Music Company, 1960.

Berlioz, Hector, Memoirs of Hector Berlioz, translated by Rachel Holmes and Eleanor Holmes, annota'Led, and the translation revised by E;rnest Ielman, New York, Alfred . Knopf, 1932.

, Treatise oOrchestration, edited by Richard Str a us s, w :rork,Edwin F. Kalmus, 1948. Bessaraboff, Nicholas, Ancient European Musical Instruments, Boston, Harvard University Press, 1941.

Best, . H. and i. B. Taylor, The Physiological Basis of uedica Practice, 7th ed., Baltimore, Willians and Wi-kins,-1961. s e,, Ldam, The History of Orchestration, Jew York, E. B. Dut ton &~O6 95

D uttoC, iThe L ife of J u lli en, Ca b ridge ce , w . le ffe r & Sons, Lt7., T5rs

,_ lusic al Aind Instruments,, Totd on, MacMill an and "o 793

145 146

arse, dam, The Orchestra from Beethoven o erlio, .brides~W~~He . IT4~. oWin, icharles, .ViTalBrass lotes,eosh, Wisconsin, 0. LebI no &f* Jo~2~,1Y5. ~~

Costello, il]im, i4 bouchureTechnijue, New York, Willi a t T5TT7197

Dauleny, Uilric , Orchstral Wind Instruments, London, William Ree esf2T

Dodds, George ., The Control of the Breath, London, Oxford University press, U2.

Nb, alter ., scientific Method for BB-flat Bass, Ougp1n, '!! E-flat b.a, ann 0C0 Bass, New ork, it erJa obs, Inc ., 197.

Farkas, Phili, he Art of Brass r jra1irn, Bloomington, Indiana, Brass Publications, 1962.

Cspir, Trancis W., _ Textbook of European Musical Instruments, Landon, illiam & Norgate , Ltd.,93?.

1 eir: 0 er, Iarl, Musical Instruments--Their Hiso r in Westernulture frohm e tone A to the Present Da, transl;-ed by Bernard iall, edited by . F.:H. Blandford, Mew York, Oxford University"Press, 1943.

Gold.an, iddi F., The Goldman Exercises for Double and TrilegaTon}i,~NewYork, Carl FiscTeiInc., 1912.

Hindsley, ark H., The Music educator's_ Basic Method for the _ _lHt Tub and the B Flat Tuba, New York, Carl

Tischer, I9TS. -- Jacoby, Don, Good Breath ontrol....The Natural I7~, Kenosha, Wisconsin, G. Leblanc Corp., 195T~.

Kellogg, Irwin, hyLBreathe?, New York, . chirmaer, Inc., 1939.

Kimber, D.C., C. E. Gray, C. H. Stackpole, L. C. Leavell, Textbook of Anatomy and Physiology, New York, 2aiillan and C o,1935.

Leid , Vernon F. , Cortemporary Bras s Techn ue , Hollywood, California, Highland Music Co., 1960.

Mendez, afael, Prelude to Brass PlayifL, New York, Carl Fischer Inc., 96. 147

Moore, .,.dward The Brass Book, Kenosha, Ivisconsin, G. Leblac 0orp.7,fl.

Music Instruments for Band and Orchestra, 3vanston, IllinioLInstirumetalist Uto 9T. Noble, lyde ., The fschology of Cornet and Irumpet Ia in , Missosla, Montana,E1otntain ireso, 194.

Prescott, Gerald R., and Lawrence '. Childester, GettI. Results with cool Bands, New ork, Carl Fischer, Inc., 1938.

Raymon d, il'ia. f., The Trombone and Its Playr, Cincinne ti, Fillmore Brothers Co., 1937.

Sachs, Curt, The History of Musical Instruments, New York, . ,V. orton.& Co., Inc.,1940.

c holes, Percy, xfor 1 Comanion to Msic, 9th ed., Lbndon, ;xLord UniyersiTy Tress, 1055.

