ANCIENT HISTORY: NEAR EAST

Cyrus II

It is difficult to accurately assess the reign of Cyrus II due to the limited, fragmentary and biased nature of the sources available. However, with these limited sources, historians believe that Cyrus the Great was a successful man who had a cohesive reign and empire. He established the Persian Empire, the largest empire at that time. During Cyrus II’s reign of approximately thirty years, it is possible that the reason why there were no major revolts and numerous conquests was because of his effective administrative system and policy of tolerance. Cyrus II’s use of propaganda provides historians an insight of his personality and how he conducted his great empire. Monumental buildings, scripts, texts and art reflect his power, reign and wealth. Many respected historians still consider Cyrus as one of the greatest Persian kings of all time.

Cyrus II was an excellent military strategist who was a part of a powerful dynasty, but his rise to power is unclear. The Persian Empire was founded by Cyrus the Great. Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian, claimed that Cambyses, Cyrus II’s father, was not a king at all. In fact, Herodotus argues that he was a Persian who belonged in the middle class. He also claimed that he knew of three other versions of Cyrus’ ancestry. Although Herodotus is respected by many, the fact that there are different accounts of Cyrus’ heritage means that there is doubt about Cyrus’ family history and it is possible that Herodotus’ version may be inaccurate. In addition, Herodotus did not live during the time of Cyrus II’s reign and is in fact considered a secondary source. A Greek historian named Xenophon argues that Cyrus II came from the old royal dynasty of the Achaemenids. Like Herodotus, Xenophon did not live during the time of Cyrus II’s reign and is also a secondary source. Sources such as the Cyrus Cylinder emphasis Cyrus’ royal ancestry, but he never refers to himself being an Achaemenid. The Achaemenids controlled and expanded the Persian Empire for over 200 years. However, T. Cuyler Young suggests that Cyrus was not an Achaemenid and that Achaemenids was probably invented as an ancestor by Darius, Cyrus’ son’s successor, to legitimise his usurpation to the throne.

Cyrus the Great actively accompanied his army on military campaigns and the outcome was a stable empire. The reign of Cyrus II included numerous conquests and no major revolts. Cyrus II is also known as Cyrus the Great because of his contribution to the expansion of the Persian Empire. Unlike Xerxes, who was one of the Persian kings who succeeded him, Cyrus the Great was actively involved and fought with his men in major conquests. Cyrus’ inventive military strategies helped him establish a powerful empire which continued to grow stronger. The conquest of Media was Cyrus’ first major conquest. It was a war between the Persians, led by Cyrus, and the Medes, led by Astyages, the king of Media. One of Herodotus’ versions of Cyrus’ ancestry declares that Astyages was Cyrus II’s grandfather. Sources, such as the Nabonidus Chronicle, The Histories and the Dream Text of Nabonidus, differ on who initiated the conflict and the events of the war, but they agree on the Persians defeating the Medes which resulted in Cyrus II becoming the king of the Medes. It is believed by many historians that Cyrus the Great led a small army. This may be likely because the war broke out at the beginning of the Persian Empire and he therefore did not have as many soldiers as the Median Empire, which existed from 728 BC to 549 BC. However, if he did have a smaller army, this would emphasise Cyrus’ military strategic and strength.

The next major achievement of Cyrus II was the conquest of Lydia. The Persians, led by Cyrus, and the Lydians, led by Croesus, battled at Pteria in Cappadocia. At first, the result was uncertain. Croesus, the king of Lydia, dismissed his troops because he believed that the Persian army would not come back until the spring. However, Cyrus did not wait until spring and marched toward Sardis and defeated Croesus. The Histories states that Cyrus’ camels on the front line confused the Lydian cavalry and their horses. Not only does this show that Cyrus II was a clever military strategist, it also shows that he effectively utilised unorthodox military strategies and available resources to his advantage.

Cyrus the Great continued his conquests and this demonstrates his determination to advance his new empire. Following the Lydian conquest, smaller states were subjected and integrated into the Persian Empire. The smaller states included the Ionian Greeks, who resided on the Asian Minor coast line. In the east, Cyrus the Great and his army of men also defeated Parthia, Drangiana, Margiana, Sogdia, Bactria and many other smaller states which were also incorporated into the mighty Persian Empire. These smaller states may not have been as powerful, important or wealthy as other countries and empires, but collectively these smaller states provided Cyrus additional men for his army as well as a larger, more impressive empire. With the inclusion of numerous smaller states, the surrounding countries and kingdoms would have feared of Cyrus and his unpredictable, unusual ways of seizing countries and including them into his great empire.

