n Epilogue – Dr Bruce Elmegreen CHAPTER 16

There is what seems to be, and there is what is. We look but we cannot see what is. We build instruments that do our looking and still these instruments cannot see everything. There is no limitless gaze. The horizon curves, the fog muffl es, the lights and structures get fainter and fuzzier with distance. The redshift dims. Peeling back one layer leads only to another. This is the reality of the Universe in which we live. When we think we have it just right, we see an unimagined new rightness beneath.

David Block and Kenneth Freeman have been looking and measuring, classifying and pon- dering the Universe for a long time. We are fortunate they shared their story with us. This is a story about the avalanche of insight that follows the discovery of new techniques: of giant telescopes built by hand all around the globe and of the mysteries the builders solved and revealed through their drawings; of the photographic process and the replacement of vision by chemical images; of electronic antennae, cameras, telescopes, and satellites that are sensi- tive to radio, infrared, ultraviolet, x-ray, and gamma ray light. It is a story of the shrouds of the night that were slowly peeled back, of galaxies viewed both inside and out, like the x-ray fi sh in Collette Archer’s painting below.

The Universe around us is rich with structure in both density and temperature. Some of this structure reveals itself by the light it radiates, the long or the short wavelengths depending on temperature and extinction, the bright or the dim light depending on dis- tance, opacity, and power. Other structures emit no light at all, but show their presence only through gravity. Perhaps still others show their presence only through feeling. This is a very different Universe close to us than the Universe long ago and far away, which had much less structure, much more uniformity in temperature and density, and many fewer types of objects. It had no stars, no carbon or oxygen or other heavy nuclei, no galaxies An Epilogue – just elementary particles and their mutual forces. How that Universe, now mapped and 401 measured with modern instruments, turned into the Universe around us, is a story being told by countless pixels of digital data, month-long simulations on the largest comput- ers, and atom smashers that probe Big Bang energy densities. How that Universe sprung forth life that ponders and questions as we do is a story that still lies behind the thickest shroud.

Dr Bruce Elmegreen is a senior research scientist at the IBM TJ Watson Research Center in New York. He completed his doctorate at Princeton University; his supervisor was the late Lyman Spitzer Jr, one of the fathers of modern astrophysics after whom the Spitzer Space Telescope is named. Dr Elmegreen then spent three years as a Junior Fellow in the Society of Fellows at Harvard University and joined IBM in 1984, after holding a

Shrouds of the Night 402 faculty position at Columbia University. Dr Elmegreen was awarded the Dannie Hein- eman Prize in 2001 for theoretical studies of the interstellar medium, starbursts and the dynamics of spiral arms and bars in galaxies. A previous recipient of this prize was coauthor Kenneth Freeman. Dr Elmegreen has served on all three of the international Scientifi c Organizing Steering Committees for conferences on galaxy morphology and cosmic dust held on South African soil. Dr Elmegreen’s winning design for a medal to commemorate the Transit of Venus in 2004 was struck in both gold and silver. A gold medal was awarded to Dr Elmegreen by the Governor of the Reserve Bank of South Africa, Tito Mboweni.

An Epilogue 403 Figure Captions CHAPTER 1

Figure 1 A view of Galileo’s town of birth, Pisa, as depicted in a leaf from Figure 6 In Middle-Age Europe, the Northern Lights were thought to the Nuremberg Chronicle published over 500 years ago, in 1493. The be refl ections of heavenly warriors. According to legend, soldiers who Nurmberg Chronicle (Liber Chronicarum) was written by the Nuremberg gave their lives for their king and country were allowed to battle on the physician Hartmann Schedel and was printed by Anton Koberger. skies forever, as a posthumous reward. (Reproduced from Photographic Atlas of Auroral Forms published by the International Geodetic and Figure 2 Papua New Guinea: the land of dancing masks. A photograph Geophysical Union, Oslo, 1930.) of an Asaro Mudman seen wearing his mask, in the Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea. Just as masks cover or shroud the human face, Figure 7 The grandeur of the Milky Way Galaxy celebrated by a group so too is our perception of the night sky inextricably intertwined by the of Aboriginals in Australia during a “walkabout.” Writes Aboriginal art- presence of cosmic masks. (Photograph: David L. Block.) ist Collette Archer: “Our people always use the stars to fi nd their way on walkabouts during the nights … Our people celebrate the full moon Figure 3 Customs in Papua New Guinea have remained unchanged for and dance with happiness. They always admire the stars as do myself.” centuries. Photographed near the town of Goroka is a group of Asaro (Artwork: Collette Archer, of the tribe Djunban in Far Northern Mudmen, wearing their haunting masks. In astronomy, cosmic dust grains Queensland, Australia.) act as enormously effective masks – much like a fog on Earth. An awesome new view of the cosmos unfolds as these cosmic masks are “penetrated” Figure 8 A stellar nursery, the Rosette Nebula, in our Milky Way Galaxy. using state-of-the-art infrared technology. (Photograph: David L. Block.) Young stars born toward the central regions of the Rosette Nebula have evacuated a grand cosmic cavity or “hole.” Seen silhouetted in the Figure 4 From the land of Papua New Guinea where masks still dance, a Rosette are numerous dark and imposing “elephant trunk” structures of human face is partially covered in a painted mask. The full moon itself is a cosmic dust. (Photograph: David L. Block.) mask, for it masks (or hides) myriads of fainter stars. In its brilliant light, only the very brightest of stars are seen. (Photograph: David L. Block.) Figure 9 Another view of the Rosette Nebula, secured at the European Southern Observatory on a mountain in the Atacama desert in north- Figure 5 What a foreboding sight the dancing Northern Lights, the ern Chile. The image has been photographically enhanced, to reveal Aurora Borealis, must have been, in an era when no scientifi c explana- features of exceptionally low surface brightness which are not appar- tion was known. (Reproduced from Photographic Atlas of Auroral Forms ent upon inspection by eye of the original glass negative. The Rosette published by the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union, Oslo, Nebula presents myriads of globules of cosmic dust. (Photograph: David 1930.) L. Block.)