Ocrtr, H. 7., The 1torY of Musical Instruments, Elkhart, Indiana, Pan-America Band Instruments, 1938. Sweeney, Leslie, IeTeach4ng Tecnxiues for the Brasses, Rockville Center, Long Island, New York, BelDit , Inc., 1953.

Weast, Robert, Brass Perforance, New York, McGinnis and rx, 191 finslow, * . and J. B. Green, ljayin and Teac dLg Brass Instruments, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, .

itr, Jmes ., Te Bras s instrument s, Boston , Allyn and Ba on, Inc., TT4.

right, Frak J. 7.r, bras boda, ,London, Bsson o., 195/.

Articles

el, ii&L, "2_ >lyirg -uTheTub, &Lo , III (January, 1950), 7.

,' Te-r, a)riuhs! , International musician, ITTI ~77ept emib e r, 1959), 16...... oo, ?oOer, "T,'ub: A or of Lq eery 1Canins TIsstrentalist, pV (April, 1961), 65-6.

row, 'K eor: .,'aterial for Tub;, " Instrumentalist, X (November,197), 37-38*

"The Tuba and Its Laterial,T"a Southiestern

_ ,n_-T:a'se Msi.c or, XII (ApIQyl,195),8-19.

kar , ich..:ard., ""eveLopir Double nd Triple Tonguing Tec1hie, ",outhwestern Musician-Te s T usic Educator, FXVIII (HFebrrr, 1961), 17-18.

., "Harvey Phillips Tuba Clinic, " Southwve terr ~u_ -~exas'usic rEducator, FL (April, 1277F

Bu*terfield, Don, "The Tuba nd Jazz," hetrono;mes, LXXII (may, 1956), 35-36.

/arse , Adam, "Adolphe ax and the Distin Family," Ptwic .Recw, VI (November, 1945), 193-201.

o er, ex A.*, ploing the Tuba as a Solo Instrument," Imostrumentalist, VIII, (:February , 1954), 26-27.

, ."TheTongue and the Tuba,< Instrumentalist, Xit ~Ta;, 950), ~557.

___-7'"Tuba Talk, " Instrumentalist, XVI (October, 1961 )WT3-5. Craer, 'illiamF., "Embouchure Control and Development," Instrumentalist, XII (April, 1958), 46-47. "The Initial Attack,T" Instrumentalist, October~T9>), 9

!is nsn, Jon', "Liaphragmatic Breathing," Clarinet, No. 23, (Summer, 1956), 21-24.

Faulkner, Maurice ,"Diagnosing E'bouchure Problems," In sjrum ent~a.is t , X VI (Se pt ember , 1961) , 99-103.

Fitzgerald, Bernard, "Bras Clinic,I" Instrumentalist, I (November-December, 1946), 34-357

,_"Tone Production," Instrumentalist, IIIJaTuary-Februarj, 1949), 15-16.

,The Tuba,Foundation of the Band, " Tntrnentalist, VII (arch-Ypril, 1953), 4-4L1. 149

Grace, Fla ve, "A Note or the serpent, " The Musical Times, LVII (November, 1916), 500-501.

Grocock, Robert G., "Teaching of Double and Triple Tonguing, Instru entali..st, VIII (April , 1954), 2 -29.

Hal reljny, Eric, "EnDefense de la ase de Cornet," Music Review, VIII (May, 1947), 102-105.

"Playing the erpe(t, " y y I (pril,

H rstine, tmet 1., "Are You Satisfied it e the Bass section In wour Band:", hool MLusiciarn, XXI (February, 1960), 35,

Ingls, David. ., "More Tuba Literature,1" _Instrumentalist, TIII, (Lareh, 1)74), 8.

acoy, Richard K., "Tubas 'an. lay usically,i" Notes Tmoo, XII (April, 1963), 12.

Johnsonr, 'arson ., "UseT hat Fonrth Valve," Instrumentalist, XIV (April, 1960), 56-58.

