Mangrove Mangrove Management Management As by Marta Vannucci Were Trained in the Techniques
INTERNATIONAL NEWSLETTER OF COASTAL MANAGEMENT
Narragansett, Rhode Island, U.S.A. • Special Edition # 1 • March, 1997
Supporting Appropriate Mangrove Mangrove Management Management As By Marta Vannucci were trained in the techniques. In Stewardship other parts of the world, mangroves ll cultures which border the sea were considered to be sacred forests, By Stephen B. Olsen, Editor A in the tropical belt of the world to be used only for the disposal of the have connections with mangroves in dead, as in the Solomon Islands, or for one way or another. These range from special rites. Elsewhere mangroves he collection of reports using mangrove wood for fuel or for have been valued for the beauty of T and essays in this issue of making simple rafts (as the aborigines their flowers or used to build impene- Intercoast Network demonstrate Highlights of the Timor Sea in northern Australia trable fences. The uses of this ecosys- that there is increasing conver- do), to the planting of seeds, propag- tem would fill an encyclopedia. gence among the diversity of 4 ules and saplings for coastal protec- Scientists were fascinated by the approaches as to how mangrove Mangrove tion. In New Zealand, for example, anatomy, histology, physiology and wetlands should be managed. The Decline in the there are remains of rows of mangrove chemicals of the plants and animals many voices and perspectives in Philippines bushes planted to stabilize the coast by adapted to such a demanding environ- this special issue reinforce that early generations of Maori people. In ment, and the noted Swedish botanist progress is indeed being made 6 other areas, such as Malaysia, Linnaeus clearly appreciated the value towards a stewardship ethic for Coastal Rhizophora was specifically planted of mangroves, naming Avicennia offici- these important and threatened Monitoring because of its resistance to rot and nalis after a famous Arab doctor and features of tropical coastlines. in Nicaragua boring animals, which makes it good the Latin word for medicinal: offici- The term stewardship presents for building houses and jetties. Nypa nalis. However, most of the Europeans great difficulties for translators 13 palms were encouraged to grow for who swarmed across the world follow- to many of the languages spoken Options for their fronds and sap, and later this ing the Age of Discoveries failed to where mangroves predominate. Abandoned species was grown in plantations, for recognize the benefits of this ecosys- It is therefore often useful to Shrimp Ponds example in Indonesia. The productive tem, other than for capture fisheries (continued page 43) waters surrounding mangroves have (continued page 3) 15 provided a range of fishery products, Aquaculture such as crustaceans and mollusks, in Madagascar which are harvested in a variety of ways. The waters are used for farming 20 fish and crabs, and even algae, for food Mangroves or chemicals. Taking one example, Around when the Portuguese first arrived in the World India, they learned from the indige- nous people how to use the mangroves 25 to create rice-fish-mangrove farms. The Role Much of this traditional knowledge of Ramsar was described in the letters of the Viceroys to the King of Portugal, and was later taken by Jesuit and Franciscan fathers to Angola and Mozambique where the local people WHY A SPECIAL ISSUE ON MANGROVES?
Intercoast Network tries in each “Mangrove forests form a vital links to other coastal and non- issue to give a broad a range of link between terrestrial ecosystems coastal issues that affect coastal viewpoints, ideas and information and coral reefs,” said Michael Benge, ecosystems. By expanding our on coastal management issues as head of the USAID Center for the scope and looking outside our possible. So one might ask, “Why Environment’s Forestry/Global traditional readership to a wider do a special edition that focuses Climate team. “Mangroves are being range of experts, we hope to find only on mangroves?” destroyed very rapidly, mainly due to creative tools and techniques, and By doing a special edition, cutting for charcoal and building begin to forge the all-encompassing, Intercoast is able to go into depth ponds for shrimp mariculture–which “big picture” linkages that are so on a critical issue that cannot be has proven to be a very unsustainable vital to effective integrated coastal explored as widely or as deeply in use. This shortsighted exploitation management. a regular issue. Mangroves are an of mangroves endangers not only the “USAID’s global environmental essential component of estuarine mangrove forests, but also the inter- program well understands the issue systems, filtering inland water as acting environmental resources and of coastal management, and also it flows to the sea, and serving as local societies which rely upon their appreciates the value of mangroves a nursery and primary habitat for existence.” both environmentally and economi- abundant and diverse species. The By more closely examining this cally. It is essential to increase pub- principal funders of this issue, the resource within the entire coastal lic awareness of their value and vul- United States Agency for Inter- ecosystem, we hope to be able to nerability,” concludes Benge, “so a national Development (USAID) offer valuable and usable information balance among the uses of man- also took into account how a special for those addressing complex man- groves can be achieved and the ben- issue on mangroves could make the grove management problems in the efits they provide both environmen- bridge to other key areas in their field. tally and economically for future diverse portfolio of projects. Intercoast also works to create generations can be sustained.“
Mangrove Edition a Team Effort
This expanded special edition of pages. Wells, a coastal management staff to identify key managers and Intercoast Network is the result of a professional, worked with Intercoast experts in the field of mangrove man- unique team effort among authors from staff at the Coastal Resources Center agement, and get them on board as all parts of the globe, editors on two (CRC) at the University of Rhode contributing writers. In November, she different continents and financial sup- Island as a guest editor. A native of left the U.S. to take on her position port from the United States Agency for England, Wells is currently marine with WWF-International. Despite Internation-al Development Forestry/ programme coordinator at World starting a new job, through the modern Global Climate Change Initiative in its Wildlife Fund International’s (WWF- miracles of E-mail and FAX machines, Bureau for Global Programs, Field International) office in Gland, Sue managed to stay in constant touch Support, and Research’s Center for Switzerland. She is active in a breadth with Intercoast staff and the authors of Environment. of integrated coastal management ini- articles, and helped guide the issue This increased financial support tiatives, though more often with a through to final publication. Her allowed us to expand the length of this focus on coral reefs than mangroves. expertise, extended network and hard edition to more comprehensively cover Wells arrived at CRC in the sum- work help make this edition one which the topic of mangroves and to secure a mer of 1996 to take on the challenge we believe will improve integrated technical editor–Susan Wells–who of putting out the biggest-ever issue of coastal management work with man- could help draw together leading prac- Intercoast, with its focus solely on one grove systems all over the world. We titioners with expertise involving man- topic–mangroves. She remained at thank all of those who contributed to grove eco-systems, and to share their CRC for three months, working close- this inspiring effort. experiences and viewpoints in these ly with editor Stephen Olsen and CRC – Chip Young, Managing Editor
2 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition Mangrove Management a range of habitat types that have little of the Caribbean and Central and South (continued from page 1) in common other than the fact that America, and for wood chips for the they are inundated by the sea at regu- rayon industry. Developers, guided by and fuel wood. Mangroves were usually lar intervals. Mangroves include a vast foreign investors, often totally disregard considered to be wastelands, unhealthy range of combinations of tidal regimes, legal obligations to replant or conserve for navigation and humans alike. Since climatic variations, species composition, buffer zones. The greatest numbers of the very early 16th century, they were and physical, chemical and microbio- offenders now are those who clear cut marked on Portuguese charts, often logical composition of soils and water, the mangroves to establish intensive using special symbols to indicate dan- resulting in widely varying growth, shrimp farming. Intensive and semi- ger for any craft larger than dugout reproduction and productivity. They intensive methods have been used indis- canoes, rafts and catamarans. must therefore be used and managed criminately with total disregard for their Apart from the management prac- according to these constraints, bearing suitability, resulting in major changes to tices used in India, the traditional tam- in mind the socio-economic needs of the ecology of the area. This, combined bak-sari system of Java, Indonesia and local people. with the inten- other scattered examples, large scale Well into the 20th century, scientif- sive inputs of intentional management of extensive ic research focused mainly on taxono- feed and fertiliz- Save The Mangroves? mangrove areas started, as far as we my and description, while the “dreaded er, and aeration, know, only in the 19th century. The swamps” were treated with indiffer- and the spread “Oh these mangroves. I never aims and goals varied with the needs ence or downright condemnation by of epidemic dis- saw one that looked as if it pos- and greed of the power game. developers, engineers, politicians and eases, has meant sessed a decent conscience. In the second half of the 19th centu- the military. Local people largely con- that after a few Growing always in shallow stag- ry, the British applied practical knowl- tinued their simple, ecologically safe years the area is nant water, filthy black mud, edge accrued over centuries to the practices. But, as an old saying goes, so badly degrad- or rank grass, gnarled, twisted, management of the Sundarbans, the “There is no evil that lasts forever nor ed that shrimp stunted and half bare of foliage, “beautiful forests” of the Ganges- good that will not come to an end,” production has they seem like crowds of with- Brahmaputra delta, for timber. Watson, and there were major changes during to be aban- ered, trodden-down old crimi- also from Britain, developed another and after World War II. New technolo- doned. New nals, condemned to the punish- forestry management system for the gies and methodologies were introduced areas are then ment of everlasting life. I can’t mangroves of the west coast of penin- to achieve greater financial returns clear cut. The help it if this seems fanciful. tropical belt of Anyone who has seen a man- the globe now looks like a grove swamp will know what I pock-marked mean”. face, with much –An early New Zealand novelist of the land eroded away by the encroaching sea. The long term sur- vival and needs of local populations are largely ignored. There are some encouraging signs, however. Tanzania, Pakistan, Bangladesh, India, Thailand, Venezuela and many island nations are among the numerous countries actively engaged in long term programs for sustainable management and use of mangroves. Activities range from the creation of protected areas and Mud crab in a mangrove ecosystem. scientific studies of flora and fauna of the forests, waters and soil to reforesta- sular Malaysia. These two different from mangrove areas, providing quick tion and afforestation of the intertidal systems have by and large stood the gains at the cost of permanent wealth. belt. Two countries–Bangladesh and test of time and illustrate that there is In many places mangroves have Pakistan–are mentioned here because no simple model for mangrove man- been overexploited for fuelwood, for they tackle apparently impossible tasks: agement. The term “mangrove” covers example in Africa and the small islands (continued on page 42)
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 3 Mangrove Resource Decline in the Philippines: Government and Community on government land. About 95,000 ha Look for New Solutions has been allocated for this purpose of which some 63,000 ha are under 25- By Roy Olsen D. De Leon fish pond area of approximately 4,100 year fisheries lease agreements (FLA). and Alan T. White ha/year over the same period. Today, Under the Fishery Sector Program fish ponds cover about 289,000 ha, (FSP), initiated in 1991, an economic angrove forest cover in the with 80-90 percent in areas once cov- analysis was carried out which revealed M Philippines has declined sub- ered with mangroves. Cutting of man- that the fish pond lease fee of US$2 per stantially during this century, from groves for charcoal-making, fuel wood year per ha was far too low to either about 450,000 hectares (ha) in 1920 to and construction is probably the sec- encourage efficiency in the use of land less than 150,000 ha in the late 1980s, ond most pervasive intrusion on the for fish ponds or discourage conversion of which only 46 percent (68,000 ha) resource and conversion of mangrove to aquaculture uses. The opportunity is located outside the islands of Palawan areas to fish ponds has sometimes been cost for the replacement of mangrove and Mindanao. The most rapid decrease just the final step in a process of systems was determined to be quite occurred in the 1960s and 1970s when destruction that began with over-har- high and was consistent with studies in government policies encouraged the vesting of mangroves for fuel wood, other countries. An 1989 study gave expansion of aquaculture during a frequently by persons other than those estimates of US$500-1,550 a year for period when real prices for fish and who ultimately built the fish ponds. the opportunity cost of one ha of com- shrimp were steadily rising. Although Degraded areas are more easily reclas- plete mangrove ecosystem. The FSP national laws prohibit the cutting of sified as disposable lands, which makes study found that various researchers any mangroves, and the most impor- conversion more likely. The current had determined a minimum economic tant mangrove forests are protected situation has therefore prompted the rent of at least US$550 a year for one in forest reserves, this ecosystem type government to develop new policies hectare of inter-tidal land in the Philippines (Table 1). The study recommended that FLA lease fees be raised to between $360 and $800 ha/year. It also recognized that the values attributed to marine fishery products dependent on mangrove sys- tem health were uncertain because of lack of informa- tion and so suggested that the basic wood value of mangrove stands be used as the initial economic rent level. This is about $156/ha/year, and a sched- ule was therefore recom- mended to implement an increase of lease fees over several years to this figure.
Development of fish ponds has displaced much mangrove forest in recent years. Resistance from leasehold- ers, as well as political inter- has continued to decline. for reforestation of mangroves and the vention, has meant that this has not yet Despite a 1980 government ban on recovery of abandoned fish pond areas. been implemented but it is thought further conversion of mangroves to that it will eventually happen. Indeed, fish ponds, the reduction of mangrove Fish Pond Licensing the renting of privately-owned fish and area since that year through 1991 The Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic shrimp ponds is a flourishing market, continued at a rate of about 3,700 Resources (BFAR) is responsible for deriving annual incomes of about ha/year, in parallel with an increase of licensing the development of fish ponds US$120-600 per ha.
4 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition Mangrove Reforestation er by a policy of contracting individu- able to harvest and earn from the The Department of Environment als or groups to plant mangroves. Nypa leaves on five ha of the area. and Natural Resources (DENR) is When communities were directly DENR awarded the organization with responsible for mangrove management. responsible with stewardship agree- a 25-year Forest Land Management Experiments in reforestation using ments, the cost/ha was about US$80. Agreement in 1995. contracts with local communities, giv- The contracting of individuals without In 1993, the DENR therefore ing stewardship agreements and any community organization or volun- stopped its straight contract reforesta- encouraging communities to protect teer labor, increased the cost to more tion efforts and in 1994 endorsed the and manage the resource in their own than US$400/ha. Success was still less NGO-assisted Community-Based way have been successfully carried out than 50 percent and the communities Mangrove Forest Management on Bohol and Panay. As early as 1964, generally participated in the contract- approach. Between 1991 and 1994, small mangrove rehabilitation projects ing exercise to make some additional the FSP also assisted the DENR in the began on Bohol Island, Visayas, where money without much concern for reforestation of about 6,900 ha of harvesting for firewood and poles has enhancement of the environment. mangrove. As with DENR, initially long been a practice and where it is In 1991, management of an existing local communities were contracted understood that if mangroves are but degraded mangrove forest at to plant seedlings and young trees but thinned, they will grow more effi- Cogtong Bay, Bohol Island was started this caused many problems, and was ciently. A community in Jetafe refor- using a Mangrove Stewardship replaced by a more community-based ested 100 ha, and students and school Agreement. Designated seed trees management system with NGO assis- officials in Calape planted a 20-m wide band along 4.8 km of coast in Table 1: Estimated net annual economic value ($US) of 1968 for protection against wind and Philippine mangrove areas for different levels of management storm waves. In 1984, an innovative program, the Wood Products Fish Products Total Level of management (value/ha) (value/ha) (value/ha) Central Regional Project, using experi- Mangrove plantation $156 $538 ence from earlier community projects, $694 Managed naturally began to experiment by providing regenerated $90 $538 $628 secure tenure over a mangrove area to Unmanaged under-stocked an individual or family in return for stands $42 $538 $580 maintaining it as healthy forest. This Note: Wood harvest value based on average price of about $12/cu. m. of wood; fish arrangement was called a Stewardship products based on average annual weight of fish and shrimp/ha associated with mangrove Agreement and was initially used to areas and an average price of $.80/kg; values based on Philippine peso amounts in 1991 and converted at 25 pesos/1$US. Source: Schatz 1991 promote reforestation in open areas, as national policy at that time did not allow community management of were allowed to grow while others tance. Although the target of 30,000 existing mangroves. Mangrove planting were harvested for fuel wood and ha was not achieved, the FSP has rec- progressed rapidly but long-term suc- poles. Forest quality and the abun- ognized that involving the community cess rates were less than 50 percent dance of naturally occurring seedlings directly is a more sustainable approach because information on methods and increased, and the need to stop fish to reforestation and maintenance of sites was lacking. Planting outside nat- pond development was highlighted existing resources. Unfortunately, there ural mangrove habitat predisposed through community opinion and resis- is now a conflict between the existing efforts to failure and lack of land use tance in the area. This success encour- legislation that bans mangrove cutting planning meant that ownership and aged the DENR to increase its focus and the new policies allowing limited tenure were unclear. Furthermore, lack on the rehabilitation and management use by community stewards. This dis- of suitable planting material led of existing forest in its programs crepancy in national law and preferred to single species dominance in newly through community involvement. policy will need to be resolved. planted areas. The Buswang Mangrove Reforestation These initial experiments resulted in Project, started in 1990 in Kalibo, New Policies to Support 1990 in the first national policy on Panay Island, has been particularly suc- Sustainable Use and mangrove management that encouraged cessful. Here, the government con- Management community involvement by providing tracted Kalibo Save the Mangrove The official government-approved long-term security of tenure through Association, an organization with 26 conversion of mangrove habitat to fish the issuance of Mangrove Stewardship family beneficiaries, to replant 50 ha. pond use has virtually stopped, an Agreements. This was followed, howev- After four years, the organization was (continued page 38)
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 5 The Coastal Area Monitoring Project at Pearl Lagoon, Nicaragua experiencing increasing control over By Roberto Rigby and involve neighboring Pearl Lagoon the process and are making a number of Patrick Christie communities and extend research decisions and taking actions on their efforts to include other terrestrial and own. For example, meetings have been atural resources are the eco- aquatic environments. The develop- held with local political leaders to dis- N nomic base of 10 coastal com- ment of local human resources is fun- cuss natural resource management munities living around Pearl Lagoon, damental to this process. Communal issues and these leaders have responded the largest coastal lagoon on the resource management groups will be with moral and material support. Nicaraguan Caribbean coast. The established and the training of CAMP CAMP is also conducting research communities are small, most with that is resulting in valuable less than 500 inhabitants. The cultural information about the par- diversity of the area is considerable ticipatory management with distinct Miskitu, Garifuna and process itself. Through the Creole groups, each of which exploits use coastal resources in a different way. of qualitative research The most common occupations are methods, such as inter- fishing and farming, depending on the views and participant season. observation, CAMP The lagoon is surrounded by exten- staff are assessing the sive mangrove forests, pine savannas strengths and limitations (Pinus caribaea), and lowland rain for- of the project. This infor- est. While the lagoon ecosystem is still mation is fed back to pro- in relatively good condition compared ject participants for dis- to other systems in the region, a num- cussion and project reori- ber of environmental stresses are of entation. During inter- concern to local people. Of greatest views, the majority of importance are the potentially negative people say that they prefer effects of large scale sedimentation of the participatory approach the lagoon as the watersheds of its Pearl Lagoon’s communities. to the more centralized tributaries are deforested by agricul- approaches turalists and logging interests. Over- staff and participants in environmental to research and development that they fishing is now possible with the intro- monitoring and management are have experienced. They feel empowered duction of modern fishing gears and important activities. through the process and have noticed processing plants for export of fish and The project is based on a number that CAMP is raising the consciousness shrimp to the United States. To date, of important principles. First, CAMP of local people about the value of their 62 fish species have been identified in embraces the local perspective since it natural resources. While participatory the lagoon. Crocodiles and caymans, relies on local knowledge and partici- resource management is increasingly once common in lagoon tributaries, pation which are critical for the suc- common, a thorough longitudinal study have been heavily hunted. The harvest- cess of such plans. Second, the man- of this process is still relatively unique. ing of mangroves for fuel or tannins is agement plan considers the social, The documentation of this case study of limited but there has been recent dis- political, cultural context. Third, data participatory natural resource monitor- cussion of the introduction of large are collected on both terrestrial and ing and management could be useful for scale shrimp culturing into the area. aquatic ecosystems, a necessity if the other projects in Latin America. Since 1993, the Coastal Area plan is to ensure sustainable resource For more information contact: Monitoring Project (CAMP) has use. Finally, the concept of resource Roberto Rigby and Patrick Christie, employed participatory environmental management as a potential economic CAMP Co- Coordinators, Centre for monitoring to document water quality, and social benefit, rather than a threat, the Investigation and Documentation of forest condition, and fish yield that is being promoted through local par- the Atlantic Coast (CIDCA), P.O. Box will provide a foundation for the man- ticipation, and this in turn is helping 42, Bluefields, Nicaragua; Phone/FAX: agement plan which will be developed to develop local capacity for resource 50-5-82-735; E-mail: by local people. CAMP proposes to management. Already, local people are
6 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition Development Association and the pro- Collaborative Management posed Coastal and Lagoon at Rekawa Lagoon, Sri Lanka Environment Education and Research (CLEER) Center. By Piyasena Ganewatte main basin of the 200 ha lagoon, often The major objectives of the Special interspersed with plants such as Area Management Plan in relation to ri Lanka’s Coast Conservation Soneratia acidia (Kirala) which is used mangrove management are to: S Department (CCD) estimates that to make cork.Traditional uses for man- ■ Establish a Mangrove Forestry there are about 12,000 ha of mangroves grove products are varied in Sri Lanka Unit in the CLEER Center, supported forming a narrow intertidal belt usually and typical of other developing coun- by the Presidential Task Force of the around the perimeter of coastal lagoons, tries.There are also a few uses particu- Southern Development Authority. with 14 species of true mangroves and lar to the Rekawa area: the wood is ■ Develop expertise in mangrove 12 species of mangrove associates. used as fuel for lime kilns, as rafters ecology, mangrove ecosystems and sus- Mangrove research is coordinated by and poles in house construction and as tainable use of mangroves at the the National Mangrove Committee sticks to support vegetable plants.The CLEER Center. within the Natural Resources, Energy plaited fronds of the Nypa palm (Nypa ■ Implement a comprehensive sur- and Science Authority (NARESA). fruticans), are used as thatch in house vey of the mangroves of Rekawa and Members include the National Aquatic construction. the Southern Province of Sri Lanka Resources Agency (NARA), the Forest A Special Area Management Plan has and develop a national plan for their Department (responsible for the man- recently been approved by the local sustainable use. agement and conservation of the man- community and the concerned govern- There is also the need to develop groves), CCD, other government agen- ment and research organizations. It and implement a zoning scheme and cies and several universities. focuses on the development and imple- sustainable use plan for mangrove Rekawa Lagoon, lying on the south- mentation of sustainable use strategies resources through the RSAMCC. east coast about 200km from Colombo, for the mangrove resources through the The major activities involved in this are: has been the site of an intensive partici- collaboration of government, NGOs ■ Map locations of prime mangrove patory planning and management effort and community groups. The major stands designated for strict protection. since 1993, focused on the natural partners are the Forest Department, ■ Designate areas of mixed man- shrimp fishery, mangroves, agricultural NARA, CCD, Rekawa Special Area grove vegetation where limited use land use and beach habitat for sea tur- Management Coordinating Committee will be permitted. tles.The Rekawa mangroves contribute (RSAMCC), Hambantota Integrated ■ Form an agreement between the substantially to the health of the lagoon Rural Development Project, Rekawa Forest Department and community and its associated fisheries and tradi- Lagoon Fishery Cooperative Society, groups on joint management of the tional uses, and support a number of the newly established Rekawa mangrove resources that stipulates resident and migratory birds.The man- (continued page 8) groves form a narrow fringe along the shoreline of both the channel and the
Mangrove forests, coral reefs, beaches and sea turtle nesting sites found in the Rekawa area.