Figure Captions 405 Figure 10 The Seagull Nebula. Towering dynamics are at work here; a grains in interstellar space and photons from young, energetic stars gradu- veritable cosmic sculpture in the making. Bright rims of gas form ridges ally eroding the dark, dusty clouds. (Photograph: David L. Block.) upon dark clouds of dust. The Seagull’s head is located on the border of the constellations of Monoceros and Canis Majoris and it, too, is char- Figure 16 Resembling a seahorse, the Horsehead Nebula in the con- acterized by a prominent dark ridge of cosmic dust. (Photograph: David stellation of Orion is not a mere hole or chasm in the sky, but rather a L. Block.) distinct physical entity of swirling gas and cosmic dust. The Horsehead Nebula (of approximate dimensions 2.7 × 1.8 light years) is gradually Figure 11 The dark Universe. The dusty Universe. An area of star for- being eroded by the intense radiation of an energetic, nearby star; its mation in the constellation of Carina, spawning dark, opaque globules estimated lifetime is about 5 million years. (Photograph: European of cosmic dust. Dark globules are often the sites for protostars – stars in Southern Observatory.) the process of being born. Some globules may have grotesque shapes whereas others are almost spherical. The latter may have diameters less Figure 17 Shrouds of the Night: The enigmatic spiral galaxy known than 10 000 times the Earth–Sun distance; others may span diameters of as the “Sleeping Beauty,” struts its dark lanes of cosmic dust in a most a few light years. (Photograph: David L. Block.) dramatic fashion. Our challenge was to penetrate these dusty shrouds or masks and unveil cold (minus 210 degrees Centigrade) and very cold Figure 12 A spectacular star-forming region in the constellation of (minus 250 degrees Centigrade) cosmic dust grains in galaxies beyond Carina, known as NGC 3576 (object number 3576 in the “New General the Milky Way. (Photograph: John Kormendy.) Catalogue”). Gargantuan arcs of glowing hydrogen gas are evident. This object was discovered by Sir John Herschel during his visit to the Cape Figure 18 Shrouds of the Morning: Early morning mists in Canberra, as of Good Hope, South Africa. He recorded it as “Faint; oval.” The image photographed from the slopes of Mount Stromlo. The obscuring effects has been photographically enhanced to reveal the intricate beauty of the of the mist are extremely pronounced – hiding much of the valley below arcs as well as the dark globules of cosmic dust. (Photograph: David L. – even though the mist itself may be of negligible mass. (Photograph: Block.) David L. Block.)