The fourth major conquest achieved by Cyrus and the Persian army was the conquest of Babylon. Babylon was one of the wealthiest cities of the Near East. Herodotus described Babylon as ‘surpassing in splendour any city of the known world’. The city itself was heavily fortified and the Babylonian kingdom was vast and included Palestine, Phoenicia, Syria and Assyria. Nevertheless, Cyrus’ strategic plans combined with his manipulation of the unpopularity of Nabonidus, the king of Babylon, were the core of Babylon’s defeat. Nabonidus is ‘something of a political fool and a religious fanatic’ according to Cambridge Ancient History. This particular conquest was a significant triumph for the Persians. Three main sources tell of Cyrus’ conquest of Babylon: the Cyrus Cylinder, the Chronicle of Nabonidus and Herodotus. These conflicting and biased sources are only possibilities of the vital features of Cyrus’ battle. Cyrus II used Marduk in his Cyrus Cylinder to legitimise his power, “he [Marduk] searched through all lands, he saw... Cyrus...he appointed him”, in order to limit the number of people questioning his power and authority. The Chronicle of Nabonidus reveals that the “troops of Cyrus entered Babylon without battle”. It is possible that this occurred. The Persian Empire was already dominant at that time and it is probable that Cyrus entered the heavily fortified city without weapons because the Babylonians had accepted him as their king, instead of Nabonidus. Then again, Babylonians were powerful as well and it seemed unlikely that such a grand, powerful and influential empire would surrender. Herodotus, the third source, depicts Cyrus being an exceptional military strategist. He described the brilliant deed of diverting the water of the Euphrates, a river which flowed through the city, into a lake which made the Euphrates shallow enough to allow the Persian soldiers to cross the river and continue their battle. Although, Herodotus stated that someone else may have suggested this creative idea, the unorthodox and original plan shows ancient people and modern historians how shrewd, determined and clever Cyrus was.

One of the many reasons why Cyrus’ reign is considered successful is that he had a ‘policy of tolerance’. It is implied in many texts and archaeological findings that he was a very tolerant king who did not enforce any major changes to the lands which he conquered. It is believed by many historians that people noticed little change to their daily lives because of Cyrus II policy of tolerance. Some countries noticed change though. This included the Babylonians. Unlike Nabonidus, Cyrus made sacrifices to Babylon’s chief god, Marduk, and ensured that the important New Year Festival was conducted successfully and enjoyed by all. Cyrus II repeatedly stated that he was made king by Marduk. This meant that most people would have been loyal to him because Marduk favoured him. Throughout the whole Persian Empire, Cyrus II did not destroy temples and other places of worship. Religion was not the only aspect Cyrus II was tolerant of. Customs and traditions, legal systems, coinage and economic systems were subjected to little or no alteration. However in return, Cyrus II expected loyalty, taxes, tributes, allegiances and men during times of war. This shows that Cyrus was a tolerant king who accepted the ways in which a country operated, in order for a smooth transition of power. Even though he allowed countries to carry on as if nothing happened he was also a king who wanted to be known and respected as their ruler.

During his lengthy reign, Cyrus the Great devised an effective administrative system which consisted of many satrapies and local people were given important roles. He divided the empire into satrapies, each administrated by satraps. Cyrus would constantly monitor each satrap by personally appointing important officials to each satrap who were under Cyrus II direct orders. It was not unusual that satraps were locals. This shows Cyrus’ policy of tolerance and his strategies. A sign of success of Cyrus’ administration can be judged by the fact that there were no major rebellions during his time in power. It is possible that if more Persians were appointed high ranked positions, there may have been more rebellions. However, because Cyrus gave significant roles to locals the people who belonged to the satrapy were more content, hence they did not rebel. This type of administrative system was later used by all Persian kings who followed him, which is a clear sign of the success of this system.

During his time in power, Cyrus the Great was an expert in self-promotion. He presented himself as a shrewd liberator rather than conqueror. Propaganda was effectively utilised by Cyrus the Great and made him seem more powerful than his subjects. Nobody questioned Cyrus II because of his extensive use of propaganda. Some texts and artefacts at that time about Cyrus were possibly written or verified by Cyrus himself. They all have common characteristics. These characteristics include Cyrus’ endless list of countries he was king of, the mentioning of numerous gods who favoured him, boasts about his achievements, but more importantly, Cyrus was never criticised. It is believed that the Cyrus Cylinder, which records his version of events, is a masterpiece of propaganda.

An advantage of having such a vast empire was that the best art and building techniques and motifs from assorted conquered countries merged into a new, eclectic style which was reflected the diverse empire. The best skills and trends were often presented from throughout the Persian Empire. For example, a lion composed of multi-coloured bricks adorned a wall in Cyrus’ palace in Susa. A similar lion, made out of glazed bricks, was discovered at Babylon. Extravagant buildings were excavated at Susa, Pasargadae, Ecbatana and Babylon, the four capital cities of the Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus used elements from other cultures and incorporated them into buildings throughout Persia. In some countries which belonged to the Persian Empire, buildings gave the impression of originating from a completely different place. This innovative, blended style of art and architecture may also highlight Cyrus’ wealth and power and that he wanted everyone to see it.

Many modern and ancient historians believe that Cyrus the Great was a successful, organised and a shrewd leader who cared about his empire. He was also an excellent military strategist and his numerous conquests and fortifications reflect this. His policy of tolerance of other cultures and their traditions ensured an undisrupted, extensive reign. During his lengthy reign, Cyrus the Great had an effective administrative system which consisted of many satrapies and local people were set important roles. This allowed people to continually live their lives normally with no drastic changes. Cyrus’ wealth, power and control were portrayed in his use of propaganda and the development of a new, eclectic style of art and buildings. Ultimately, as the Cyrus Cylinder proclaims: “Cyrus, king of the world, great king, legitimate king, king of Babylon, kings of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four rims [of the earth], son of Cambyses great king, king of Anshan” truly was a great king whose heights other kings aspired to.