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 7 not always able to prevent others from User Groups Play Key Role cutting illegally. The result is an insecu- in St. Lucia rity of tenure which is a disincentive to gal to harvest trees there. However, conserve. Trees continue to be cut well By Mathias Burt CANARI facilitated the establishment before they reach the age of maximum and Brett Hudson of a resource user’s group which was productivity for fear that others will granted tacit permission by the gov- cut them down if they are left to ince 1981, the Caribbean Natural ernment to continue to produce char- mature. A second problem is that part- S Resources Institute (CANARI), coal in the reserve, at the same time ly because of the insecurity of tenure, the government of St. Lucia, and local collaborating with CANARI to moni- the group has not developed sufficient resource users tor levels of production and trends in organizational capacity to assume man- have been biomass. The formation of the user agement responsibility for the man- involved in a pro- group and the development of other grove as originally planned, and they ject aimed at the economic activities in the region continue to rely heavily on CANARI conservation of a reduced the number of people work- and the government to perform those 60 hectare (ha) ing in the mangrove. Improved cutting functions. mangrove forest techniques were adopted which allow To address both these concerns, the on the southeast for better regeneration of harvested Department of Fisheries now plans to coast of this small areas, and clear cutting has been aban- establish a local management authority island in the doned. As a result, the mangrove has for the mangrove, which would involve Lesser Antilles. begun to recover. Surveys conducted the user group in a co-management The principal use in 1992 demonstrated that stem densi- agreement with government agencies, of the forest is for ties have increased over previous years, CANARI, and other interested parties. the production of while the volume of charcoal being Hopefully, this will consolidate the char- charcoal, which is produced also increased. coal producer’s legal rights to harvest, a locally impor- Despite these improvements, prob- and provide the management expertise tant fuel source. lems remain. One of these is that the required to enhance the conservation Already it was legal status and resource management of this important local resource. clear that the prevailing harvest level responsibilities of the user group For more information contact: Brett was depleting the resource base. remain uncertain. This ambiguity and Hudson and Mathias Burt, Caribbean The mangrove was declared a the physical characteristics of the Natural Resources Institute, St. Lucia. marine reserve in 1984, making it ille- resource mean that the user group is E-mail: [email protected]
Rekawa ■ Conduct research in collaboration Forest Department and other govern- with the universities of Colombo, ment agencies, NGOs and community (continued from page 7) Peradeniya, Moratuwa, Ruhuna and groups is a unique feature of the plan. core areas of strict protection, areas of NARA. An expected outcome is the genera- limited and sustainable use, permitted ■ Implement a community aware- tion of income and employment uses, means of monitoring uses, and ness, education and training program through sustainable use of mangrove designated responsible persons or on the sustainable use of the mangroves. products. Rekawa is in a good position community groups. The chief implementing agency for as the community is already well orga- ■ Formalize an agreement declaring the Rekawa Mangrove Management nized, a community awareness pro- the area a sanctuary or forest reserve Plan will be the Forest Department gram has been in operation for more with limited use permits. assisted by the CCD, NARA and sever- than two years, and community orga- ■ Develop a mangrove park of about al universities as needed. The RSAM- nizations are taking action to minimize 50 ha for research and nature tourism, CC, consisting of divisional heads and mangrove degradation. and commence new livelihood projects field officers of all development For more information contact: such as sale of allowable mangrove departments and representatives of the Piyasena Ganewatte, Consultant, products. NGO sector, and chaired by the Coastal Resources Management ■ Protect an area for migratory Tangalla Divisional Secretary, will Project, 1 Gower Street, Colombo 5, birds that is close to the area of the serve as the Coordinating Committee. Sri Lanka. FAX: 941-500-207. proposed CLEER Center. Collaborative management by the
8 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition will be tested including optional nurs- Rehabitating the Mangrove ery management, site preparation and Forests of the Mekong Delta management, species selection and tending and management of seedlings. By Wandert Benthem , Dr. Nguyen Duy Chuyen, During Phase II, 6,600 ha will be re- L.B. van Lavieren and Wim J.M. Verheught planted. Four management strategies will he rich natural resources of crop production, salt mining, fuel be considered: T the Mekong Delta are of vital wood collection and fishing. Before ■ Reforestation of seriously degraded importance to Viet Nam. Covering an 1960, Minh Hai was covered with or cleared coastal areas. area of 3,900,000 hectares (ha), the some 200,000 ha of mangrove, mainly ■ Rehabilitation or additional planti- delta supports major agriculture and in the peninsular of Ca Mau, but dur- ng in partly degraded mangrove forests. aquaculture industries, with the man- ing the war more than half of this was ■ Natural regeneration in partly grove forests providing a myriad of eco- destroyed. At present less than 60,000 degraded areas where abundant natural logical functions and multiple uses, ha is left and 340 kilometers (km) of seedlings are available. such as substantial small-scale fisheries, coastline requires urgent protection ■ Active management and protec- forest and non-timber forest products against abrasive wave action. In the tion in areas with vigorous mangrove and a buffer against frequent storm province of Soc Trang 60 km of the 72 growth. surges. Excessive lumbering for timber km of shoreline are subject to serious The project comes under the and aerial spraying of defoliants during coastal erosion. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural the Viet Nam War devastated large From the outset, it was clear that in Development and is implemented by stretches of mangrove forest and caused order to acquire legitimacy for the the provincial forestry departments. a serious decline in biodiversity. More local stakeholders, the project would Technical assistance is provided by the recently there has been widespread have to establish benefits for them and Forest Inventory and Planning Institute, conversion into low-production aqua- seek their active involvement. The pro- the Research Institute for Aquaculture culture farms. Important fauna popula- ject is therefore combining mangrove and the Netherlands consultancy firms tions in the remnant mangrove forests protection with aquaculture develop- Euroconsult and Haskoning. While tech- are under great pressure due to habitat ment, the feasibility of this approach nical knowledge is available within the destruction and poaching. Loss of man- having been assessed during the former Forestry Department, staff lack groves has also led to changes in coastal MDMP. After rehabilitation, the man- hands-on experience in mangrove morphology, as the remnant forests no grove forest will be managed through forestry extension and working with longer provide adequate protection. In community participation, according to local communities. The RMF project is the western part of the Delta there is a model established by the Forestry seeking to strengthen the managerial accelerated accretion, whereas coastal Department which is based on a com- and institutional capacity of the relevant abrasion is serious in the south-east, bination of mangrove reforestation and agencies. It is focusing on pilot imple- with up to 70 meters of land being lost shrimp farming with a clearly outlined mentation for a number of selected sites per year, and frequent flooding and salt responsibility for joint management. It and it is hoped it will have a positive water intrusion ensues. involves providing 5-10 ha blocks of effect on the income levels of families In March 1996, the government degraded mangrove area to individual directly involved. A major component established the Rehabilitation of farmers/fishermen. Under a lease will be on-the-job training in silvicul- Mangrove Forests (RMF) Project for arrangement, governed by a contract, ture techniques, people’s participation the Mekong Delta as a follow-up to the 20-30 percent of this area may be used and empowerment and conservation 1990-1994 UNDP/World Bank-funded for aquaculture development, while education techniques. Mekong Delta Master Plan (MDMP) the remainder must be reforested. For more information contact: L.B. and the 1995-96 World Bank-funded Phase I of RMF comprises detailed van Lavieren, Senior Forestry Specialist; Coastal Wetlands Protection and biophysical and socio-economic sur- or Wim J.M. Verheught, Director, Development Project. The RMF project veys to map current land use and sites Ecological Services Department, aims to rehabilitate degraded mangrove in need of mangrove rehabilitation and Euroconsult, P.O. Box 441, 6800 A K forests along the south-eastern coast of reforestation. Workshops are being Arnhem, The Netherlands. FAX: +31- the Mekong Delta in the provinces of held to help communities understand 26 3577 577. Wandert Benthem is Minh Hai and Soc Trang. the need for management of their Team Leader, Rehabilitation of Some 145,000 people in this region sources of livelihood. Conservation Mangrove Forests, Mekong Delta; Dr. are assumed to be directly or indirectly education programs will focus on the Nguyen Duy Chuyen is Deputy dependent on mangroves, and are main- importance of mangroves. Director, Forest Inventory and Planning ly engaged in shrimp farming, crash Appropriate reforestation techniques Institute.
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 9 rehabilitation than the trial-and-error Research and Rehabilitation methods often adopted. Second, joint in Australia by cattle, which trample and eat man- efforts by universities and community- grove propagules (already-germinated driven projects such as KWRP can be By Bill Streever seeds). mutually beneficial, providing funding, New experiments were designed to public exposure, and research opportu- n Australia, rehabilitation of both 1) compare survival and growth of nities for university staff and students I inland and coastal wetlands has mangroves transplanted from other while giving rehabilitation projects become increasingly common since areas on Kooragang Island to survival valuable insight at a reasonable cost. 1990, and new government policies and growth of mangroves grown in a Third, an improved understanding of offer additional impetus for such shadehouse for three months prior to the role of research in management activities. The Kooragang Wetland transplanting, and 2) assess the effect improves cooperation between man- Rehabilitation Project (KWRP), which of fertilizer on growth. Results strong- agers and researchers, ultimately oversees rehabilitation at three Hunter ly suggest that shadehouse-grown increasing the efficiency and reliability River estuary sites, provides an exam- plants have a better chance of survival of rehabilitation efforts. ple of effective interaction between and that highest mean growth rates can For more information contact: Bill researchers from the Univer-sity of be achieved through the use of fertil- Streever, Kooragang Wetland Newcastle and a community-driven ized shadehouse-grown transplants. Rehabilitation Project and Department wetland rehabilitation project. Research was used to assess the impact of Biological Sciences, University of Scientists often lose sight of ecosystem of the decision by KWRP in December Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, managers’ needs, while managers may 1995, to erect a fence to exclude cat- Australia. E-mail:
10 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition The Restoration of Mangrove Ecosystems By Colin Field in order to identify the elements of the much of the original mangrove ecosys- mangrove ecosystem which must be tem has to be restored to ensure sus- n recent years, there have been included and to provide a clear frame- tained production. This demands fur- Idetailed studies of the fauna, flora, work for operation and implementa- ther research on pristine and disturbed ecology, hydrology, physiology and tion (Table 1). There are two main rea- mangrove ecosystems. It has certainly productivity of many different man- sons for restoring mangrove ecosys- not been established that maximizing grove ecosystems but the discrete tems, although the boundaries biodiversity in restored mangrove nature of these data makes the princi- between these are frequently unclear– ecosystems leads to maximum, or even pal factors controlling overall produc- conservation for ecosystem preserva- optimal, sustainable yields. Further- tivity very difficult to identify. This sit- tion and restoration for sustainable uti- more, the concept of “purpose-built” uation is, perhaps, not surprising given lization and protection of coastal areas. ecosystems may take on real value and the heterogeneity of mangrove ecosys- there may be a goal of enhancing pro- tems and the lack of a single model I. E cosystem Preservation ductivity without regard to how the that describes the way that they func- If the aim is to conserve an example restored system compares with the tion. Mangrove ecosystems are places of natural ecosystem, restoration will original one. where tides and coastal currents bring involve maintaining most ecological constant variation and where plants processes and preserving as much Restoration Approaches and animals have to adapt to changing genetic diversity as possible. The best A common approach to restoration chemical, physical and biological char- approach is probably to seek an undis- is essentially that of classical land man- acteristics. Even simple analysis is diffi- turbed area and to restrict utilization agement, with forestry or animal hus- cult because of the lack of bandry of a specialized comparable measuring Table 1. Site characteristics to be considered kind. Successful restoration techniques and a readily when restoring a mangrove ecosystem requires knowledge of the accessible data bank. Stability of site Insulation processes essential to The question then arises Rate of siltation Exposure to wind developing and supporting as to the meaning of Nature of soil Height of the water table the productivity of the sys- “restoration.” Several terms Exposure to waves and Presence of pests tem as a whole, rather than tidal currents (Acrostichum, barnacles, are used to describe efforts crabs) its parts. This is generally to rebuild disturbed ecosys- Salinity of the soil water Availability of propagules lacking for mangroves. If tems, including reclamation, Depth of tidal inundation Signs of natural regeneration there is to be intensive and rehabilitation, eco-develop- Gradient of site Absence of debris selective use of mangrove ment and restoration, and Availability of fresh water Cooperation from local forests, then specialized these are often used inter- (rain or run-off) communities knowledge needs to be changeably. acquired for plants and “Restoration” is used here as the act and interference from external factors. animals in areas such as genetics, of bringing an ecosystem back, as close If the area is truly pristine then it is nutrition, stocking procedures, disease as possible, to its original condition, or likely that very little management will control and harvesting. In turn, this renewing or bringing it back into use. be required. If a mangrove forest is knowledge needs to be supported by In practice, restoration rarely means disturbed by logging, it is unlikely that appropriate technology and suitable returning an ecosystem to its original it will regenerate to anything like its legislation. condition. original state, as the mix of species, soil Lugo (1988) describes four restora- type, density of trees and numbers of tion activities, where the goal is sus- Reasons for Restoration animals will almost certainly change. tainable use: Restoring a mangrove ecosystem ■ Reduction of environmental stress implies that it has been altered or II. Sustainable Use and C oastal (fire, cutting, over-grazing). degraded in a way that conflicts with Protection ■ Adding materials (plants, animals, management or conservation objec- In this case, the priority will be to water, fertilizer, soil). tives, leading to competition for land maximize sustainable productivity. ■ Accelerating or decelerating use. At times, though, it can arise from Less attention can be paid to restoring ecosystem processes (encouraging nat- climatic impacts that have destroyed as much of the ecosystem as possible ural regeneration). the natural vegetation. It is essential to and more given to the cost benefit of define restoration goals as a first step, the product. A critical question is how (continued page 12)
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 11 Mangrove Replantation Project in Pakistan By Najam Khurshid and Fayyaz Rasool Seedlings have to be cared for and protected for 8-12 months until they onmiani Bay on the Makran coast mangroves and getting them involved are sufficiently mature to be planted S of Pakistan is surrounded by three in the project. An on-site project officer out and subjected to tides and strong villages: Sonmiani, Damb and Bhira. was appointed who interacts directly winds. Transplanting of the seedlings The mangroves around the Bay have with the community and constantly was completed and new seeds have been been severely degraded by cutting and promotes the value of mangroves. sown for transplantation next year. overgrazing. WWF-Pakistan is sup- Rapport with the local community has If the pilot work goes well, a full porting a replanting project at been established, and acceptance has afforestation program will be developed Sonmiani where gaining the support been gained for the project. for Sonmiani, and as local communities and participation of the local people is In May 1995, in collaboration with increasingly recognize the benefits of a high priority. the Baluchistan Forest and Wildlife such efforts, mangrove restoration pro- Sonmiani itself does not have true Department, two nurseries were estab- grams will be started elsewhere. With mangrove forest, but there is suitable lished, as experimental work had shown the development of this sense of “stew- habitat. It was believed that if a man- that of the three species found in the ardship” for natural resources, WWF- grove plantation could be developed area, only Avicennia marina grows suc- Pakistan will then be able to expand the there, the villagers could visibly bene- cessfully if sown directly into the wild. program to cover sustainable manage- fit from it, and word of the mangrove Beds were prepared and pits dug, ment of other marine and coastal management there would quickly and seeds were held for germination. resources. spread to the other coastal communi- Ripe seeds which fall off the parent For more information contact: ties. An informal education and aware- tree were collected and sown individu- Najam Khurshid, Conservation Direc- ness program for local school children ally in each bag in the nursery by the tor; or Fayyaz Rasool, Conservation and villagers has been started, appris- villagers, with women and children Officer, World Wildlife Fund Pakistan, 12thFloor, Sidco Ave, Centre, 264, ing villagers of the many benefits of actively participating. R.A. Lines, Karachi, Pakistan.