Figure 13 Clouds of dust lie sprawling across this wide-fi eld image of Figure 19 A bushfi re in Australia. Billowing clouds of smoke from the the Milky Way in the direction of Corona Australis, the Southern Crown. raging bushfi re rise into the air, and are seen in dramatic silhouette at Acting as a cosmic smoke, grains of cosmic dust effectively block-out higher altitudes above the ground. Cosmic dust pioneer Mayo Greenberg the light from more distant, background stars in our Milky Way Galaxy. always likened the obscuring effects of dust particles in our Universe to (Photograph: David L. Block.) such smoke particles, which in this photograph form terrestrial masks. (Photograph: Gordon Undy.) Figure 14 A close-up of star forming regions in the Corona Australis complex reveals the grandeur of the processes involved in the birth of Figure 20 An optical photograph of the spiral galaxy NGC 2997, show- stars. (Photograph: David L. Block.) ing a plethora of bright young stars and a magnifi cent set of dust lanes. In the 1980s, the existence of cold and very cold dust grains in other Figure 15 Clouds of dark cosmic dust grains, seen in brilliant silhouette galaxies was a hotly debated issue – many astronomers believed that gal- against bright ridges of hydrogen gas. These dark clouds of dust betray the axies such as this one were dust defi cient, compared to our Milky Way dynamics of the processes at work: a grand celestial interplay between dust Galaxy. Was our Milky Way simply very unusual in being having copious

Shrouds of the Night 406 amounts of cosmic dust? Or could it be that the Infrared Astronomy the Milky Way Galaxy comes from the work of the French born artist Satellite had actually missed ninety percent of the dust content in spiral and amateur astronomer Etienne Leopold Trouvelot (1827–1895), who galaxies such as NGC 2997, as a result of masking by the hotter dust emigrated from France to the United States in 1855. (Digital image: grains? (Photograph: European Southern Observatory.) U.S. Naval Observatory.)

Figure 21 A dust penetrated near-infrared view of the spiral galaxy NGC Figure 25 The planet Saturn, with its magnifi cent system of rings, as 2997 shows a most extraordinary galactic backbone. It is almost diffi cult at meticulously recorded by the celestial artist Etienne Trouvelot. The draw- fi rst sight to believe that one is looking at the same galaxy as that seen in ing attests to the most astute eye of this observer. Intricate and minute the preceding fi gure, when seen in optical light. The dust mask was pen- details in the rings are recorded, including a famous gap in the rings, etrated using state-of-the-art infrared technology at the European Southern known as the Cassini division. Trouvelot also records less pronounced Observatory in the Atacama desert, Chile. (Photograph: David L. Block.) gaps in the ring system. Saturn has a density less than that of water, with the implication that if it were to be placed in an enormous sea of water, Figure 22 Shrouds of the Night betray a breathtaking beauty of their the planet would fl oat. (Digital image: U.S. Naval Observatory.) own. Dust grains (color coded black on a sepia background) in NGC 2997 do not only lie along the spiral arms of the galaxy, but also between Figure 26 Trouvelot’s drawing of a cluster of stars in the constellation spiral arms (this dust is technically known as “inter-arm” dust). We were of Hercules. The cluster (listed as object number 13 in the catalogue of able to prove that astronomers had underestimated the mass of the Dust French astronomer Charles Messier) contains several hundred thousand Shroud in spiral galaxies such as NGC 2997 by ninety percent. This stars, and was discovered by Edmond Halley in 1714, who noted that Figure was generated by subtracting our near-infrared image from an “it shows itself to the naked eye when the sky is serene and the Moon optical image. (Photograph: David L. Block.) absent.” The dia meter of this cluster is approximately 145 light years. (Digital image: U.S. Naval Observatory.) Figure 23 The Coalsack Dark Nebula (otherwise known as the Coalsack) is readily visible to the naked eye and is seen silhouetted against the Figure 27 “The Great Nebula in Orion” as sketched by Trouvelot. rich starfi elds of the southern Milky Way, bordering the constellations of Deep within this stellar nursery lies a cluster of young stars, known as Crux and Centaurus. It lies adjacent to the Southern Cross seen here, the Trapezium. The nebula is roughly 30 light years across. Also vividly with its famous four stars, and delineates an oval-shaped dust mask about recorded in this drawing, based on telescopic observations by Trouvelot 8 degrees long and 5 degrees wide (for comparison, our full moon spans spanning two years (1875 and 1876) are dark ridges and dark globules. one half of a degree in our skies). The bright orange colored star, a The birth of stars is inextricably linked to clouds of gas mixed with cos- member of the Southern Cross, is known as Gamma Crucis or Gacrux, mic dust. (Digital image: U.S. Naval Observatory.) and is estimated to have a diameter over 100 times that of our Sun. The southernmost star of the southern cross (the lowermost member of the Figure 28 The glowing zodiacal light, as sketched by Etienne Trouvelot. cross in this image) is known as Alpha Crucis, and shines with a brilliant The zodiacal light is caused by sunlight scattering off interplanetary par- blue color. (Photograph: Axel Mellinger.) ticles of dust in our solar system. This interplanetary dust, distributed in a volume of space centered on the Sun and extending beyond the orbit Figure 24 Prior to the dawning of the photographic era, astute and care- of our Earth, lies in the plane of the zodiac, or ecliptic. The zodiacal light ful observers produced some of the most exquisite drawings of objects betrays the presence of our solar system’s dust mask. (Digital image: in our night sky, by eye and by hand. One of our favorite drawings of Emporia State University, Emporia, KS, USA.)