Kimrd-< d , 1.,, "In c fenc of the Ophiele ide, f"io thl, 'sura_1 e oirdi, LXXXII (October, 1952), 199-205.

Kuer, David L ., "Helpful ints for Tuba Players, Irsrer me IisjW, (VI'May,1962), 70-71.

, "A .elected List of uba Literature," n bUm lUx , XVII (December, 19 , 48- 9.

2aw, Glen C., "Expression Thru Articulative TeChniques," inrrtT iealist, XV ( ay 1961), 65-66. tee, Ira D., "Vibrato for Brasses,Instrumentalist, VIII (March, 19,54), 16-117.

Long, eE H. , "Bass-ic Facts on Intonation, " Instrumentalist, II Septemberr, 1947), 12.

Loo, Cli ton, "the Lowdown on the Bass section, TeSchool Iuiiafl XII (May, 1941), 1-42.

.agneli, e3r F., "

Te er, Ger ald. 0., "The Tuba

Neilson, Ja es, "How to Make the Most of Practice Time, " Instrumentalist, V (October, 1950), 20.

%votry, Joseph J. , "The Tuba, " International usician, L(February, 1952), 25.

"Original "ousaphone 'Ststs' in Movie," Instrumentalist, VII (March-April, 1953), 21.

Pegge, 2. Morley, "The 'Anaconda,'" The alpin ociet Journal, II ( June, 1959), 53-5ET

Eon tiou, Melvin, "Breath Control and the Brass," Music Journal, XVII (oril-My, 1959), 64.

Rasmussen, Mary, "Building a Repertoire for the Tuba Student," Instrumentalist, VIII (January, 1954), 36-37.

Riley, Maurice v., "Tentative Bibliography of Early ind Instrument Tutors," Journal of Research. in Music Education, VI (Sprifg, 1958)~r2

Rowe , lent E. , "The Tuba," Etude, LI (July, 1934), 05.

averino, Louis, "Breathe into Your Tuba," 'c hool Musician, >(III (February, 1952), 12.

houl s , harles, "Wind Instrument Playing: The Art of Breathing, "Muic Torn, XX (November-December, 1962), 60.

Smith, Glenn P., "Tuba Forum,"" -outhwestern Brass Journal, I (Fall, 1957), 44-47.~ Smith, Leonard B., "Und.erstanding 'Breath Technique, ' " outIestern Brass Journa, I (pring, 1957), 11-14.

.t ar er, W. ., "The erapent, >-iuscal Times, LVII (December, 1916),0 549.)

tod d, IoKpea, "The Tuba and Its Players in Our Bands and Orchestras, Iuternationa I uclican, XLVIII (January, 1950), 20-2.

Tetzla ff, Daiel B., , "Ho to acquire Evenness in Tonguing," Instrumentalist, IX (February, 1955), 39-40. 151

Tetz1aff, Daniel B., "Ten Minutes Toward Breath eveloment , " IternationalMuscian, LdI (Qctooer, 1963), 27.

, i on Developin the Rapid .inge Tongu e troe, International Musician, LIX (January, I96O), >0 .

Torchisky, The, "Thu .Trends, " uInctrumntlS, XWII (April, 1q64), 86-87.

Vesl"", Stanley J. Jr., "Tuba Forum, "o outhwestern ra ss_

Journal , I(pring,1119),3-56 , -57al. ker, , I Teah the Solo Brass, " School M scia n, XXI (ccerdembr, l94.9, 4.

"I Teach the Solo Bra s," School Musician, 7 VIO e, 1953,, 40.

,'ll, Laaett e, "Ar tistic f etsn the Tuba, " and i :e, I (January-February, 1954), 31-33.

c, "Art st < fe on the tuba," and uie, Ji-)) Gmuiqde I . I~(s pr Ing, 19 5") 2

W0 s, Rober ., "Breath support, " Instrumentalist, rTV (January, 90), 56-57.