Restoration or genetic changes in populations that exploited or disturbed without loss of (continued from page 11) may preclude restoration to a known integrity but there is often a reluctance original condition. among ecologists and conservationists ■ Changing site conditions (drain- ■ A lack of understanding of the to approve of such manipulation even age, shading). natural variability of an ecosystem and though it may lead to enhanced pro- Finally, restoration can be extremely its recovery process. ductivity. Consequently, mangrove expensive, not only because of the ■ The often high cost of restoring restoration has tended to concentrate technical aspects, but also because land an ecosystem to something like its on preservation of animal and plant purchase and litigation may be involved. original state as opposed to the cre- species threatened with habitat loss. ation of an alternative at substantially Mangrove restoration projects them- Measuring Restoration less cost. selves could help to supply some of the Success Cairns and Buikema (1984) argue scientific knowledge that is currently Measuring the success of the that an ecosystem’s response to a dis- lacking, if they are carried out with restoration process is a challenge that turbance depends on three characteris- clear objectives under carefully con- is rarely recognized. If restored man- tics–its ability to resist change, to trolled conditions and incorporate grove ecosystems are to be compared recover and its resilience to repeated long-term monitoring. A high priority with naturally occurring ones, then disturbances. In the case of mangroves, is to document the many restoration comparative measurement of produc- there is only patchy information on projects underway around the world tivity, movement of organic matter and these characteristics. and to make such information freely organization of the food chain will available. have to be carried out. Additional Conclusion For more information contact: problems are: Sustainable development implies Colin Field, University of Technology, ■ An inability to define long-term that an ecosystem can be manipulated, Sydney, Australia.
12 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition Abandoned Shrimp Ponds: Options for Mangrove Rehabilitation
By N. J. Stevenson and P. R. Burbridge (A.A.S.S.) which release large quanti- ties of acid and toxic levels of iron and Khiri Khan, with aluminum upon wetting. Research in similar figures for Southeast Asia has revealed that acid, the provinces of iron and aluminum are directly res- Songkhla and Si ponsible for fish and prawn losses and Thammarat. The general low productivity. Although it is Bangkok Post of possible to culture shrimps in ponds in February 20, 1995 acid sulfate soils by adding lime and reported that overall increasing water exchange, the tech- about 24 percent of nology is not always available, and in shrimp farms in Viet Nam the development of A.A.S.S. Thailand are being has led to pond abandonment. Other abandoned, and that Disused shrimp pond in Kumta, Karnataka, India. (Photo courtesy causes of pond failure or abandonment of Jesmond Sammut, University of New South Wales, Sydney) each 1,000 ha of include improper site selection, poor abandoned ponds construction methods, poor water he extent of mangrove defor- equates to an economic loss of 80 thou- quality and circulation, poor farming T estation for shrimp farming is sand pounds sterling each year. practices, a lack of post-larvae and/or unknown, but is thought to be substan- Similarly, it has been recently estimat- broodstock, market constraints, and tial on a global scale. For example, in ed that in some areas only 20 percent government policy or intervention. the Philippines, an estimated 50 per- of farms are currently operational, and The environmental conditions left cent (approximately 141,000 hectares in other small producing areas, 100 after abandonment may be more sig- {ha}) of mangrove loss can be traced percent of ponds may be inopera- nificant in impeding rehabilitation of a to brackish water pond development tional. pond than the original cause of failure. and in Viet Nam over 102,000 ha of For instance, in Karnataka, India, hun- shrimp ponds were constructed in Causes and dreds of ponds are said to be aban- mangroves between 1983 and 1987. Consequences of doned as a result of White Spot disease Much of the mangrove conversion has Abandonment but the major obstacle to their rede- been rapid, unplanned and unmanaged, Ponds are left idle for a variety of velopment is the prevalence of A.A.S.S. and many farms have proven to be reasons. For instance, declining envi- unsustainable. Consequently many ronmental quality may cause an Table 1. Use of abandoned shrimp ponds ponds have been left idle or abandoned, increased incidence of disease and has in Samut Sakorn, Thailand and farmers have developed new sites been widely cited as commonly caus- ha perent in an effort to maintain production. ing production failure. A variety of Converted to traditional system This presents a major challenge for diseases have spread from one location shrimp culture 1,173 33 Converted to salt farming 711 20 both coastal resource managers and to another. In Thailand these included Converted to coconut plantations 248 7 pond owners who have to address the Monodon baculovirus in 1988, the Top soil sold for construction Yellow Head baculovirus in 1992 and, question of what to do with unproduc- purposes 248 7 more recently, White Spot disease which tive ponds. Left idle 213 6 An indication of the frequency of is estimated to have been responsible Unidentified 962 27 for losses of 50-80 percent production abandonment can be gained from in- Total 3,555 ha 100 during 1996. Other countries where formation for Thailand. By 1989, about (Source: NACA 1994 translated from Thai by B. Srethasirote 1996 pers.comm) 22 percent of the farms in Samut disease has led to pond failure include Sakorn province had been abandoned, India, the Philippines, Taiwan and which, if untreated, may persist for and a 1994 study noted that some Indonesia. many years. The acidic water resulting 4,000-4,500 ha of ponds south of Potential acid sulfate soils (P.A.S.S.) from these soils can destroy food Bangkok have ceased production due exist in many mangrove soils and, as a resources, displace biota, release toxic to disease and are now largely derelict. result of the excavation and construc- levels of aluminum, precipitate iron An estimated 70-80 percent of ponds tion of shrimp ponds, become oxidized which smothers vegetation and micro- have been abandoned in Prachuap and form actual acid sulfate soils (continued page 14)
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 13 Abandoned Shrimp examples of the second option–con- Ponds version to other uses. In Thailand, Constraints to Restoration and (continued from page 13) large tracts of abandoned shrimp ponds in Samut Sakhorn have been Sustainable Use habitat, and alter the physical and converted to housing estates and The remediation of acid sulfate soils chemical properties of the water industrial development (although such presents many problems, not least of (Sammut et al. in press). Consequently, activities may not constitute “best use” which are the time required and the acid-tolerant species may dominate and options and costs involved. One further impede restoration attempts. may have their treatment involves the Mangrove clearance, shrimp cultiva- own specific deliberate oxidation of tion and the abandonment of ponds ecological the acid-producing may also alter soils in other ways impacts). material (pyrite) and including accelerating soil erosion by Some aban- flushing out with increasing surface run-off and inter- doned shrimp brackish or fresh flow; decreasing soil water storage farms have water. This reduces capacity; reducing biodiversity of soil been converted soil acidity but does fauna; altering the transport of sedi- to salt farms or not take into account ments, dissolved inorganic and organic fish culture the ecological impact constituents and principal nutrients; of the acid leachate. operations for Excavation of shrimp pond in Potential Acid increasing levels of toxic chemicals; sea bass and Sulphate Soils (PASS) in Kumta, Karnatake, In addition, successful India (Photo courtesy of Jesmond Sammut, and depleting organic matter through tilapia, and University of New South Wales, Sydney) replanting of aban- leaching and mineralization. shrimp farms doned shrimp ponds located near main roads have sold top may be severely constrained by Options for Rehabilitation soil for construction projects (Table increased erosion, the activation of and Restoration 1). The Department of Fisheries in acid sulfate soils, and the presence of There are three basic options for Thailand has promoted cage culture of shrimp culture related chemicals. dealing with abandoned ponds: fish (including mullet and sea bass), Variable success rates have been 1. Rehabilitation for shrimp pro- blood cockles and mussels in aban- achieved with different mangrove duction; doned shrimp farms. However there species in small scale experiments. 2. Rehabilitation for other sustain- have been some major problems, Additional constraints include the lack of technical expertise in general Table 2: Intentions of farmers including lack of seed for blood cock- habitat restoration and an even greater who have abandoned their land les, lack of suitable fish species for cage culture in idle ponds, lack of lack of experience in restoration of No. of farms percent unproductive shrimp ponds. Market Return to shrimp culture 38 73.08 investment credit and the need for Culture fish (Seabass) 1 1.92 technology transfer related to aquacul- forces and the preferences of the pond Make salt farm 4 7.69 ture and mariculture. operators must also be considered Sell land 3 5.77 There has been some success with when identifying potential alternative Leave the land 2 3.85 using abandoned shrimp ponds for uses, and their economic feasibility. Other (Agriculture land, housing grouper culture in the Philippines and For example, a survey in Thailand and land for rent) 4 7.69 crab culture in Thailand, and it has been showed that the primary aim of farm- Total 52 100.00 suggested that the abandoned ponds ers with unproductive ponds is to start (Source: NACA 1994 translated from Thai by Buntoon Srethasirote 1996 could be used for polychaete culture, shrimp culture again (Table 2). pers.comm.) integrated salt-artemia production or Options which meet both the manage- able uses such as salt production or shrimp-salt production. Integrated ment objectives of coastal resource integrated aquaculture; shrimp culture may be the most attrac- managers and those of the pond own- 3. Restoration of the environmen- tive option to farmers who have ceased ers should be pursued. tal conditions within the ponds and shrimp production but still own or have Finally, there is the question of who surrounding area to a productive man- the lease rights to the ponds. Aqua-sil- bears the costs of redevelopment. grove ecosystem. viculture could be used to facilitate the Restoration of unproductive shrimp The suitability of these options restoration of abandoned, unproduc- ponds to a productive mangrove depends on the causes of failure of the tive or denuded open areas to a pro- ecosystem is very expensive, particu- pond operations and the conditions ductive condition, and might reduce larly if propagules are in short supply which remain in the pond after aban- mangrove replanting costs by provid- and if it is necessary to create a donment. There are several successful ing a local supply of propagules and (continued page 16) minimizing transport costs. 14 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition Aquaculture in Madagascar’s ■ There are business opportunities Mahajamba Bay for collaborative efforts by groups which specialize in oceanographic, By M. Rasolofoharinoro, ■ The use of the bare tannes means marine and biochemical resources to F. Blasco and J. Denis that there is no need to clear vegeta- produce marine products which must tion for ponds. meet the strict industrial standards of quaculture in Madagascar’s ■ The Mahajamba mangroves have the international market. A Malagasy mangroves has provid- been protected for many years, as they ■ The aquaculture facility provides ed a boost to the local economy, but are considered inviolable and have foreign currency to the Malagasy econ- problems in the form of mangrove been a factor in the social unity of omy and permits the import of feed, destruction and increasing pollution local communities. disinfection products and other items. threaten the area. A bibliographic and ■ There is a plentiful workforce for From 1993 to 1995, 644 ha were photographic analysis (aerial photos the aquaculture facility, though people used for assay and exploitation of from 1992 and SPOT imagery from had been forced to emigrate when a ponds, the shrimp processing plant and 1993) and field studies, however, sug- starch factory closed down, and land reception infrastructure. Eighty ponds gest some solutions. are situated in dry National operators and foreign tannes, previously investors in Madagascar are increasing- occupied by ly exploiting the coast because of the Salicornia pachys- depletion of forest, agricultural and tachia pastoral areas. The Malagasy (Chenopodiaceae), mangroves, covering some 400,000 and are being protect- hectares (ha), provide optimal condi- ed from erosion by tions for aquaculture, particularly in herringbone wood- estuaries and embayments. stakes work until the The western coast of Madagascar planted mangroves, could potentially produce 58,000 tons Avicennia marina, of crustaceans per year, but aquaculture have grown. It is an is a still recent development. It started intensive aquaculture with a pilot hatchery project in 1990 at system. The ponds, Nosy-Be, which was followed in 1993 which average over by a shrimp farming operation of over 0.5 ha, are equipped 3,995 ha, established by a fishery com- with water-pumps, pany in Mahajamba Bay.A number of filters and aerators, natural,social and economic factors have adapted to suit the contributed to aquaculture’s success: diverse requirements ■ The extensive salt-flat areas, called of each stage in the “tannes,” which occupy the middle and growth of the shrimps upper courses of channels of the (e.g. artificial feeding, Masokoenja and Marovoaikely Rivers. water quality moni- These are formed by the high spring- toring).The repro- tide range of 3.5 meters, and are pro- duction rate is rela- tected by a screen of mangrove trees. Shrimp farm facilities: Mahajamba Bay (1993-1995) Sources: Base tively high (above 80 map (FTM) et AQUALMA - Shrimp Ponds Map The permanent flow over the tannes percent) and, since provides organic and mineral-enriched and agricultural opportunities became 1993, staggered crops have been pro- soft water, which helps to make the scarcer. duced regularly. Methods in the process- area a good nursery for many aquatic ■ Some employment opportunities ing plant are prepared, using perfected species, particularly shrimps and have been created by the aquaculture fittings and a research laboratory.This prawns. operation-cutting mangrove trees for success provides encouragement for the ■ The clay-like texture of the tannes timber, transport of motor-fuel, tool continuation of shrimp farming at other provides an impermeable substrate, repairing and improvements to the sites and for similar projects elsewhere favorable to shrimp-pond construction. local infrastructure. (continued page 16)
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 15 Madagascar some flow-on effects endangering the remote sensing. (continued from page 15) mangrove ecosystem: for example, per- At the regional level, infrastructure must manent occupation, more cutting for be improved to reduce the occupation of in the country. timber, firewood, smoking of fish, col- mangroves, for example by constructing Nevertheless, several environmental lieries, more fishing and/or conversion and maintaining roads in other areas, par- impacts are already being felt which of mangrove into rice fields. ticularly in agricultural and pastoral areas. threaten the facility: Aquaculture may be a suitable land In the same way, social equipment and land 1. Mangrove destruction is wide- use for some less productive parts of reliability in traditional spaces must be spread, even in dense mangrove areas, the mangrove ecosystem, but better rehabilitated. Forestry should be encour- as dikes and embankments have to be data are required to assess aquaculture aged and the establishment of new opera- constructed. work and impact to control environ- tions should be restricted to avoid increas- 2. Sensitive sites, notably silting ment effects. Otherwise, the inade- ing environmental impact. At the local zones, are being used which increase quate legislation and the lack of access level the topographic lines must be taken the extent of tannes. prevents effective control of the milieu. into account by all facilities, particularly 3. The safety measures taken are not At the national level, a policy for creeks, channels favoring drainage, or for sufficient to prevent risks from natural coastal facilities, notably aquaculture laying out dikes or banks. Imperatives for disasters or disrupting flows (e.g., fill- operations, is urgently needed. New protecting mangroves include: ing up of channels, inundation). legislation is also needed. The forest ■ Respect for current patterns in dredge 4. Dredging is increasing water tur- legislation, dating from 1930, covers works. bidity, as the current patterns are not mangroves but was formulated for ter- ■ Control and survey of all intervention taken into consideration; dredging on restrial forests. The legislation for aqua- in the mangrove (fishing, wood exploita- potential acid sulfate soils accelerates culture is recent (1985), but is mainly tion, salt extraction). their acidification, and salts are rising concerned with fishing. In addition, ■ Removal of cutting licenses and clear- to the surface, rich in chlorides and there needs to be more effective ing areas in the mangrove. sulfates, forming a whitish powder. enforcement of the legislation and pro- ■ Control and survey of navigation and 5. Pollutants (e.g., waste-water, vision of the necessary enforcement fuel transport. wastes of farming and processing, dis- personnel and methods of transport, as Aquaculture is a good use of the tannes infection products, engine oil) are well as involvement of the local com- and promotes regional development by cre- degrading water-quality. Rising tem- munities to avoid any conflict. Sensitive ating local employment and improving peratures, oxygen saturation reduced zones have to be defined and delineated infrastructure, but its future depends on to less than two percent, high salinity, with the collaboration of local commu- better mitigation of the environmental weak flow of tides, abundance of whitish nities, and the number and types of impacts. The destruction of mangroves, froths and foul smells are emitted by occupation per site and the resort cal- falling banks, alteration of the quality of wastewater even after decanting. endar must be respected. Replanting water, disorganization of the flow, and the 6. Noise caused by pumps and ship- (particularly with Avicennia marina ) acidification of the soils certainly endanger ping, and turbulence movements must be done and controlled, to ensure shrimp farming. around ships can disturb the flora and the regeneration of mangrove and the A database updated by remote sensing and fauna (e.g., juvenile fishes, seedlings protecting of its ecosystem. Planning an impact study will allow the growth, subsidence of banks). must include the treatment of pollu- mangrove ecosystem to be surveyed 7. The weak bearing capacity per tants (incineration and burial of wastes, and controlled. unit of area of mangrove soils requires complete treatment of waste-water For more information contact: M. the widespread use of dikes and inten- before discharging into channels or Rasolofoharinoro, F. Blasco and J. Denis, sification of embankments to the detri- rivers). An improved database on the Laboratoire d’Ecologie Terrestre, ment of the mangroves. mangrove ecosystem and the results of CNRS/UPS, BP. 4403 - 31405 Toulouse 8. The aquaculture activity has impact studies is needed, updated by CEDEX, France.