Figure Captions 407 Figure 29 “The November Meteors” as drawn by Trouvelot in mass stars which shed their gas. Such may be the fate of our Sun, in some November, 1868. Trouvelot vividly captures that extraordinary celes- 5 billion years hence. At the heart of the Dumbbell Nebula lies the rem- tial display: over three thousand meteors were seen during the night nant star, known as a white dwarf. Patterns of bright and dark knots are of November 13–14. This particular meteor shower, known as the beautifully recorded in this drawing, produced at Birr Castle in Ireland. Leonid meteor shower, is linked to the debris of Comet Tempel–Tuttle as it orbits the Sun. Comets have been described as “dirty snowballs” Figure 33 Some of the most exquisite drawings of the Milky Way were of ice mixed with cosmic dust, and this meteor shower results when the rendered by the hand of Otto Boeddicker (1853–1937), who became the Earth, in its annual orbit about the Sun, encounters debris from Comet astronomical assistant to Lawrence Parsons, the 4th Earl of Rosse at Birr Tempel–Tuttle. The debris then burns up in our atmosphere, due to fric- Castle, Ireland. Boeddicker’s breathtaking drawings of the Milky Way tion. (Digital image: U.S. Naval Observatory.) were made over a period of six years, and were published in 1892 as a folio set of four plates, each measuring 18 inches × 23 inches. Boeddicker lay Figure 30 A detailed rendition by Lord Rosse of a spiral galaxy listed fl at on his back, night after night, to produce the drawings reproduced as object h1744 in the Herschel catalogue; more commonly known as here. He recalls: “This involved for the greater part of the Milky Way Messier 101. This historic drawing was made using the famous “Leviathan the necessity of lying fl at on my back (or nearly so) in the open air for of Parsonstown,” a telescope in Ireland boasting a giant mirror of 72 hours – a position which, especially on frosty nights, proved somewhat inches diameter. The telescope received its fi rst set of celestial photons trying, for no amount of clothing was found suffi cient to counteract the (technically known as “fi rst light”) in February 1845. The drawing faith- radiation of heat from the body.” (Courtesy: The current Lord and Lady fully records bright knots in the spiral arms of this galaxy; these are now Rosse and Mr. A. Stephens.) known to be knots of ionized hydrogen gas associated with the harsh ultraviolet radiation emanating from clusters of young stars. (Drawing Figure 34 Otto Boeddicker’s drawings of the Milky Way received the courtesy: The current Lord and Lady Rosse and Mr. A. Stephens.) highest praise. “To appreciate the labour of depicting, in all its intricate details, the majestic arch of accumulated suns … one should examine Dr Figure 31 An exquisite rendition of the spiral galaxy H. 131 by Lord Boeddicker’s splendid drawings of it … There is something of organic Rosse, using the giant “Leviathan of Parsonstown.” The spiral arms in regularity in the manner of divergence of innumerable branches from this galaxy (also known as Messier 33) are correctly depicted as being a knotted and gnarled trunk … It is simply amazing that such a work broad, in contrast to the thinner, fi lamentary spiral arms seen in the should have been executed in such a climate as Parsonstown” were the previous Figure. Galaxy morphologists today make regular use of terms thoughts published in the Saturday Review of November 30, 1889. In such as massive (i.e., broad) versus fi lamentary. It is intriguing to note the drawings by Boeddicker, the stars are drawn black on a white back- that Lord Rosse also sketched a multiple set of spiral arms, as attested to ground; the numerous masks of cosmic dust appear white. by modern optical imaging and photographs. (Drawing courtesy: The current Lord and Lady Rosse and Mr. A. Stephens.) Figure 35 The Great Nebula in the constellation of Orion, based on almost twenty years of careful observation (spanning the years between Figure 32 The Dumbbell Nebula, as sketched by Lord Rosse. The des- 1848 and 1867) at Birr Castle. For reproduction purposes, the drawing ignation “dumbbell” may be traced to a description given by Sir John of the entire nebula was meticulously divided into six sectors, with each Herschel, who compared it to a “double-headed shot.” This Nebula, sector appearing on a large white card. The six cards were then assem- number 2060 in the Herschel catalogue, lies in the constellation of bled into a 2 × 3 mosaic to generate the magnifi cent drawing seen here. Vulpecula and represents the late stages of development of certain low Plumes of hydrogen gas abound in the Great Nebula, as do dark ridges