"Breath Suport and Lip T e n ion," n u m in.i t , vIII (D ecember, 1958), 52-55

"

_ e_ _t_,_ ,XVII (June, 1963), 44-46.

4estrup', J. ., "Sieghts on the erpent, "Musical Times, TXVITT (July, 1907), 235-637-

Alvin 0., "The Musical Eeteun, "tue, JXT ITI (April, 1949), 2

iln Pcs, FredericC, "The echnics of Brec4athing, "mo _ d

Win er, Jame s . , "Blow from the DiAphragm a", Woodwind Wor:d, IT (arech, 1958), 12. 152

Publications of Learned Organizations

Bureau of Public School service, Prescribed osic, Austin, Texas, The University of Texas, 103.

Interscholastic iusic Activities Comuission, Selective Tusic Lists, Washington D. 0., Music Educators National oTerence, 1957.

Interscholastic usic Activities Commission, 3slestive hxi Lists, Washington D. C., Music iducatorsNational af erene, 1961.

Encyclopedia Articles

Baines, Anthony , "Tuba , " Grove's Dictionary of Susic and Yusicians, 5th e.~, edTtd by Eric Tlom, Vol. VIII, :SV York, Macillan and Co., 1954.

Pegge, R. Torey, "Bass-Horn, "'Grove's :ictinary of 1usic and Musicians, 5th ed., edited by Eric Blom, 7ol. I, Few York, I acillan and Co., 1954.

, "Hibernicon," grove's Dictionary of Music

id 5th-cians, ed., edited by~vricJBom T. Iv, Pev York, Macillan and Go., 1954.

,J <"Ophicleiaoe, " ayGrove's Dictionary of Uusic andMu~i~cians, 5h ed.., edited by Eric Blom, Vol. VI, New o rI: acilan and Co., 954.

, ussiar Bassoon, "1Grove's Dictionary of tus - uiacians, 5th ed., edited by Eric Blom, Vol VI,,NewYork, Mactillan and Co., 1954.

"Serpent, ' love's Dictinar of 2usic ard uuiscinss, 5th ed. , edited by Eric Blom, Vol. VII, lewV ork, iAaillan and o., 1954.

Unpublished Materials

De Broekert, Gary, "The Tuba; a Historical and Functional Consider-ation," unpublished research project, school of music, Oregon University, 3 xugene, Oregon, 1957. 153

tail, Jcdy 2., "ATadiographiC, Spectrotraphi, and Photo- Kaich rea I udr of the 1n-L abi Physical $hanges Occur in the TrnsitiOn row hiddI to Lo rd tiddle to ig h Registers during T umpot Performance," un lished doctoral dissertation, School of tusic, Inai anaUniversty>, i3oomingt on, I iana, 1954.

Havli-e, Bon A., "Teahinj the Pb Public4totooli "unpubIshed master s with nnalsis of y Its Literaure, hesi,

aerdine, grlD. , "A tudy of the 'story, Technique , ard. Litzrtu of he Tuba, unpublished master's thesis, h1 of i , Briham feaam U

ay, tior ., "Aistory of the Bass Tub& and Its Use n the typ y Orcestra, " unpub1inedi mase r'thIcsis, Scolof N 3rth e xas a legeDenton~ , ecl , !uic,,Tr o c i

tufferl, na "APr ise on the Tuba," unpublished s ' hi stman Schoco c usi, lcRches>er,

'e yOrk, 1942.

ne ., "Problems n Adaptin d Avaue Ltud nd Solo LTrature cr th> a>g oneol T ';.otudon',1"

Uniers'ty, 'roral Gable , lorida, 193.

Ingst, .L. , "A History of thea Bs and .crtrab ss Tuba with an Analytical Survey of' i eected Beginni Bas and Contrabass Instruction Pocks," unpub ishe master's thesis, ool c usc, 9orthwes'.n University, 1 Janston, Illinoi, 1960.