Abandoned Shrimp cost of keeping or replacing it), this Burbridge, Centre for Tropical Coastal Ponds (continued from page 14) would not speed the redevelopment of Management Studies, Department of seedling nursery. Although it may be unproductive ponds. Consequently Marine Sciences and Coastal possible to create financial disincentives other means of catalyzing and funding Management, University of Newcastle to prevent or limit future habitat destruc- rehabilitation or restoration activities upon Tyne, Newcastle NE1 7RU, UK. tion (by making the costs of destroying or must be found. E-mail: P. R. Burbridge@newcastle. ac.uk. or Nathalie Stevenson. E-mail: denuding a habitat match or exceed the For more information contact: Peter [email protected].
16 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition The pressure to build shrimp farms Majagual: The Tallest Mangroves in Esmeraldas is intense and the need in the World for practical approaches to conserving mangroves and their traditional uses is By Emilio Ochoa fauna and flora is now declining at a rate faster than it can naturally recover. urgent. Timber harvesting brings in a revenue Since 1990, shrimp production in the ajagual is an estate in the north of 400,000 sucres/hectares(ha)/yr Gulf of Guayaquil has been unusually of Esmeraldas, the northern- M (10-15 m3/ha/yr) and some 500,000 low: mortality of juvenile shrimp is high most province of Ecuador. It lies in crabs and mollusks are collected each the estuary of the Cayapas-Santiago- week, with a value of about 5,000,000 Mataje Rivers, on the border with sucres (US$1,500 approx.). Part of the estate was bought by a company, Purocongo, and in 1993 shrimp aquaculture ponds were con- structed amidst major protests, suspi- cion and initial concern by the local community. Tension rose considerably when various NGOs and the press reported that the company had cut the mangroves to open a canal to bring in Colombia, an area which encompasses water. The Programa de Manejo de almost 22,000 hectares (ha) of man- Recursos Costeros and the Fundacion grove and some 50,000 inhabitants. Maldonado intervened and the compa- Some of the tallest mangrove trees in ny agreed to draw up an agreement the world are found here, reaching with the community and authorities to over 60 meters in height. Several of develop its ponds and at the same time these are on private property and could protect the mangroves. Majagual is now and the adults have slow growth. These be felled at any moment. The forest is the site of a controversial experiment, are both considered symptoms of the mature and very dense, with very little so far successful, where shrimp farm- “Taura Syndrome.” The causes of this light penetrating the foliage of the can- ers are learning to co-exist with man- and other production problems for opy. Some of the trees are about 100 groves. The Foundation was given the shrimp farmers are much debated. years old and, seen from the distance, mangroves by Some argue that appear as tall, thin columns. Purocongo in order the problems are The traditional uses of mangroves to ensure their pro- related to the use (charcoal, fuel wood, collection of tection, and the of agrochemicals shellfish and shrimps) gave way in company and the by nearby banana recent years to the harvesting of large local community growers, while trees for posts and to clearing for negotiated a deal others believe that shrimp pond development. The growth with the following the causes are dis- of both traditional and modern pres- conditions: eases specific to sures is damaging the structure of the ■ All shrimp shrimp. Whatever mangrove forest in such a way that its ponds to be located 50 meters behind it may be, many shrimp farmers are the mangroves in order not to affect having to withdraw their investments the root systems. and transfer them to areas that are envi- ■ No alteration of the mangrove ronmentally healthy. Esmeraldas makes cover. an inviting target. ■ No alteration of the natural water For more information contact: flow with dams, walls or by diverting Emilio Ochoa, Coordinator for water courses. CRC/URI in Latin America, P.O. Box ■ Traditional use of and access to 09 01 11067 Guayaquil, Ecuador. the mangrove area to be guaranteed to Phone: 5934 830561 (H)/5934 the local population. 281144/284453(O); FAX: 5934 ■ Ecotourism activities and research 285038; E-mail: to be encouraged.
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 17 Market Opportunities for Addressing the Environmental and Social Impacts of Wild-Captured and Pond-Produced Shrimp By Jason W. Clay coastal environment. In Bahia de shrimp pond development has an Caraquez, a large bay in Ecuador, for important impact on mangrove ecosys- he Commodities Program of example, 95 percent of the mangroves tems and is creating conflict among T WWF-US is producing an have been destroyed to make way for shrimp farmers and traditional coastal extensive report which analyzes the shrimp ponds. Other environmental communities. environmental and social impacts of impacts involve the by-catch from cap- Analysis of the shrimp market chain wild-caught and pond-raised shrimp, ture of fry, and the use and discharge will give an indication of where, in the and the structure of the shrimp market of large volumes of water with heavy current system, it might be possible to chain, shrimp consumption, and trade. chemical loads. The main environmen- intercede in ways that could create The goal is to improve understanding tal impacts of wild-caught adult shrimp more sustainable shrimp production by of trade and environment linkages, and are the by-catch, the highest of any addressing both environmental and to formulate policy recommendations fishing industry, and the routine and social impacts. The report will offer a for improving the environmental sustain- systematic disturbance of the ocean comprehensive set of conclusions and ability of shrimp production systems. floor by nets and runners. recommendations regarding both wild- Both shrimp mariculture and har- The social impacts of the two shrimp caught and pond-raised shrimp produc- vest of wild shrimp pose different but production systems are similar. In both tion systems. equally troubling environmental im- cases, destructive practices erode the For more information contact: Jason pacts. Export-oriented shrimp farming livelihoods of coastal residents causing W. Clay, Commodities Program, has led to large areas of coastal man- hardship and further environmental World Wildlife Fund, 1250 24th grove being cleared for the construc- degradation as they seek new ways to Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037- tion of shrimp ponds with important make a living. In the Honduran portion 1175. Tel: 202-778-9691. FAX: 202- impacts on estuary systems and the of the Gulf of Fonseca, for example, 293-9211. E-mail:
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If you’ve missed any recent issues of Intercoast Network, you can catch up on back information and opinions by visiting the University of Rhode Island’s Coastal Resources Center home page on the World Wide Web at
■ A country-by-country global Data Base on coastal management initiatives worldwide. ■ “Educating Coastal Managers,” the proceedings of a 1995 workshop held in Rhode Island, which provides a call to action for new and improved ways of educating and training coastal practitioners and evolving the discipline into a professional career field with enhanced educational opportunities. ■ Opinion and editorial pieces by Intercoast’s co-editor Stephen Olsen, which have been appearing on a regular basis in the U.S. press.
We welcome suggestions or comments on CRC’s World Wide Web page that will help improve dis- semination of information and news on coastal management. Contact: Chip Young, Managing Editor, Intercoast Network, Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, South Ferry Road, Narragansett, RI, 02882 USA. Phone: (401) 874-6630; FAX: (401) 789-4670; E-mail:
18 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition A Comparative Assessment of measurement of light transmittance through the canopy. An independent Remote Sensing for Mangroves data set was then used to test the accu- racy of this prediction. Accuracy was by E.P. Green, P.J. Mumby, A.J. habitat categories to an overall accuracy found to be high for both Landsat TM Edwards and C.D. Clark of 78.2 percent but all classifications of and CASI (88 percent and 95 percent SPOT XS data failed to discriminate sat- respectively). In addition, the mean dif- ecision makers interested in isfactorily between mangrove and non- ference between predicted and mea- Dadopting remote sensing are faced with mangrove vegetation. Classification accu- sured LAI error was low (5 percent and a variety of satellite and airborne sys- racy of the Landsat TM data was depen- 13 percent respectively). These results tems. Choosing the most appropriate dent upon the method used. Only one show that remote sensing is a powerful systems will depend on the objectives of processing method (band-rationing and tool for estimating the spatial distribu- the study and size of the budget but few, principal component analysis) accurately tion of LAI throughout large areas of if any, guidelines exists to facilitate this discriminated between mangrove and mangrove. The assessment of LAI can be process. A joint project between the terrestrial vegetation (92.3 percent) but conducted with minimal field data Universities of Newcastle and Sheffield just two of the six mangrove classes which is particularly desirable for dense (UK) seeks to critically evaluate these could be distinguished. The superior spa- mangrove stands where logistical and issues for a suite of mangrove manage- tial and spectral resolution of the CASI sampling difficulties can be severe. The ment objectives. Satellite (SPOT XS and allows mangrove areas to be assessed to a comparative approach to remote sensing Landsat TM) and airborne multispectral greater level of detail and accuracy than for mangrove management will be dis- cussed in the Sensor C overage of Image Resolution C ost* book Practical Spatial Spectral Radiometric Remote Landsat TM 185 x 185km 30m 7 bands 8 bit 1 Sensing for SPOT XS 60 x 60km 20m 3 bands 8 bit 11 Tropical CASI ** variable 3m 15 bands 12 bit 4630 Coastal CASI** variable 1m 8 bands 12 bit 4630 Management which is to be * Costs are for imagery alone, and exclude costs of fieldwork, processing, accuracy assessment etc. ** CASI can be configured with different spectral resolutions. Spatial resolution depends on aircraft altitude. Users define the area of completed in CASI coverage according to their needs - the width of a flight line of imagery depends on spatial resolution and therefore aircraft alti- autumn 1997 tude. (similar chap- ters will (CASI, Compact Airborne with satellite sensors. address remote sensing of coral reefs, Spectrographic Imager) data have been Field data have also been used to seagrass beds and bathymetry). The cost acquired for mangroves in the Turks and model the relationship between the effectiveness of different sensors in rela- Caicos Islands, British West Indies. imagery-derived normalized difference tion to specific management applica- These data cover a spectrum of resolu- vegetation index (NDVI) and leaf area tions, such as habitat mapping and the tion and cost, and their ability to index (LAI) of the mangrove canopy. The prediction of ecological data across achieve different management objectives importance of measuring LAI stems whole ecosystems, will be presented in has been evaluated. from its relationship with a range of bio- a manner which is designed to facilitate The western coast of the Caicos bank logical processes including rates of pho- informed choices by potential users of is inhabited by three species of man- tosynthesis, transpiration and evapotran- remote sensing. grove. Stands were surveyed for species spiration, net primary production and For more information contact: E.P. composition, tree height and density. rates of energy exchange. Measurements Green, Center for Tropical Coastal These variables, when classified, identi- of LAI have also been used to predict Management Studies, Department of fied six mangrove habitat categories. future growth and yield and to monitor Marine Sciences and Coastal This habitat scheme was then used to changes in canopy structure due to pol- Management, University of Newcastle, direct a classification of the remotely lution and climate. The ability to esti- Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK; sensed data by five different methods mate LAI is therefore a valuable tool in E-mail:
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 19 such figures is a difficult exercise, par- The Global Distribution and ticularly making them comparable Status of Mangrove Ecosystems between countries or regions. This is because there is wide variability both in by Mark D. Spalding are widely distributed, although their the spatial scale and accuracy of differ- latitudinal development is restricted ent studies, and in the way in which Where Are along the western coasts of the people define mangroves. Some defini- Mangroves Found? Americas and Africa compared to the tions of the ecosystem include areas of equivalent eastern coasts. In the Pacific salt-flats and open water; others cover robably the earliest known refer- Ocean, natural mangrove communities only fully developed trees of specified Pence to mangroves is that of are limited to western areas, and they density or canopy height. The man- Nearchus and Theophrastus who are absent from many of the more east- grove palm Nypa fruticans, found in described the mangroves of the Arabian ern islands. monospecific stands in many areas, is Gulf over 2,000 years ago. The first Modern distribution patterns of excluded from some definitions but not known use of the term mangrove is mangroves are the result of a wide others. In some areas there may be fur- an early 16th century chart of Brazil range of historical and contemporary ther problems of misidentification. For which marks “manguez” along the coast factors. The most obvious distribution example, figures for mangrove area in of the Golfo de los Reyes, just south of patterns, the latitudinal limits, are Venezuela (given as over 6000 square Rio de Janeiro.Charts of the Moluccas largely set by low sea surface and air kilometers {sq km}) may be overesti- (Indonesia) from the same period show temperatures, and particularly by tem- mated by over 100 percent as they are forest areas marked as “alagados” perature extremes. Rainfall also has a based on remotely-sensed images in (“inundated”), strong influence through the reduction which it is difficult to distinguish true which were of salinity. Although mangroves are mangroves from Symphonia globulifera, undoubtedly adapted to saline or brackish environ- a swamp-forest species. mangroves. A ments, the high salinity of seawater, and The best-available estimate of global recent world- the sometimes higher salinities associat- mangrove coverage, calculated for the wide review ed with intertidal areas, particularly in World Mangrove Atlas, is just over of the distrib- arid countries, frequently restrict 180,000 sq km (Figure 1), a tiny area ution and sta- growth. In areas with low, irregular or compared with other forest types tus of man- limited seasonal rainfall, the number of (Figure 2), or with coral reefs which grove forests, mangrove species which can survive is may cover three times as much (based compiled by limited and there is sparse mangrove on Smith’s 1978 estimate of 600,000 sq the World development as on the coast of the km). Most mangrove is found in the Conservation Arabian peninsula. Historical and tec- south and southeast Asian regions, with Monitoring tonic factors are probably responsible Indonesia alone accounting for 23 per- Centre and the Institut de la Carte for the easterly limit of mangrove cent of the world’s total. Just four Internationale de la Vegetation, to be development in the Pacific, although countries (Indonesia, Brazil, Australia, published in 1996 by the International the exact mechanisms are unclear. At Nigeria) have some 43 percent of the Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, with the national and local level, many other world’s mangroves and each has support from the International Tropical factors influence the distribution of between 25 percent and 50 percent of Timber Organization, provides what is mangroves, including soils, tides, geo- the mangroves in their respective probably the most thorough survey of morphology, mineral availability, soil regions (Figure 3). mangrove distribution undertaken to aeration, winds, currents and wave date. action. Most significantly now, human How Fast Are Mangroves Mangroves occur in 112 countries activities are affecting mangrove distri- Disappearing? and territories and are largely confined bution patterns at all scales. Accurate figures for total mangrove to the regions between 30’ north and loss are unavailable for most countries, south of the equator. Notable exten- How Much Mangrove although there is a considerable wealth sions beyond this are to the north in Is There? of anecdotal figures and “guesstimates”. Bermuda (32’20’N) and Japan The amount of mangrove in any Where data are available, major (31’22’N), and to the south in Australia country or region, and the rate of its declines in mangrove coverage can be (38’45’S), New Zealand (38’03’S) and loss or deterioration, is important for seen, as exemplified in southeast Asia: on the east coast of South Africa policy-making, planning and resource • Philippines - 60 percent (from (32’59’S). Within these confines they management. Unfortunately, generating 4,000 sq km originally to 1,600 sq
20 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition km today) • Thailand - 55 percent over 25 Figure 1: Areal coverage of mangrove forests years (from 5,500 sq km in 1961 to 2,470 sq km in 1986) Region Mangrove Area (sq km) percent • - 37 percent (from V iet Nam South and Southeast Asia 75,172 41.4 4,000 sq km originally to 2,525 The Americas 49,096 27.1 sq km, today ). West Africa 27,995 15.4 • Malaysia - 12 percent (540 sq Australasia 18,788 10.4 km lost between 1980 and 1990) East Africa and the Middle East 10,348 5.7 These figures suggest a loss of some 7,445 sq km of mangroves in four TOTAL 181,399 100 countries alone, representing over four percent of the current global total. There are very few national accounts which do not show similar declines. On a more positive note, the area of Figure 2: The total global area of different forest-types mangrove re-planting has increased in Figures have been rounded to the nearest 100,000 sq km several countries. Plantations in (source: World Conservation Monitoring Centre) Bangladesh, Viet Nam and Pakistan now cover over 1,700 sq km in total, Forest Type Area (million sq km) while Cuba is reported to have planted some 257 sq km of mangroves. Temperate needle-leaf forest 13.9 Tropical moist forest 11.2 How Much Mangrove Is Temperate broadleaf/mixed forest 7.2 Protected? Tropical dry forest 0.8 Mangrove 0.2 Worldwide, there are about 685 protected areas containing mangroves, distributed between 73 countries and territories (note that these figures refer to the legal status of sites, and many Figure 3. Area of mangrove in top eight countries may be “paper parks” with no real management). Compared with other percent of habitat types, this is a large number: sq km world total up to nine percent of the total man- grove area may lie within gazetted pro- Indonesia 42,550 23.5 tected areas. For example, there are Brazil 13,400 7.3 only about 350 marine protected areas Australia 11,500 6.3 Nigeria 10,515 5.8 with coral reefs, despite the high pro- Cuba 7,848 4.3 file of the latter habitat and the larger India 6,700 3.7 total area of coral reefs in the world. Malaysia 6,424 3.5 There are few figures for the area of Bangladesh 5,767 3.2 mangrove habitat within each protect- Other countries 76,697 42.3 ed area, but it is possible to get a very general picture, and more particularly to draw attention to the obvious holes protection is, of course, only one tool of these countries will have a significant in the protected area network. Most of for the conservation and sustainable effect on the global status of mangrove the countries with very large areas of use of mangroves and many other legal, ecosystems in the future. mangroves have a significant number industrial or traditional management For more information contact: Mark of protected areas, notably Australia regimes are also used with consider- D. Spalding, Department of Geography (180), Indonesia (64) and Brazil (63). able effect. Australia, Indonesia, Brazil University of Cambridge, Downing Conversely there are some, such as and Nigeria clearly have a key role to Place, Cambridge, UK; World Conser- Nigeria, with very large areas of man- play in sustainable mangrove manage- vation Monitoring Centre, 219 Hunt- groves which have no gazetted protect- ment, and political and management ingdon Rd, Cambridge, UK. E-mail: ed areas containing this habitat. Legal decisions relating to mangroves in each
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 21 Management of Resources in felling cycles have been adjusted over this time, and improvement felling is no the Sundarbans Mangroves of longer carried out. Nypa fruticans leaves Bangladesh are traditionally used for roof thatching are harvested once a year, and the central and house walls. Trunks of Phoenix leaf and leaf next to it are retained. Fuel by Neaz Ahmad Siddiqi paludosa are in great demand as house wood and pole species are harvested on a posts. Ceriops decandra and 20-year cycle. he Sundarbans is the largest con- Cynometra ramiflora yield high quality Management of the Sundarbans faced a T tinuous mangrove forest in the fuel wood. An estimated 185,000 kilo- process of continuous change, much of world, and covers an area of about grams (kg) of honey and 44,400 kg of which has been beyond the control of the 10,000 square kilometers (sq km). wax are harvested each year in the Forest Department. Salinity levels have Of this, 62 percent lies in Bangladesh western part of the forest. increased, lowering productivity, at the southern end of the Ganges The entire area is flat and intersect- as a result of diversion of fresh water River (see map) and comprises 44 ed by a complex network of streams upstream. Silt is deposited in the north- percent of the productive forest of the and rivers, with the salinity increasing east portion of the forest, causing the for- country, contributing about one-half from east to west and towards the est floor to rise, which stresses mangrove of forest-related revenue. plants. Productivity has Internationally, the declined significantly over Sundarbans are renowned the last few decades and the for their abundant wild- average yield of wood is only life: 32 mammal species, 1.12 cubic at least 186 bird species meters/hectare/year (cu and 43 reptile and m/ha/yr). The standing amphibian species inhabit stock of H. fomes and E. the area. Several large agallocha was depleted by 40 species, such as the Javan and 45 percent, respectively, rhinoceros and the water between 1960 and 1985. A buffalo, have disappeared number of factors, including since the beginning of this over-exploitation, may have century, but a number of contributed to this. There other endangered species, may be a need for revision of notably the tiger (with a the current silvicultural sys- population of about 350), tem in order to maintain a survive. Over 120 sustainable level of produc- Figure 1. Map of Bangladesh showing the location of the Sundarbans, largest species of fish are caught continuous mangrove forest in the world. tion. by commercial fisher- At present, the men, and the area is an important south. Salinity plays an important role Sundarbans is entirely dependent on nat- nursery for both offshore and in the growth, species distribution and ural regeneration. Seedlings are abundant nearshore marine and brackish fish productivity of the forest, and vegeta- throughout most of the forest, averaging species, with crustaceans accounting tion tends to be more luxuriant at 27,750/ha per year, but their survival is a for the largest proportion of animal lower salinity levels. major problem for most species at all lev- biomass. els of salinity. An additional problem is The flora is rich, with 69 species; a Management Problems “top-dying,” a phenomenon that causes number are commercially important. The Sundarbans has been managed death of trees from the top downwards The mangrove trees Heritiera fomes for over 120 years as a commercially and that is increasingly affecting H. and Excoecaria agallocha are the domi- exploited Reserved Forest. The original fomes; nant species in the forest and provide intention was for a 20-year felling 17 percent of trees are moderately or high quality timber for newsprint, cycle, with “improvement felling” con- severely affected. The cause of this is match sticks and boxes. H. fomes alone sisting of removing dead, dying and not known, but it could be the result of constitutes 63.8 percent of the total unsound trees and thinning congested stress from a variety of factors such as marketable timber. Non-timber prod- areas. Different exploitable diameter changes in salinity, reduction in flooding ucts contribute significantly towards limits are enforced for different species levels, loss of canopy leaves in storms the overall productivity of the in various quality classes, largely deter- or siltation of the pneumatophores. Sundarbans. Leaves of Nypa fruticans mined by salinity. Diameter limits and (continued page 23)
22 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition Management of Living Resources in the Matang Mangrove Reserve, Perak, Malaysia By N. Gopinath and and potentials. The earlier plans did that operate and those that work at the P. Gabriel not institute a standardized methodol- charcoal kilns have been doing so for ogy for establishing yields. As such, decades, and the workers may be he Matang Mangrove Forest yields were not seriously monitored as unable to find alternate work else- T Reserve in Perak, Malaysia, is an indicator of management success, where, employment in itself would be valuable for its timber products, which and though some authorities suggest in 1992 amounted to 451,196 metric there is a decline in forest productivi- tons (mt) with a value of 17.7 ty, data are inadequate for a rigorous Malaysian rupees (MR). However, the assessment. reserve’s natural heritage also contains The financial sustainability of the pre- other socioeconomic and environmen- sent management regime is also doubt- tal benefits, such as fisheries, tourism ful. All indicators point to a declining and wildlife that go far beyond the tra- economic output, as well as declining ditional mangrove resource uses for revenues to the state. Such a decline charcoal and poles. However, the pre- was, in fact, alluded to by several kiln sent management strategies, with a owners, who maintained that while focus on extraction of timber, do not demand for charcoal was good, they had totally address management of the made “better” money in the 1960s. reserve’s resources. The social value of mangrove-based The absence of a comprehensive forestry is also declining. The need for strategic plan is a serious shortcoming charcoal and firewood as domestic fuel where forestry resources are con- has all but ended. Charcoal is in cerned. The working plans have never demand for the manufacturers of bri- set quantitative productive targets for quettes and activated carbon. While An area of felled mangroves in the Matang Mangrove Reserve, sustained forest production. Targets the former is for domestic use, it does Malaysia. were set on an area basis, or according not represent an indispensable part of to the size of the industry to be sup- an average household’s energy require- insufficient justification for maintaining ported, rather than in terms of the ments. In the context of the current the kilns. If anecdotal information is inherent productive capability of the economic growth of the country, correct and the kilns are seriously forest. This has skewed the plan toward which emphasizes manufacturing and bereft of young workers, then it may simply setting area quotas (coupes), service-related industries, the labor- not be too far in the future when the with less emphasis on improving forest intensive nature of charcoal production kilns will either have to close down or production or evaluating industry skills is untenable. Though both the people (continued page 24)
Mangroves of ments of commercially important fish, the potential for developing eco- Bangladesh crustaceans and mollusks are urgently tourism, as the Sundarbans could be a (continued from page 22) needed for developing a management major attraction; at present the lack of plan. Similarly, although three wildlife accommodation and transport means Reforestation, or supplementing natural sanctuaries covering 32,386 ha were that tourism is not a feasible source of regeneration by planting, may be neces- established in 1977 in the southern part revenue for local people. Second, man- sary. Other species could be planted on of the Sundarbans, the research neces- agement-oriented research is required, elevated soils, and trials are underway. sary to determine appropriate manage- particularly on wildlife and threatened The Forest Department also regu- ment actions for wildlife has not been species; on the causes of low mangrove lates fishing within the Sundarbans, but carried out. productivity, die-off and seedling fail- there is no information on the status of Despite its international importance ure; and on the fisheries. fishery resources. There is no regulation and its long management history, there For more information contact: Neaz of the collection of shrimp fry, and the are still outstanding needs for the long- Ahmad Siddiqi, Bangladesh Forest use of set-bag nets destroys fish larvae term survival of the Sundarbans. The Research Institute, P.O. Box 273, and depletes juvenile fish. Stock assess- two main ones are need to investigate Chittagong 4000, Bangladesh.
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 23 Malaysia mudflats off the reserve are not open to monitoring of key components of the (continued from page 23) any other kind of economic activity. Matang mangrove ecosystem in gener- Blood clam farming is not particularly al. The charcoal industry for which upgrade by mechanizing their manufac- labor-intensive, and markets are not Matang is being largely managed is a turing operations. Mangrove products limited. Under these circumstances, tradition-bound industry that may such as thatch are also of little use and the long-term prospects of the industry eventually be phased out. This would of local importance only, having largely appear bright. effectively undermine the present been replaced by galvanized iron, Tourism is the latest development in rationale for its management, and open asbestos and tiles. The production of Matang. Estimates from anecdotal it to other, more destructive options, poles is still of major importance, information indicate that tourist such as pond-based shrimp farming. though that market is also likely to arrivals may contribute at least MR1.7 The full range of socio-economic bene- decline in the future. million annually to the local economy. fits of the reserve must therefore be The development of alternative Tourist infrastructure must be upgrad- considered in setting management goals. forestry activities would slow the ed if this sector is to further develop. While the present management decline of the charcoal and pole trade. Tourism, if properly planned, would regime has its weaknesses, it does not A study discovered that the dryland allow the reserve to be exploited on a mean that it is ineffective. Nevertheless, forest in Matang had substantial wood nonconsumptive basis, without eco- a fundamental review of the plan and resources that could be exploited. nomic loss to either the state or the its objectives is needed so that manage- Another 1991 report recommended reserve’s current users. ment is relevant to contemporary that the establishment of indigenous In regard to the socioeconomic value Malaysian needs. plantations of Oncosperma tigillarium, of the forest, of an estimated MR 151 Given the enormous significance Xylocarpus ssp., Intsia bijuga and rat- million annual output during 1992-93, of the Matang Mangrove Reserve for tan in an unproductive dryland forest. 77 percent came from fisheries, nine both its biodiversity and diverse eco- While some of these are not commer- percent came from aquaculture and 12 nomic values, it may be worthwhile cially exploited at the present time, percent from forestry. (Fisheries and to revoke its status as a forest reserve, they have long-term potential in the aquaculture figures consider the Larut including some of the foreshore areas, furniture and construction industries. Matang district, which should closely and redeclare it a national park. The report also recommended apicul- approximate those for the Matang Though Malaysia has several parks, ture in the Avicennia forest. Reserve. The mangrove forest provides administered both federally as well as Fisheries is another industry that other benefits and services, whose by the states, none of them would fit relies on the reserve for its sustenance. value and social impact have not been the profile of a mangrove environment. In 1993, the waters off the reserve adequately documented). Even with the Matang could thus stand out yielded 50,073 mt of fish valued at limited information at hand, it is obvi- as the first national mangrove park. MR117.1 million. The industry provid- ous that forestry represents only a small Designation as a park would need to ed direct employment to 1,954 people proportion of the economic value of include provisions for resource use by and at least twice that number were the forest. Forestry output is far sur- local communities, and may need to involved in associated occupations. passed by fisheries landings and almost be implemented incrementally in step Though there has been a decline in the matched by aquaculture. Tourism is still with the declining needs of the char- coastal fishing population of the dis- small, but has a promising future. coal industry. Such an approach would trict, a move that is openly encouraged Management of the forest should enable the holistic management of by the authorities, total landings of give increased attention to biodiversity Matang’s resources as well as facilitate marine fish have not declined. The role conservation. The virgin jungle the gradual phasing out of economical- of the Matang mangrove ecosystem in reserves, the Avicennia-Sonneratia belt, ly untenable activities. In this manner, maintaining the coastal fishery has not has been set aside mainly because it is the Matang Mangrove Reserve can been elucidated, but prudence dictates of no use from a forestry standpoint. continue to serve the nation, and that management of the reserve take Further research is required indeed, the world, as a showcase of into account maintenance of this pro- to establish its contribution to the mangrove wealth. ductive fishery. nearshore marine environment and For further information contact: Aquaculture, specifically the farming determine if the present extent is suffi- Nagaraj Gopinath , Syndel Asia Sdn. of the blood clam, is probably the only cient. More generally, it has not been Bhd., 62, Jalan 1D, Subang New activity that does not face an uncertain possible to assess the environmental Village, 40150 Shah Alam, Malaysia. future. In 1993, an estimated 34,183 impact of the working plans and forest Tel: 603-746-8541; Fax: 603-746- mt of blood clam, valued at MR13 mil- management regime because of the lack 8542; e-mail: lion were produced in Matang. The of baseline data and the absence of
24 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition site management have to be made The Role of the Ramsar explicit. Ramsar sites are not “prohib- Convention in Mangrove ited areas” and a wise-use policy is stressed at all sites. Guidelines have Management been prepared for wise use and man- by Peter R. Bacon by these countries covering over 53 agement planning of sites and attention million hectares (ha). About a third of is being paid to community participa- uch has been written about these contain mangroves, so Ramsar tion in management. M mangrove management but and its partners have embarked on the Ramsar requires further steps in there is still too little positive action. protection and wise use of over 15 developing a scientific management This results partly from the persis- million ha of mangrove wetland. Sites process for a designated site, as follows: tence of an approach which considers with mangroves include: 596,000 ha of (a) The “ecological character” of the all mangrove ecosystems to be similar the Sundarbans of Bangladesh which is mangrove must first be defined, and thus subject to generic guidelines one of the largest continuous blocks of because the type of management most for mangrove management (for exam- mangrove in the world; the 35,042 ha appropriate to that site will depend on ple, Hamilton and Snedaker, 1984), Manglares Churute site in Ecuador; the nature of the system to be man- and partly from the lack of a rational Coppenamemonding in Suriname aged. The site-specific management framework for management action, (12,000 ha) and 54,400 ha in the approach has been supported by the particularly one based on clearly iden- Caicos Islands. groundbreaking inventory work of the tified objectives. In 1990, Ramsar adopted a number International Waterfowl and Wetlands In 1971, a convention Research Bureau (IWRB) to protect “Wetlands of (now part of Wetlands International Importance” International) and some was adopted in Ramsar, regional projects, for Iran. It was unusual example in the British because it focused on spe- Virgin Islands. Although cific wetland sites which this might seem obvious, were considered to be of far too little attention has importance especially as been paid to the ecologi- waterfowl habitat. To cal differences between become a signatory to the mangrove areas. Despite Ramsar Convention, a earlier attempts to distin- country had to designate guish mangrove system at least one such site and types, the tendency to guarantee its protection. generalize about structure Thus, even though it was and functions has ham- an international conven- pered conservation A sign in Penang, Malaysia describes various fin fish, shellfish and crustaceans tion, Ramsar stimulated which inhabit mangroves for all or part of their life cycle. efforts in many countries. national action at speci- Coastal managers need to fied sites while providing an interna- of criteria for identifying wetlands of understand that not all mangrove tional framework against which local international importance, based on swamps serve as fishery nurseries, sup- management planning could be representative or unique wetlands, port high biodiversity or protect coasts assessed. That Ramsar is an intergov- plants and animals, and waterfowl. An from storms. Not all are worth pre- ernmental treaty is significant, because appreciation of other wetland values serving where there is the possibility successful wetland management led to the development of further cri- of productive aquaculture develop- requires political commitment in order teria in 1996 on fish and fisheries val- ment and only some have ecotourism for appropriate land-use policies, legal ues. Spelling out criteria has not only potential. As with other natural systems, instruments and technical agency sup- helped define international status, but their ecological and economic values port to be available. provided a means of prioritizing sites are determined by their character. By March 1996 (when the sixth nationally. It has underlined the need (b) Secondly, procedures have been meeting of the contracting parties was to work on a site by site basis, since put in place through Ramsar to identi- held in Brisbane, Australia), 93 coun- not all sites will meet all criteria, and fy change in ecological character. If tries had become signatories. Some some may not meet any. It has also change is taking place in a site, there 830 “Ramsar sites” had been designated meant that the reasons for mangrove (continued page 26)
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 25 Bremen, Germany, with financial sup- Mangrove Management in Brazil port from the German Ministry for by Christian von Dorrien Research. The main objective is the sustainable development and protection n 1988, preliminary studies by the meter coastline. This would provide for of mangroves near the city of Braganca I Conselho Interministerial dos zoning of the entire coast with the aim in the state of Para, within the context Recursos do Mar in Brazil led to legisla- of improving the living conditions of the of integrated coastal zone management. tion for the development of a National coastal population as well as protecting The first stage of this long-term (10+ Management Plan for the 7,500 kilo- important natural resources. Mangroves years) project is research-oriented, but have been protected local agencies will subsequently be since 1965 under involved. forestry legislation, but The research program involves a this has been poorly study of abiotic factors, biodiversity, enforced. socio-economy, natural resources, pri- The highly produc- mary production, energy and nutrient tive and extensive flux. The investigations will include mangroves in north- studies on climate, soils, vegetation, east Brazil (in the resources, productivity, linkage with states of Amapa, Para and exchange processes between neigh- and Maranhao) have boring ecosystems, and institutional, been not as well stud- cultural, economic, social and political ied as the less produc- conditions. The data obtained will be tive ones in the south. used for modeling the ecosystem and The “Mangrove developing a management plan. Dynamics and For more information contact: Management” project Kontakstelle fur Tropische is a cooperative initia- Kustenforschung (Contact Office for tive be-tween the Tropical Coastal Research), ZMT - University of the State Center for Tropical Marine Ecology, of Para and the Goeldi Fahrenheitstrasse 1, D-28359 Bremen, Museum, both in Germany, Tel: +49-421-2208 326, FAX: +49-421-2208 330; E-mail: Belem, Brazil, and the
Ramsar nationally through the convention. associated seagrass beds as Ramsar Sites. (continued from page 25) This approach has been very effec- To benefit from 25 years of experience tive in defining objectives and strategies gained since the convention was adopt- are management implications. For for mangrove and other wetland man- ed, mangrove managers are urged to many Ramsar sites, the nature and rate agement. It continues to evolve as a familiarize themselves with the progress of the change determine the type of result of feedback from governments and methodologies of the Ramsar intervention required. The Ramsar and Ramsar Site managers and through Wetlands Bureau. Convention Bureau has therefore set inputs from a Scientific and Technical For more information contact: up a monitoring procedure to assess Review Panel of internationally recog- Ramsar Wetlands Bureau, Rue and make recommendations concern- nized wetland experts. Consultations Mauverney 28, CH-Gland, Switzerland. ing changes which the host country are in progress for the next meeting of Tel:(+41)22/999 01 70; FAX: believes may be occurring, and it may contracting parties in Costa Rica in (+41)22/999 01 69; E-mail:
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 27 Ecuador’s Strategy groups have a total of 8,000 members, ■ A management plan for every (continued from page 25) including shrimp larvae fishers, hotel designated protected area owners, food vendors, shellfishers, ■ Impact assessment studies when Forestry Institute had only 10 part- crab fishers, charcoal makers, tourist infrastructure must pass through a time inspectors to monitor and enforce guides, artisans and ceramists. By mangrove mangrove protection laws covering working together they have become a ■ Special reviews as existing con- 162,000 hectares located along the force for coastal management many cessions for use of the beach and bay country’s 2,800 km coast-line. times greater than the total staffing of zone (including shrimp farms) are Mangrove policy has evolved in the agencies charged with enforcing renewed every 10 years response to increased public awareness various coastal laws and implementing ■ Municipal ordinances, user group and the growing pressure on the conservation measures. agreements and conflict resolution resource. In 1978, the National The PMRC brought together the techniques applied where there are Forestry Agency prohibited the use of Ecuadorian Armed Forces, the several problems with loss of fishing or pas- mangrove areas for shrimp farms and government agencies responsible for sage rights to mangroves or other declared as well that shrimp ponds parts of the mangrove management modifications to a mangrove area could not be built in lands suitable for problem, researchers, professors, non- ■ Buffer zones to protect a man- agriculture. In 1981, power was given governmental organizations, communi- grove ecosystem from damage by sur- to the Ecuador Navy to control man- ties and user groups to workshops that rounding activities grove uses and confiscate the equip- examined the situation in the mid- Policy 3: Strengthening govern- ment, tools and wood of anyone caught 1990s and to debate new, more effec- ment capacity to enforce mangrove illegally cutting mangrove trees. tive mangrove management strategies. conservation laws through the Ranger In June 1985, in response to more Five policy proposals resulted from Corps and other mechanisms. rapid cutting and greater national con- these meetings: ■ Increase the number of patrols cern, the Government of Ecuador Policy 1: Conserve the mangrove and inspections declared that it was in the national ecosystem and promote non-destruc- ■ Involve local authorities in per- interest to conserve, protect and tive uses of these areas. mit reviews and in the preparation of restore the mangrove forest. Shrimp Three types of uses should be rec- mangrove management plans farmers were given the responsibility ognized: ■ Carry out public education and of replanting mangroves on the borders ■ Uses which are always allowed training activities targeted to the most of their ponds. These measures failed and encouraged, such as honey pro- critical mangrove ecosystems to halt the increasing rate of cutting. duction, passive recreation, flood haz- Policy 4: Promote transparency in The Ecuador Coastal Resources ard protection (buffer zones), subsis- decision making and a free flow of Management Program (PMRC) was tence fisheries and non-destructive information to the public and resource created in 1989 to carry out pilot pro- types of aquaculture such as shellfish users. jects in coastal management and repopulation ■ Establish clear and fair rules for improve the enforcement of coastal ■ Uses which could be accepted how concessions, mangrove manage- laws through a new mechanism, the only when permitted and carefully ment plans and other management ini- Ranger Corps. The Rangers are inter- monitored, such as ecotourism and tiatives will be approved agency teams comprised of the different education activities, and selective har- ■ Target priority areas for prepar- units with legal authority to enforce vest using acceptable cutting and rota- ing detailed management plans mangrove laws. These new coordina- tion techniques Policy 5: Ensure that management tion units have not only carried out ■ Uses which are permissible only decisions are based on unique local more patrols but have experimented if an overriding public benefit has been conditions and the active involvement with innovative measures such as the demonstrated in a proposal to create a of local people. negotiation of formal agreements canal for water circulation to an aqua- The emphasis in these policy pro- among resource users and the use of culture project, piers, buildings or a posals on careful attention to local conflict resolution techniques to non-renewable form of wood harvest conditions and the vital role of local resolve individual cases, for example, Policy 2: Every mangrove-domi- resource users in decision making disputes between shrimp farmers and nated estuary needs its own manage- derives from the fact that the current traditional users. ment plan and special actions, devel- Ecuador policy was based on two The PMRC has subsequently oped with the participation of local faulty premises: 1) Mangroves can worked with more than 200 user people. never be used for any purpose and groups throughout the coast in its five Specific actions are required that 2) that a centralized government special area management zones. These include: (continued page 30)
28 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition Mangrove Training Workshop in Belize By Dylan Gomez and Gail Bradley Miller and first-hand experience in mangrove Mangrove growth ecology and a thorough background in in Belize. “ his is the first workshop that I mangrove biology and conservation. haveT ever attended where I feel as The workshop stressed the importance though I have come away actually of mangroves as nurseries and feeding learning something.” This was the grounds for commercially important enthusiastic comment of one of the species and to human economic devel- participants at the mangrove training opment in the coastal zone. The work- workshop held in Belize in July 1996, shop was held at UCB’s Marine sponsored by University College of Research Centre (MRC) located on Calabash Caye, at Turneffe Atoll. Each participant was provided with a train- bers from the participants. It is hoped ing manual, a variety of research that CMEP will provide easy access to papers related to Belizean coastal information; publish relevant materials ecosystems, a set of the Paul Humann on mangroves, seagrasses, and reef reef identification educational guides ecosystems; assist in the development and a slide set with script to be used of curriculum guides based on the for future presentations on mangroves. manual and the workshop; and assist Each day began with a lecture, fol- national agencies and NGOs involved lowed by a field activity, which not in coastal and marine activities. In addi- only provided hands-on involvement, tion, there are plans for the translation Coastal development in a mangrove ecosys- tem in Belize. but also reinforced the lecture and of the manual into Spanish. Plans are provided experience in the scientific being made to continue the workshop Belize (UCB) and the Smithsonian collection of data. The participants in Belize and possibly other interested Institution and funded by the John D. then met to review the day’s activities countries, but constraints such as fund- and Catherine MacArthur Foundation. and discuss the notes gathered in the ing and manpower need to be This was the fourth workshop of its field. This approach ensured that addressed. kind held in Belize. The lecturers came everyone understood the from several institutions in both Belize concepts being promot- and the US, including the Fisheries ed-if not immediately in Department in Belize City, the the classroom, then out in Smithsonian Institution, St. Mary’s the field or through inter- College of Maryland and Louisiana action with the other par- State University. The participants also ticipants. After dinner, it came from a range of backgrounds was back to work again in including government agencies (the a make-shift laboratory, Fisheries and the Forestry using a variety of equip- Departments), non-governmental ment including advanced organizations, (Belize Center for technologies such as the Environmental Studies and Program spectrophotometer. The for Belize), teachers representing most participants also took part of the Districts in Belize, and a few in an actual research pro- junior college students. Despite their ject where they exercised Destruction of varied level of education (from high mangroves in their knowledge of the scientific For more information contact: Dr. Bacalar Chico, school diplomas to post-graduate method, and helped to establish a Ilke Feller, Smithsonian Environmental Belize. degrees) and work experience (from a CARICOMP site adjacent to the MRC Research Center, Edgewater, MD. few months to several years) they were to measure mangrove productivity. USA. E-mail:
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 29 The Status of Mangroves in the Seychelles By Nirmal Jivan Shah plan or specific legislation for man- part of a nature trail established by groves, but a proposal to the National the Conservation and National Parks angroves in the Seychelles, a Environment Advisory Council Service and has been recently refur- M group of 115 coral and granitic (NEAC) recommends the development bished through a development aid pro- islands in the southwestern Indian of a full strategy for wetland manage- ject.Tourists visiting Aldabra also occa- Ocean, have been progressively ment. Marshes and wetland habitats sionally enter mangroves, in particular destroyed since earliest human colo- have been classified as ecologically sen- to view seabirds. Curiously, the La nization. Mangrove wood was used in sitive areas under the Environment Plaine mangal, the largest on Mahe, is the past for construction and, until Protection (Impact Assessment) not included in the Port Launay recently, a stain derived from man- Regulations, 1996, and guidelines for Marine National Park although it is grove bark was used to polish wooden adjacent to it. The Forestry floors. Some low-level harvesting of Service has attempted to re- mangrove crabs (Scylla serrata) still plant small pockets. continues.The main threat now is Educational programs have rapid urbanization and development in been sporadic.The Ministry of the granitic islands, particularly as the Education included a chapter lack of flat land leads to much recla- on mangroves in a textbook mation for construction. In the past and the local television station some mangals were drained for agri- produced a 30-minute docu- culture, and now a development aid mentary on the mangroves of project for agricultural improvement is Seychelles in 1988. A non- proposing the drainage of many wet- government organization, the land areas on Mahe, one of the granitic Partnership Foundation, re- islands where 90 percent of the human leased a color poster on population of the Seychelles is located. “Mangroves of Port Launay” Between seven and 10 mangrove in 1991. A major new project, species occur on the granitic islands expected to start by the end and 12 on the coralline islands where of 1996, under the regional the largest stands now occur, in partic- Principal Wetlands Communities on the Coastal Zone Commission de l’Ocean Indien of Mahe. Source: ENVIRO DATABASE #10 ular Aldabra (which has 800 ha), will use mangroves and their Cosmoledo and Astove. On Mahe, development of sensitive areas have associated ecosystems at Grand Anse, some 120 ha still exist and recent been issued by the Division of Envi- Mahe, as a pilot site for Coastal Zone coastal reclamation has led to the re- ronment. Some mangals lie within Management planning. invasion of five mangrove species on protected areas, for example on For more information contact: the east coast. Curieuse and Aldabra. A mangrove Nirmal Jivan Shah, ENVI.R.O, P.O. There is no national management boardwalk was built on Curieuse as Box 699, Seychelles.
Ecuador’s Strategy groves before it began to develop a reg- experiment and learn what will work in (continued from page 28) ulatory and zoning regime to control each situation, and day by day assess uses such as construction, but it has not those which work and set aside manage- agency could exercise all the controls solved its problems completely. ment techniques which prove to be less necessary to prevent any modification The Ecuador Coastal Management effective. to a mangrove ecosystem. Program has assimilated many of the For more information contact: Such rigid, impractical premises have lessons of international experience and Donald Robadue, Coastal Resources not succeeded in any country. For ex- understands that sustainable use of man- Center, University of Rhode Island, ample, the Philippines lost 50 percent groves has to be based on the special South Ferry Road, Narragansett, RI of their mangrove forest while similar characteristics, both physical and social, 02882, USA; Phone: (401) 874-6224; centralized policies were applied. of each site. To advance effective forms FAX: (401) 789-4670; E-mail: Puerto Rico lost 75 percent of its man- of management, it is necessary to
30 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition The Diversity of Mangrove Wetlands and Ecosystem Management
By Robert R. Twilley processes that can be classified through next page). This ecological scheme what might be described as the eco- uses the dominant environmental fac- he environmental and economic geomorphic description of coastal tors of the Caribbean Sea, such as soil T values of mangroves are well environments. Each mangrove ecosys- resources and stressors, to classify known. Human use of mangrove wet- tem has its own unique eco-geomor- mangrove forests into four types. lands are linked to the goods and ser- phic structure. These are riverine, fringe, basin and vices that they provide, as modified by The landform characteristics of a dwarf forests. the constraints of local cultures and coastal region together with its envi- The formation and physiognomy of economics. Thus the use and value of ronmental processes control the basic these forest types appear to be con- mangroves are a combination of both patterns in forest structure and trolled strongly by local patterns of the environmental setting of these growth. The two basic types of geo- tides, surface drainage, soil characteris- ecosystems and the patterns of human morphological settings are those with tics and biological interactions. Along exploitation. Any ecosystem manage- inputs derived from the land and sedi- an inland transect, tidal frequency ment plan designed to provide for the ments, and those in carbonate environ- changes and changes in slope may sustainable utilization of these coastal ments (Figure 1). Within each of these cause an increase in salinity and other wetlands has to consider both the eco- two categories, there are different soil-related factors that limit the devel- logical and social constraints of the types of settings depending on the opment of mangrove forests. These are region. Ecosystem management there- nature of circulation, sediment trans- known as mechanisms of mangrove fore requires policies that seek to con- port, regional topography and physical zonation. Other ecological factors are trol the actions of society within limi- processes. Carbonate systems include associated with the biology of these tations that are imposed by the continental margins and islands that systems such as crab predation on processes of nature. differ depending on the soil type and propagules and leaf litter consump- The use of mangrove resources by amount of freshwater flow from tion. The effect of these ecological fac- humans can have negative effects on upland watersheds. Continental tors on forest structure are twofold: the ecological processes of mangrove regions include those with peat and 1) they decrease the maximum devel- ecosystems. These effects can be indi- marl sediments, whereas islands can opment of mangrove forests allowed rect. The diversion of freshwater, for have either large or small catchments by the existing constraints of the geo- example, can cause changes in the pro- (high and low islands). The thinking morphological subclass; and 2) they ductivity, litter export, and the biolog- involved in using this type of classifica- control the relative zonation of man- ical and geological chemistry of man- tion is that variations in the unique grove species. groves. Direct impacts may include geophysical processes of a coastal A combination of ecological types inputs of excess nutrients or toxic sub- region will result in different energy of mangroves can occur within any one stances such as oil that limit the eco- flows and material cyclings of man- of the settings described above logical processes in mangrove wet- grove wetlands. This will be seen in depending on the distribution of soil lands, which compromises the value of different patterns of forest structure, resources and toxic stressors. These these natural resources. Human use of biomass, productivity, bio-geochem- ecological types are based on micro- mangrove wetlands is inextricably istry and exchange of nutrients and topographic and biological factors that linked by the nature of these environ- organic matter with coastal waters. can influence the structure and func- mental effects to the sustainable goods Thus both the structure and function tion of mangroves from shoreline to and services that these forested wet- of mangrove ecosystems are linked to more inland locations. Local patterns lands can provide. Sustainable develop- the distinct geomorphology and geo- in tidal inundation have long been ment of mangrove wetlands may be physical processes of a coastal environ- related to the structure and species viewed as a balance between environ- ment. colonization of mangrove forests. mental and social constraints that A combination of the physiographic This eco-geomorphic classification accommodates long-term use and val- and structural attributes of mangrove system of mangrove wetlands includes ues of these natural resources in wetlands, together with local condi- two important identifying factors: (1) regional economic development. tions of topography and hydrology, the location of the wetland within a The diversity of mangrove wetland were used to formulate the classic eco- specific type of environmental setting; structure and function is linked to the logical classification system by Lugo and (2) the location of the wetland geophysical and geomorphological and Snedaker (Figure 1, midsection- (continued page 32)
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 31 The Global Environmental Facility Tropical Project
n 1991, the Global Environmental able Utilization of Mangrove Forest in policies and legislation, and institution- IFacility (GEF) funding of one mil- Latin America and Africa Regions. al capabilities and coordination which lion U.S. dollars was approved to The pre-investment project will will provide information for determin- develop a regional investment project involve two levels of activities. A series ing priorities for further activities. In proposal for the conservation of man- of case studies in Brazil (which has the order to identify the Brazilian case grove biodiversity in the tropical largest area of mangrove in the tropical studies, a temporary National Americas in collaboration with the Americas) and other countries in the Mangrove Committee will be formed United Nations Development region will be developed to illustrate in Brazil, with governmental and Programme and the United Nations models of sustainable mangrove man- NGO representation. Educational, Scientific and Cultural agement. These will also strengthen For further information on man- Organization. The concept for this community and non-governmental grove research and management activi- project grew in part from a workshop organization (NGO) participation in ties in Brazil, contact: Prof. Luiz held in Niteori, Brazil in May 1992 as mangrove management, and identify Drude de Lacerda, Departamento part of the International Tropical training and institutional strengthe- Geoquimica, Universidade Federal Timber Organization/International ning needs. The second activity is the Fluminense, Centro Niteroi, 24210 RJ Society for Mangrove Ecosystems updating of a series of regional assess- Brazil. Tel. 717-1313. FAX 717- Project on Conservation and Sustain- ments of mangrove status, relevant 4553.
Diversity of Mangrove exploitation of mangrove goods and grove wetlands in diverse environmental Wetlands services depends on both the environ- settings, the selection of proper ecosys- tem management goals can be refined. (continued from page 31) mental and social constraints of a region. Thus no single ecosystem man- For more information contact: zone along a transect perpendicular to agement goal applies to all mangrove Robert R. Twilley, Department of shore (topographic setting). Thus a wetlands. An understanding of how Biology, P.O. Box 42451, University fringe, basin, or dwarf mangrove with- mangrove properties vary along gradi- of Southwestern Louisiana, Lafayette, in a specific type of geomorphological ents is important when formulating a LA 70504. Phone: (318) 482-6146. setting may have somewhat different management plan. As we better under- FAX: 318-482-5834; E-mail:
32 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition nal and other purposes. In Koh Kong, Mangrove Forests in Koh Kong the species Exciecaria agallocha is Province, Cambodia used as an anti-diarrhea treatment. A fungus called sam bok sramoch by Oum Pisey (“Home of the Ant”) is dried and used as a medicine for lung disease. he Province of Koh Kong lies in 10,000 tons, while the number of kilns ■ Other uses: In the past, man- southwestern Cambodia, bordering increased from 224 in 1993 to 1,000 in T grove barks from . and the Gulf of Thailand, and covers 9,260 1994. About 94 percent of charcoal Rhizophora spp . were used in tannin pro- square kilometers (sq km). About 70 exported went to Thailand, Malaysia Ceriops spp duction for dyeing of fish nets but this percent is forest; the remainder is and Singapore. practice has been replaced by the use comprised of farmland, estuaries, ■ Construction material: Mangrove of nylon fishing nets, which do not mudflats and islands. forests are used for building houses, require dyeing. The coastal forest includes 31,100 boats, fences and fish traps. Mangrove hectares (ha) of mangrove, which plays trees are used for poles, roofing shin- Ecological Importance: a significant role in the coastal econo- gles, timber, beams and wood chips. ■ Shoreline stabilization: A healthy my, although many activities involving Nypa fruticans is valuable for many mangrove ecosystem helps to stabilize mangrove utilization are now having purposes. The leaves are used for shel- shorelines and protect soil erosion. major environmental impacts. ter on the roofs of houses as well as Mangroves help to trap and stabilize Forest areas are divided into coastal forest and upland mountainous forest areas. Coastal forests consist of 31,000 ha of mangroves. This region is impact- ed by the Indian and Siberian mon- soons. The temperature varies from 25.1 to 29.4Þ C, with an annual rainfall of 2,000-4,000 millimeters (mm).
The Importance of Koh Kong’s Mangroves Economic Importance: ■ Fisheries: Mangrove ecosystems are important to inshore and offshore fisheries. Organic matter and nutrients are supplied to ecosystems by a variety of flora species, while providing nurs- eries and shelters for important marine stocks. The value of mangrove forest as a food source as well as shelter and nurseries for both culture and capture fisheries along coastal areas of Koh Kong is not well understood, but is certain to be very high. ■ Fuel: Mangrove species are valu- able as a direct source of fuel wood energy, both as firewood and through Mariculture in floating cages. charcoal production. In particular, mangrove species such as Rhizophora materials for crab traps. In addition, sediments, thereby reducing river apiculata and Rhizophora mucronata mats are made from Nypa palms. bank and shoreline erosion. The stabil- are especially valued for their high Nypa leaves are also used as a cover for ity of Koh Kong’s coastline, that caloric content and prolonged burning num chak (a local cake) or num an sam would otherwise be subject to great capability. (a traditional cake). erosion, is dependent largely upon a ■ Charcoal Production: The man- ■ Medicine: Coastal people have stable ecosystem. grove forest in Koh Kong covers 16,000 traditionally used various resources ■ Protection from wind and storms: ha. The charcoal export in 1994 was extracted from mangroves for medici- (continued page 34)
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 33 The Gulf of Guinea Project: Managing Mangroves to Protect Biodiversity in West Africa sources has affected the waters of the By Peter Saenger, Yacouba Sankare, Marcel Baglo, Catherine Isebor, A.K. Armah and Martin Nganje Gulf of Guinea, resulting in habitat degradation, loss of biological diversity he trading patterns around the the most densely settled in Africa. and productivity, and degenerating T Gulf of Guinea in West Africa This illustrates the significance of the human health. are such that nearly all major cities, lagoons, estuaries, creeks and inshore The Global Environmental Facility’s harbors, airports, industries and plan- waters to the well-being of the popula- (GEF) Gulf of Guinea project, “Water tations are located in the coastal zone– tion. But pollution from these various (continued page 35)
Cambodia the ecosystem. endangered situation, the Ministry of ■ Intensive shrimp farming: The con- Environment has proposed a Royal (continued from page 33) version of mangroves to shrimp farms is Decree on the Designation and Mangrove trees serve as natural now on the rise with the latest total area Creation of the Protection Area System barriers against strong winds, tidal bores of shrimp farm covering more than which was signed by the King Sihanouk and waves. The buffer zone offered by 1,000 ha. This increase adversely affects on November 1, 1993. The Protected shoreline mangroves in Koh Kong pro- the coastal people and coastal biodiversi- Area System covers forests nationwide, tects the area from the damaging effects ty. totaling 3,402,200 ha (including Koh of large storm and tidal surges. ■ Charcoal production: The number of Kong), under three categories. ■ Coastal ecosystem stability: charcoal kilns is increasing even in the Kirirom and Botum Sakor, totaling Mangroves serve as a link between Peam Krasop wildlife sanctuary. This 35,000 ha, some of which is shared marine and terrestrial ecosystems. increase in charcoal production is with Kompong Speu province, have been They are of integral importance to the destroying large areas of mangrove designated as national parks. Peam stability and maintenance of adjoining forests. Latest estimation showed the Krasop (23,750 ha), Phnom Aural ecosystems such as seagrass and coral number of charcoal kilns increasing five- (253,750 ha shared with Kompong reefs. The organic matter that originates fold from1993-94. Chang and Pursat) and Phnom Samkos from mangrove habitats is essential to Other illicit activities such as Klim (333,750 ha) have been designated inhabitants of lagoon and estuaries as Chan production and logging are also wildlife sanctuaries. Dang Peng (27,700 well as other near-shore environments taking place even inside the Koh Kong ha) has been designated a multiple-use such as seagrass meadows and coral protected areas. area. reefs. The current threats to the mangrove Based on recent ground and aerial ■ Biodiversity: Mangroves are impor- should be prioritized. Intensive shrimp surveys, the mangrove area in the Koh tant habitats for biodiversity. They pro- farming is one of the greatest threats. Of Kong vicinity is proposed for inclusion vide physical habitats for a large variety the 16,000 ha of mangrove forest in Koh in the list of Wetlands of International of coastal species, including birds, mon- Kong, 840 ha were devoted to intensive Importance as a waterfowl habitat under keys, shellfish, fish and other animals shrimp farming in early 1994, with 105 the Ramsar Convention. This move and invertebrates. entrepreneurs taking part. By the end of should provide the visibility necessary to 1994, 63 entrepreneurs were applying attract support for conservation from Current Threats for licenses, and a total of 1,240 ha had the international community. Koh Kong coastal areas have been in been converted for shrimp farm use. good condition until recent decades. Charcoal production, commercial fishing, Proposed Actions Against However, due to political change and family fishing and the export of illegal the Destruction of population increase as well as the eco- products (sandalwood) round out the top Coastal Ecosystems nomic growth of the neighboring coun- threats to the mangroves of Koh Kong. To ensure the sustainable develop- tries, detriments to environmental eco- ment and conservation of the coastal nomic recovery are imminent. Environmental ecosystem, the Ministry of Environ- Logging, intensive shrimp culture, Conservation and ment, calling for support from the Royal charcoal production and Klim Chan Management Promotion Government, and in cooperation with production are booming and result in Seeing the importance of the biodiver- the relevant ministries, set up several significant environmental impacts on sity of the coastal ecosystem and its (continued page 43)
34 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition The Gulf of Guinea untreated sewage flow into Ebrie Bonny and Cross Rivers and while the lagoon from Abidjan each day. (continued from page 34) spread has been slow, it appears to be As a result of this and the limited tidal accelerating, facilitated by local villagers Pollution Control and Biodiversity exchange of the lagoons, eutrophication who value its thatching properties. Most Conservation in the Gulf of Guinea is widespread. recently, it has been reported to be Large Marine Ecosystem”, is an initia- The mangroves of the Niger delta, growing in and around the mouth of the tive by Benin, Cameroon, Cote estimated to cover approximately Volta River in Ghana. 2 d’Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria, with Togo 7,000km comprise a significant To restore the lagoon mangrove sys- expected to join in the near future. regional resource, with fishing being a tems, three separate initiatives need to The underlying rationale is that major activity. The pressure of a subsis- be addressed. Mangrove cutting needs to marine pollution and living marine tence population has adversely affected be controlled and regulated, at least, in resources respect no political bound- these mangroves but the discovery of some areas of the lagoons. Pollution aries, and few geographical ones, and hydrocarbon reserves in the mid-1950s inputs need to be reduced either by require a large scale, concerted and in and around the delta may have been treatment facilities or by deep ocean dis- holistic approach for assessment and the final straw. Nigeria currently pro- charges. Thirdly, mangrove habitat con- control. Embedded within this large duces around 1.6 million barrels per version needs to be drastically reduced integrated project is a component day from more than 4,000 oil wells and active replanting programs initiated which is aimed at assessing the status, spread within the Niger delta and adja- in those areas where restoration is feasi- uses and values of existing mangroves. cent coastal areas. Twenty-three out of ble. At a recent workshop in Abidjan, The potential for protecting particular- 62 oil fields are within the mangroves. government and NGO representatives ly significant and representative areas Oil terminals are spread throughout the identified a number of immediate mea- will be assessed as well, and the poten- delta while 8,000 km of seismic lines sures. One of the first steps has been to tial for rehabilitation and sustainable (20-30m wide) and oil pipelines criss- establish a pilot project to use mangroves use for cleansing waste water dis- cross the mangroves. Oil spills are com- as a productive wetland to prduce wood charges and for increased mangrove mon; according to the best figures on the one hand, while reducing the fuel wood production. available, between 1970 and 1982 effects of sewage pollution to the The mangroves of the Gulf of alone, there were 1,581 oil spills lagoons on the other. The Abidjan pro- Guinea are an important resource for involving a total of two million barrels. ject will be the first. Similar projects the coastal communities not only for While most of the spills have been have already been identified in Ghana firewood but also for building materi- small, they have tended to occur within and Cameroon. In Benin, a large scale als, salt production, oysters and fish- the mangrove waterways. As a result, replanting program has been running for eries. However, overuse and pollution many of the surface waters are contam- some time and the local expertise devel- have had adverse effects. For example, inated and undrinkable, localized fish- oped there will be used in other replant- early accounts show that well-devel- eries production has declined and, in ing programs in the region. Thus, oped mangrove communities were many instances, the inhabitants have although the problems of the region are associated with, and largely confined been forced to emigrate to other areas. im-mense, coordinated action between to, semi-enclosed coastal lagoons or Cameroon, with its humid tropical government and research institutions as embayments, generally with con- climate, has luxuriant deltaic man- well as regional NGOs, provides some strained tidal exchange and limited groves. However, the Douala port optimism. (and markedly seasonal) freshwater extension, urban expansion, sand For more information contact: Peter input. Today, as a result of the develop- extraction and industrial pollution Saenger, Consultant to the Gulf of Guinea ment of large urban centers with sig-nif- have caused damage to the mangroves Project, Centre for Coastal Management, icant industrialization, the extent of of the Wouri estuary. More importantly Southern Cross Universi-ty, P.O. Box these lagoon mangroves has been much from a biodiversity perspective, the 157, Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia. reduced and several species that could mangrove palm (Nypa fruticans) has Phone: 61-66-203631. FAX: 61-66- be expected to occur are no longer to be recently become distributed throughout 212669. E-mail: found. In many instances, the mangroves this area, invading and replacing native
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 35 Who Does What in Mangrove Management? The International Society for second video project is underway in economic value of mangrove ecosystems Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) Thailand. ISME has also carried out pro- in the tropical Americas which is in ISME was inaugurated in Japan in jects in Vietnam, Pakistan, Japan, preparation. UNESCO has also been 1990, following a 1989 international Ecuador, parts of Indonesia and some involved in climate change work meeting held under the auspices of the African countries. through the UNEP/UNESCO- United Nations Educational, Scientific Membership costs US$20 for individ- COMAR Task Team on “Impact of and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), uals and US$250 for institutions. Expected Climate Change on Man- United Nations Development Members receive the newsletter. groves.” A 400-page volume of about 30 Programme (UNDP) and the Japanese Payment may be made by credit card, papers on the status of mangroves and government, and aims to continue the international postal money order or relevant research in Latin America and work started by UNESCO. It promotes UNESCO coupon. Africa will be published shortly. the study of mangroves in order to For more information contact: ISME For more information contact: Gary encourage their conservation, rational Secretariat, c/o College of Agriculture, Wright, UNESCO, Coastal and Marine management and sustainable utilization, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa 903- Science Publications, 1 Rue Miollis, 75732 ensures that mangroves are featured on 01, Japan. FAX: (81) 98-895-6602. E-mail: Paris Cedex 15, France. Tel. (33)1 -4568- international environmental agendas and
36 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition the International Waterfowl and effective regulations and enforcement to countries. Wetlands Research Bureau (based in the ensure sustainable shrimp aquaculture To avoid duplication, established UK), and Wetlands for America (based practices which include participatory means of communication, such as the in Canada). The Asian Wetlands Bureau coastal resource management, responsi- regional round-up sections of the in particular has had a long involvement ble consumer in mangrove management which is con- choices, and tinuing, with a particular focus on the strategies for the waterfowl associated with this ecosys- implementation tem. Wetlands International has 47 of these and member countries. other solutions. For more information contact: Wetlands For example, International, Institute of Advanced Studies, MAP wishes to University of Malaysia, 59100 Kuala create a dialogue Lumpur, Malaysia. FAX: 60-3-7571225. E- on certification mail:
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 37 Philippines ■ Mangrove Stewardship resources and the immediate uses of (continued from page 5) Agreements (MSAs) should be used to land such as for fish ponds should be the promote local responsibility for main- responsibility of the DENR and the increased economic rent for leases is on taining permanent mangrove forested BFAR. the verge of approval and, where com- areas, replacing the previous DENR ■ The DENR should monitor each munities have been organized and given mangrove reforestation contracts. stewardship area to determine the level responsibility for management, man- ■ MSAs should allow limited but of compliance with the area management grove degradation has slowed or sustainable use in some cases to pro- plan. stopped. Stewardship agreements are mote forest succession and provide eco- ■ Sanctuaries should be established proving to be a pri- mary tool for pro- tecting mangrove resources. It is also intended that as inte- grated coastal resource manage- ment plans are devel- oped for particular areas, all mangroves and their resources will be included and targeted for sustain- able use in their orig- inal state. National economic policies must also now be shaped to encourage improved manage- ment. These experiences have led to recom- mendations for the following new poli- cies to be adopted by Abandoned fishponds on old mangrove habitat are common in the Philippines. DENR and other agencies: nomic incentives to local community over mangrove areas as determined by ■ The basic bio-physical and environ- managers. local communities with guidance from mental factors that support mangrove ■ Mangrove areas released for fish DENR or BFAR and legal support of ecosystem growth and sustenance must pond but not used for that purpose and local government. be considered in all project areas. that meet certain criteria should revert For more information contact: Alan T. ■ Priority must be given to saving and to DENR for rehabilitation and man- White, Coastal Resources Management managing existing forest and habitat. agement. Project, 5th Floor, CIFC Towers, North ■ Communities must strengthen ■ All mangrove resources in any Reclamation Area, Cebu, Philippines. their will and capacity to protect and given area should be included in the FAX: 6332-232-1825; E-mail:
38 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition on the work done on Mangrove Forests, Climate Change TERCOAST Hinchinbrook Island and Sea Level Rise. [Hydrological and elsewhere in the Influences on Community Structure and SIDER tropics of Northeastern Survival, with examples from the Indo- Australia. Contact: West Pacific.] 1993. J.C. Pernetta. A FORMATION AGU-Orders, 2000 Marine Conservation and Development IN Florida Avenue NW, Report. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Washington, DC 20009 USA. Tel: 1-800-966-2481 (North Mangroves of the Sundarbans. 1994. Publications America) or 1-202-462-6900 (elsewhere). Vol. 1 India. A.B. Chaudhuri and A. FAX: 1-202-328-0566. E-mail: Choudhury. IUCN, Bangkok, Thailand. Assessment and monitoring of cli- [email protected]. Web Site: http://earth.agu. matic change impacts on mangrove . 1994. . 1994. UNEP Regional Seas org/pubs/. List– Mangroves of the Sundarbans ecosystems Vol. 2. Bangladesh. Z. Hussain and Reports and Studies no. 154. $37.00; AGU member– $25.90. G. Acharya. 257 pages. IUCN Publications. UK pounds 10.00; US$20.00. Mangrove Ecology Workshop Available from ISME: Manual. C. Feller (ed.). Smithsonian Conservation and Sustainable Environmental Research Center. Le Manuel de la Convention de Utilization of Mangrove Forests in Ramsar. 1996. This is an updated French the Latin America and Africa translation of the English manual (T.J. Mangrove Forest Management Regions. Part 1. Latin America. 1993. David, ed. Ramsar, 1994). Both versions Guidelines. 1993. FAO, Rome. L.C. Lacerda. (ed.). Mangrove Ecosystems are available and cost 21 pounds sterling or Technical Reports, Vol.2, ISME/ITTO. 272 . 1996. US$32.25. The Mangroves of Zanzibar pages. Out of print. J.P. Shanula and A. Whittick. Institute of Marine Sciences, USDM. 65 pages. Manuel de Formation a la Gestion Describes flora, ecosystem, uses for the Conservation and Sustainable des Zones Humides Tropicales. 1994. non-specialist. ISBN 0-88901-308. Utlisation of Mangrove Forests in J. Skinner, N. Beaumond and J.Y. Pirot. the Latin America and Africa 272 pages. This book is a training manual Regions. Part 2. Africa. 1993. for wetland managers, based on West An Overview of the World’s Ramsar Mangrove Ecosystems Technical Reports, . 1996. S. Frazier. Wetlands African experience. IUCN Publications. Sites Vol.3, ISME/ITTO. 262 pages. Out of International. 56 pages. Illustrated analysis UK pounds 13.50; US$20.00. print. of Ramsar sites by wetland type, human use, geographic distribution etc. Available Proceedings of the 6th Meeting of in English, French and Spanish. Contact: The Economic and Environmental the Conference of the Parties, Natural History Book Service Ltd, 2-3 Values of Mangrove Forests and Brisbane, Australia. Ramsar, 1996. UK Wills Road, Totnes, Devon TQ9 5XN, UK. Their Present State of Conservation pounds 40.00; US$60.00 Tel (44) 1803-865913. FAX (44) 1803- in the South-East Asia and Pacific For IUCN titles contact: IUCN 865280; E-mail: [email protected]. UK Region. 1993. Mangrove Ecosystems Publications Services Unit, 219c Pounds 20.00. Technical Reports. Vol.1, ISME. 202 pages. Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, Journey Amongst Mangroves. 1995. United Kingdom. Tel. 44 1223 277894. Proceedings Gulf of Mexico and C. Field. A handbook on mangroves, first FAX. 44 1223 277175. E-mail: iucn- Caribbean Oil Spills in Coastal volume. Fully illustrated text of 140 pages [email protected]. Ecosystems: Assessing Effects, designed for people with no prior knowl- Natural Recovery and Progress in edge of mangroves. FORTHCOMING PUBLICATIONS Remediation Research. C.E. Proffitt For ISME titles contact: ISME, c/o College and P.F. Roscigno (eds.). OCS Study/MMS of Agriculture, University of the Ryukyus, World Mangrove Atlas. World 95-0063. US Dept. Interior, GOM Nishihara, Okinwa 903-01, Japan. Conservation Monitoring Region, New Orleans, LA. 245 pages. FAX:(81) 98-895-6602. Centre/ISME/ITTO. Contact: US Dept of Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS . C. Field. Available from the IUCN: Restoration of Mangroves Region, Mail Stop 5034, 1201 Elmwood ISME. Park Blvd, New Orleans, LA 70123-2394. The Directory of Wetlands of Tel: 1-800-200-GULF. US$7.00. International Importance: An . Update. Ramsar, 1996. S. Frazier (ed.). Economic Valuation of Wetlands Societies and Mangroves in the 236 pages. Provides data for the nearly 200 E. Barbier, M. Acreman, D. Knowler. . DUM programme Southern Rivers Ramsar sties designated since publication book, with proceedings of workshop. M-C. of the 4-volume directory published in Guidelines for environmentally Cormier-Salem. 1993. UK pounds 12.50; US$18.75. sound management of river basins in Asia - utilizing functions and maxi- Tropical Mangrove Ecosystems. 1992. mizing wetland benefits. T. Hollis. D. Alongi and A. Robertson (eds.). 336 Ecology and Management of . 1993. Aksornkoae, IUCN, UNEP/Asian Wetland Bureau. pages. Available from the American Mangroves Bangkok, Thailand. 176 pages. Geophysical Union, this book is founded Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 39 Guidelines for Improved Conserva- Drive, Phoenix, AZ 85021-2481. Tel: 602- tion and Sustainable Use of Tropical Conferences 943-3922. FAX: 602-943-4458. E-mail: and Sub-tropical Wetlands. OECD. [email protected]. Web Site: Produced by IUCN Wetlands Programme http://www.goodnet.com/~global. April 6-9. International Conference and FINNIDA. Aims to provide task man- agers in development assistance agencies on the Biology of Coastal Environ- . Bahrain. Contact: Dr. Jameel August 18-23. 1997 European Marine with information on improved screening ments Abbas, Dept. of Biology, College of Biological Symposium. Kristineberg procedures, project implementation prac- Science, University of Bahrain. E-mail: Marine Research Station, Sweden. tices and mitigation measures. [email protected]. One of the main Contact: EMBS Secretariat, Drs. Susanne themes is mangroves. Baden, Lief Pihl and Rutger Rosenberg, Management of Living Resources in Kristineberg Marine Research Station, S- the Matang Forest Reserve, Perak, 450 34, Fiskebackskil - Sweden. FAX: +46 May 5-7. Annual Meeting, Pacific Malaysia. G. Nagaraj and P. Gabriel. (0) 523 18503. E-mail: [email protected]. Northwest Chapter Society of Case study to be included in WWF-US . Corvallis, Oregon. report on sustainable use of wild species. Wetland Scientists Contact: Emily Roth, NRCS, Portland, September. VII Latin American Oregon. Tel: 503-235-6272. Congress of Marine Science UNESCO/ISME 400 page compilation (COLACMAR). San Paulo, Brazil. of 30 papers on status of mangroves Contact: Dr. Alfredo Martins Palva Pihlo, May 15-16. 24th Annual Conference in Latin America and Africa. B. Presidente de la Comision Organizadora, on Ecosystems Restoration and Kjerfve, L. Drude de Lacerda, and S. Diop . Tampa, Florida. Contact: COLACMAR, Centro de Convencoes, (eds.). French and English. Creation Frederick J. Webb, Dean of Environmental SESC-Santosrua, Conselheiro Rivas, 136, Programs, Hillsborough Community CEP: 11.040-900 Santos, Sao Paulo, Brasil. Fish eggs and larvae from mangrove College, Plant City Campus, 1206 N. Park This meeting will be held in English, waters. J. Prince Jayaseelan. Rd., Plant City, FL 33566 USA. Tel: 813- Spanish, and Portuguese and has a theme UNESCO/ISME. Drawings and descrip- 757-2104. E-mail: [email protected]. devoted to mangroves. tions of developmental stages of about 70 species. September 16-19. May 21-23. 1st International Confer- Fifth Symposium on . ence on Sustainable Tourism in the Biogeochemistry of Wetlands Royal Holloway College, University of Vietnam. Hue, Vietnam. Russell Arthur Smith, Coordinator, Vietnam Tourism London. Contact: Royal Holloway Institute Periodicals for Environmental Research, Royal Development Program, Hanns Seidel . MAP Quarterly News Foundation & Nanyang Technological Holloway University of London, IUCN Wetlands Newsletter. Contact: University. Tel: +65 799 4836. FAX: +65 Huntersdale, Callow Hill, Virginia Water, Cécile Thiéy, Librarian. Tel. 41 22 999 791 3697. E-mail: [email protected]. Surrey, GU25 4LN, UK. Attn: Tony Weir. 0135. FAX. 41 22 999 0010. E-mail. Web Site: http://edge.tamu.edu/waves97/. FAX 44(0)1784 477427. E-mail: [email protected]. [email protected]. June 2-6. Coastlines ‘97: Connecting September 18-20. The Ramsar Newsletter. This is the European and Mediterranean Coasts. Fourth Underwater newsletter of the Convention on Wetlands 6th EUCC International Conference. Science Symposium. Newcastle-upon- of International Importance, and is pub- Naples, Italy. Contact: Dr Giovanni Tyne. Contact: Jean Pritchard, Conference lished by the Ramsar Bureau, Rue Randazzo, Instituto di Scienze della Terra, Organiser, Society for Underwater Mauverney 28, CH-1196 Gland, Université di Messina, Salita Sperone, 31- Technology, Innovation Centre, Switzerland. FAX: (41) 22-999-0169. C.P.24, 98166 - S. Agata di Messina, Italy. Exploration Drive, Offshore Technology Tel: (41) 22-999-0170. E-mail: Tel. +39 90 6765095. FAX: +39 90 Park, Bridge of Don, Aberdeen, AB23 [email protected]. 392333. E-mail: 8GX, UK. Tel: 01224 823637. [email protected]. FAX: 01224 820236. Web Site: http:// www.soc.soton.ac.uk/OTHERS/SUT Mangroves and Salt Marshes. A new international journal concerned with the July 7-9. Air-Sea-Land Interaction September 22-24. interdisciplinary science and management Processes in Estuaries. Melbourne, International of tidal wetlands; it will cover pure and Australia. Contact: M. Cintia Piccolo and Council for Exploration of the Sea applied sciences and include studies on sil- Gerardo M. E. Perillo, Instituto Argentino International Symposium. tation, fisheries, forestry, aquaculture and de Oceanografia, Av. Alem 53, 8000 Bahia Recruitment Dynamics of Exploited the sustainable use of mangroves and salt- Blanca, Argentina. Tel: (54-91) Marine Populations: Physical-Biological marshes. Contact: Daniel Childers, 23555/20254/558431. FAX (54-91) 88- Interactions. Baltimore, Maryland. Associate Editor, Southeast Environmental 3933/20254. Contact: ICES, Palægade 2-4, DK-1261 Research Program, OE 148 University Copenhagen K, Denmark. Tel: (+45) 33 15 Park, Miami, Florida 33199. Tel. (1) 305- 42 25. FAX: (+45) 33 93 42 15. E-mail: August 5-8. 348-3095; FAX (1) 305-348-4096. U.S.-China Conference on [email protected]. Web Site: http://www. the Environment. Beijing. Contact: ices.dk/symposia/rp_sym.htm. Global Interactions Inc., 14 West Cheryl
40 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition September 22-27. International Marine August 22-28, 1998. World Deltas Creating a mangrove tree–Grades Biotechnology Conference. Sorrento, Symposium. New Orleans, Louisiana. K-8. This is a blueprint of a grammar Italy. Contact: Dr. Alan M. Kuzirian, Contact: James M. Coleman. Tel: 504-388- school project. Address: http://www.spti- Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, 4028. E-mail:[email protected] mes.com/aquarium/FA.4.2.1.html. MA 02543. Tel: 508-289-7480, -7368. FAX: 508-540-6902. E-mail: 1998. International Workshop on Diversification of Gulf/Caribbean [email protected]. Ecology and Management of Mangrove Communities through Mangroves. Colombia. Hosted by RED Cenozoic Time. (Research paper.) Estuarios/Univ. S. Carolina. Contact: Web Site: http://simon.kent.edu/ October 12-16. State of Our Estuaries Enrique J. Pena, Dept Biology, Universidad Biology/Research/Alan_Graham/Mangrov ERF ’97. Biennial Estuarine Research e.html. Federation, Providence, Rhode Island. del Valle, Cali, Colombia. E-mail: Contact: Patricia Kremer, Scientific and [email protected]. Technical Program Chair, Department The Florida Mangrove Forest. Describes mangroves and some of their of Marine Sciences, University of 1998. Shrimp Farmers and inhabitants for a lay audience. Web Site: Connecticut, Avery Point Campus, Groton, Mangroves. To be hosted by COD- http://www.sptimes.com/aquarium/FA.2 Connecticut 06340-6097 USA. Tel: 860- DEFFAGOLF, Honduras. Goal: to devise .1.html. 446-1020, ext. 266. E-mail: pkremer@ strategies to encourage shrimp businesses uconnvm.uconn.edu. to avoid damaging mangroves in the Golf of Fonseca. Contact: Jorge Varela Marquez, Fundacíon Humedales/Wetlands Director Edificio Fiallos Soto,#204, P.O. Foundation. (in English and Spanish) November 3-7. Waves 97: Third Box 3663, Tegucigalpa M.D.C. Tel: Web Site: http://www.humedales.org/. International Symposium on Ocean (504)38-0415. FAX: (504)38-0415. Wave Measurement and Analysis. E-mail: coddeffagolf%cgolf%sdnhon@ Inside the Mangrove Jungle Virginia Beach, Virginia. Contact: Dr. Billy sdnhq.undp.org. (Florida). Describes mangroves for a lay L. Edge, Ocean Engineering Program, audience. Web Site: http://www.flsun. Department of Civil Engineering, Texas Mangrove Electronic Resources com/wild _eco/mangrove.htm. A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-3136. Tel: 409-845-4515. FAX: Cairns On-line Environment Guide- Sewri Mangrove Park. This site 409-862-1542. E-mail: [email protected]. Mangroves. Detailed description of man- describes the efforts by the Bombay Port groves. Address: http://www.cairns.aust. Trust to protect 15 acres of mangroves 1998. 26th International Coastal com/Environ/mangroves.html. between Sewri and Trombay.Web Site: Engineering Conference. Copenhagen, http://theory.tifr.res.in/bombay/leisure/ Denmark. Contact: Dr. Billy L. Edge, Center for Tropical Marine Ecology travel/mangrove.html. Head, Ocean Engineering Program, (ZMT) and the Contact Office for Environmental, Ocean, and Water Tropical Coastal Research. Web Site: MANGROVE. Mangrove Research Resources Division, Department of Civil http://www.zmt.uni-bremen.de. Discussion List. Provides a global forum Engineering, Texas A&M University, for the discussion of all aspects of man- College Station, TX 77843- grove biology and the ecology and manage- 3136. ment of mangrove ecosystems. To sub- Tel: 409-847-8712. FAX: 409- scribe, send a message to: 862-1542. E-mail: b- [email protected] with [email protected]. the line
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 41 The Mangrove Web. The aim of this site is to provide information on techniques and WCMC/ISME World Mangrove Atlas. June 16-July 18. Maritime other information relating to mangrove Web Site: http://www.wcmc.org.uk/ Archaeology Techniques course. research. Includes links to MANGROVE infoserv/marine/mc_mang.html. Hawaii. Offered by The Marine Option discussion list, bibliography, and related Program at the University of Hawaii at sites. Web Site: http://possum.murdoch. Manoa. This graduate-level course will edu.au/~mangrove/. include remote sensing and scuba-assisted surveys. Contact: Marine Option Program, Online Coral Researchers Directory. Training 1000 Pope Rd. #229, Honolulu, Hawaii Web Site: http://coral.aoml.noaa.gov/ 96822. Tel: 808-956-8433. FAX: 808-956- lists/directory.html. May 6-8. Introduction to Image 2417. E-mail: [email protected]. Processing and Geographic Ramsar Convention. This page contains Information Systems (GIS). Athens, August 14-18. Management of man- a list of Ramsar sites. Web Site: http:// Georgia. Offered by the Center for grove systems workshop. Leon, iucn.org/themes/ramsar/. Remote Sensing and Mapping Studies. Nicaragua. Contact: Taller manejo produc- Contact: Georgia Center for Continuing tivo de manglares, Proyecto Manglares, Roots. Web Site: http://www.sptimes. Education, The University of Georgia, 7170 CATIE, Turrialba, COSTA RICA. E- com/aquarium/FA.2.1.4a.html. Athens, GA 30602-3603. Tel: 706-542- mail: [email protected]. 2134 or 800-884-1381. FAX: 706-542- Salt Marshes. Web Site: http://atlas.ksc. 6596 or 800-884-1419. E-mail: nasa.gov/./vegetation/saltmrsh.html [email protected].
Mangrove Management early 1980s and the program of green- managers and politicians have support- ing the arid coasts of the northern ed mangrove projects in Asia and the (continued from page 3) Arabian Sea extends westward from Pacific, and work is now being extend- the greening of arid coasts and the fixa- the delta and the Karachi area, towards ed to Africa and Tropical American and tion of accretion areas. Miani Hor. Rhizophora wood because Caribbean countries. Mangrove man- In Bangladesh, a vast program has of its high caloric value, had been agers are now talking to NGOs and been underway since the late 1970s selectively harvested here for the boil- local people, and politicians are begin- to consolidate the mud banks and ers of the locomotives of the newly ning to take interest. The UNESCO deltaic islands of the east coast of the built railways in Sindh, causing the con- initiative has taken root and developing Sundarbans and to develop a protective version of the area to a monoculture of countries are receiving aid from several green belt against cyclones and tidal Avicennia. Restoration of the original countries and international agencies to bores through accretion of new land. mixed forest is now underway and tall manage their mangroves. The Hundreds of hectares have been turned Avicennia and Rhizophora forests and International Society for Mangrove over to agriculture and many others experimental plantations of Ceriops Eco-systems, founded in 1990, is play- are now managed as production forests and other species now cover hundreds ing a major role in this movement. under the auspices of the Forest of hectares of the previously desert Much remains to be done, however, Research Institute and Forest Depart- tidal belt, as a result of the efforts of and there is no reason for complacen- ment of Bangladesh. These, with the the Forest Depart- cy. Unfortunately destruction is still far Chittagong Sundarbans of Bangladesh ment of Sindh Province with UNESCO, ahead of conservation and management and the Sundarbans of West Bengal ISME and IUCN support. UNESCO’s for long-term sustained production. (India) are managed locally with occa- major regional projects, planned in the Mangroves are varied and there is no sional assistance from foreign experts. 1970s and implemented since the simple or single paradigm for their The Sundarbans of West Bengal have 1980s in collaboration with UNDP, management. Scientists must learn become particularly well known for the contributed greatly to rescuing man- from those for whom the mangroves forestry techniques practiced there, as groves from oblivion and neglect and are home and who are thus true “ecol- well as the additional focus on biodiver- helped them find their rightful place in ogists” (a word that comes from the sity protection ranging from the Tiger today’s worldwide concern for the Greek word for home: oikos). Project of WWF to the study of the environment. Their importance has For more information contact: microflora and microfauna, including been universally recognized, at long Marta Vannucci, ISME Secretariat, c/o fungi and plant diseases. last and their previously hidden bene- College of Agriculture, University of The Indus delta mangroves of fits are now as well known as their the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa 903- Pakistan have been managed since the more obvious ones. Many scientists, 01, Japan. FAX:(81) 98-895-6602.
42 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition Stewardship duces positive outcomes. Contributing the bulldozer and world commodity (continued from page 1) writers Alejandro Bodero and Alan markets can quickly destroy or White, in recounting the experiences degrade mangroves that may have conjure up an image to convey the idea of Ecuador and the Philippines demon- existed for millennia. of stewardship. One image is of a per- strate the importance of assuming that Finally, the steward is a local per- son responsible for a piece of agricul- the communities affected must assume son. He or she is of the place, lives tural land and the families who work the lead in shaping a responsible and there, applies their knowledge and it. The steward knows each field, each equitable relationship with “their” confronts those who threaten the hope bit of woodland, even each fruit tree, mangroves. This, in turn, requires for balance. Such knowledge and and their individual strengths, weak- knowing how the local human societies responsibility can be informed and nesses and needs. The steward is no function and the nature of the forces encouraged from afar – but like the less knowledgeable of each family, that are shaping how they change. declarations of central government in their history and aspirations and their Robert Twilley and Colin Field rein- most developing nations – technical individual and collective skills and fail- force from different perspectives the knowledge and exhortations have little ings. The steward’s responsibility, equal importance of understanding the effect without sustained local commit- delight–and sometimes the price he or combination of factors that give an ment and action. This does not imply she must bear–comes from how he or individual mangrove wetland its that the roles of advisors and the nat- she balances among the needs of the unique identity and therefore the ural scientists working to better under- land, and the needs and desires of the informed parameters for its effective stand the ecological process, values people from one generation to another. stewardship. and trends in mangroves are sec- At the heart of stewardship is a pro- A second characteristic of steward- ondary. The point is that their work found, detailed and accurate knowl- ship is careful attention to and clarity must connect to stewardship practice. edge of both nature and a society, of in the objectives of management. Why These papers suggest that the re- the many processes at work and the are we managing, who are we manag- search and technology is indeed being values that must be kept balanced. ing for, what values are important, better communicated and offered as Stewardship is about creating the beauty what forces are we trying to keep in support to the individuals and groups that comes when such balance is balance and what are the time scales? who are struggling to be more effec- achieved and maintained. Particularly A third feature of stewardship is tive stewards. These trends give reason in poor countries, where many people that the greatest challenges lie with to hope that the drastic losses in man- depend upon the natural resources in controlling and directing the power of groves often seen in the last few their immediate surroundings for their people which, at least over the short decades will not continue, and that livelihoods and survival, a one-size-fits- term, usually outweighs the forces of restoration at significant scales may all policy prohibiting for example, the nature in shaping ecosystem change. even occur. cutting of mangroves or promoting the Population growth in the tropics com- building of shrimp ponds, seldom pro- bined with the power of the chain saw,
Cambodia Control charcoal production by pro- in Koh Kapik in terms of aquatic flora (continued from page 34) hibiting illegal exports of charcoal. and fauna protection and coastal com- ■ Stop the illegal trade of mangrove munity stabilization. actions to: and marine products with neighboring ■ Build a research station and educa- ■ Issue a moratorium against the countries. tion center. increasing development of shrimp farms ■ Promote community awareness and ■ Establish a master plan for sustain- until further studies have been conduct- community-based management of local able development, protection and con- ed. resources. servation of coastal ecosystems. ■ Obligate existing shrimp farm entre- ■ Create a permanent office in each ■ Collect aquatic biodiversity, and cre- preneurs to renovate their infrastruc- wildlife sanctuary, patrolled by local ate a management plan for the Koh ture. environmental staff to curb illegal activ- Kapik Ramsar site. ■ Develop a master plan for the coastal ities. For more information contact: Oum area. Pisey, Ministry of Environment, 48 Samdech Preah Sihanous St., Chamkarmon ■ Develop the coastal zone for tourism, Recommendations Khan, Phnom Penh 3, Cambodia. FAX: and ecotourism in particular. ■ Carefully study the mangrove forest (855) 23 427137. E-mail: [email protected].
Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 43 Upcoming in Intercoast Editors:Stephen Olsen & Luitzen Bijlsma Special Issue Editor:Susan Wells Managing Editor: Indicators for Learning andthe World Conservation Union Congress Chip Young Assistant Editor:Monica Allard Evaluationwill be the special focus of in Canada, addressing the development Intercoast Network, an international the Spring, 1997 edition of Intercoast of a common methodology for evaluating newsletter of coastal management, is pub- Network (No. 29). Measuring real the critical role of lished quarterly by the Coastal Resources Management Project of the University of progress in integrated coastal manage- governance in the Rhode Island’s Coastal Resources Center and ment (ICM) has become a ICM process. He the U.S. Agency for International key issue in the and other noted Development (USAID). Funding is provided by USAID’s Global Environment Center, and field. Coastal prac- contributors by the Coastal Zone Management Centre, titioners will explore which is located within the National Institute for Coastal and Marine Management world- many of the (RIKZ), a division of the Netherlands vital ques- Ministry of Transport, Public Works, and Water Management. tions sur- rounding The objective of Intercoast Network is to facilitate the exchange of information, expe- indicators, rience, and ideas on coastal management. learning Readers are encouraged to write to the Coastal Resources Center with comments on and eval- the newsletter and its effectiveness as a uation source of information for coastal managers. in Intercoast Network ICM Coastal Resources Center University of Rhode Island around Narragansett Bay Campus the world. Narragansett, RI 02882 USA Tel: 401-874-6224 wide If you are Fax: 401-789-4670 are interested in E-mail: [email protected] WWW home page: looking for contributing, http://brooktrout.gso.uri.edu reliable contact Intercoast Coastal Zone Management Centre methods to Managing Editor Chip Young at Ministry of Transport, Public Works, and evaluate and learn Intercoast Network, c/o Coastal Water Management National Institute for Coastal and Marine from the work being done in Resources Center, University of Rhode Management/RIKZ ICM, and turning that assessment into Island, Bay Campus, South Ferry Road, P.O. Box 20907, 2500 ES The Hague The Netherlands productive input for their work. Editor Narragansett, RI, USA 02882. Phone: Tel: +31 70 3114 311 Stephen Olsen has recently given (401) 874-6630; FAX: (401) 789-4670; Fax: +31 70 3114 380 keynote presentations in China and at E-mail: E-mail: [email protected]
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