Shrouds of the Night 408 of cosmic dust. All of these details are faithfully recorded in this exquisite Figure 39 A photograph secured in the late 1880s of Table Mountain. mosaic produced at Birr Castle. (Courtesy: The current Lord and Lady (Photographer unknown.) Rosse and Mr. A. Stephens.) Figure 40 Sir John Herschel’s telescope erected at Feldhausen. “In Figure 36 How did astronomers at Birr Castle produce their detailed point of situation it is a perfect paradise in rich and magnifi cent moun- drawings of galaxies and of nebulae, in the dark? What light source did tain scenery, and sheltered from all winds, even the fi erce south easter, by they use when sketching in the dark? This lantern was recently discov- thick surrounding woods. I must reserve for my next [letter] all descrip- ered in the attic of a tower at Birr Castle. The rectangular lantern has a tion of the gorgeous fl owers … as well as the astonishing brilliancy of brownish-yellow glass in front of it, which would act as a fi lter to pre- the constellations” wrote Sir John of his observing site at Feldhausen. serve night vision when Lord Rosse made his exquisite drawings with (Courtesy: National Library of South Africa.) the Giant Leviathan at Parsonstown. The lantern measures 7 inches × 7 inches × 8 inches. The little legs, which are of a different metal and Figure 41 The starry vaults of the southern Milky Way, as drawn from are not rusted, are 4½ inches long. (Photograph: Lady Rosse at Birr Feldhausen by Sir John Herschel. The top panel includes the appearance Castle.) of our Galaxy in the constellations of Ophiucus, Centaurus, Sagittarius and Scorpio while the lower panel shows the morphology of the Milky Figure 37 Approaching Table Mountain from the sea, the explorer, nat- Way spanning, amongst others, the constellations of Crux, Canis Major uralist and botanist William Burchell wrote upon his arrival in the Cape and Monoceros. The Southern Cross appears as a group of four stars in 1810: “As we advanced nearer the shore, the mountains displayed toward the left hand side in the lower panel, adjacent to the Coalsack, an imposing grandeur, which mocked the littleness of human works: drawn as a conspicuous white “hole.” Herschel remarked that voyagers buildings were but specks; too small to add a feature to the scene; too and travelers always regarded the Coalsack as “one of the most conspicu- insignifi cant either to adorn or to disturb the magnifi cence of nature.” ous features of the southern sky.” (Courtesy: William Cullen Library, (Reproduced from a volume by the explorer F. Le Vaillant published University of the Witwatersrand.) by H. J. Jansen, Paris, 1796. Courtesy: The William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand.) Figure 42 The Great Nebula in Orion, as drawn by Sir John Herschel. It took Sir John over three years to complete this drawing by means of fi rst Figure 38 A painting (dated 1843) by the astronomer Charles Piazzi measuring the positions of coordinate stars, then using these to form a Smyth, showing a moonlight view of Table Bay, as well as depicting the grid on paper, and then drawing in details of the Great Nebula itself. The Great Comet of 1843. To the naked eye, the Great Comet appeared to time consuming process is elucidated by Sir John thus: “By the aid of the have a double tail, with two streamers fl owing in apparent straight lines measures of December, 1834 … the fi rst skeleton [of coordinate stars] from the head of the Comet. Table Mountain is visible in the back- was laid down and fi lled in on the 4th and 29th January, 1835, and on the ground, at left. In the foreground on the left, the painter shows a small 27th December, 1836, and a number of curious and interesting particu- boat with three people on board, all pointing toward the Great Comet. lars noticed and delineated … but it was not till the end of 1837 that the The brilliant intensity of the moonlight is clearly seen refl ected in the accumulation of the micrometric measures had enabled me to lay down waters of Table Bay. When Sir John Herschel arrived in the Cape of with some precision a set of skeletons … extending over the whole nebu- Good Hope in January 1834, the view of Table Bay with its sailing ships lous area intended to be included in the drawing.” From January 1835 to would have been much the same as that seen in this painting by Charles December 1837 the grid was painstakingly laid out and carefully corrected. Piazzi Smyth. (Painting: National Maritime Museum, London.) (Courtesy: William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand.)

Figure Captions 409 Figure 43 Nebulosity and cosmic dust in the constellation of Carina. Of Stewart on 3rd March, 1829. Their fi rst child, daughter Caroline, was this region, Sir John Herschel wrote: “There is perhaps no other sidereal born in March 1830. Next followed Isabella Herschel (born 1831), object which unites more points of interest than this. Its situation is very William James Herschel (born 1833) and Margaret Louisa Herschel remarkable, being in the midst of one of those rich and brilliant masses, a (born 1834). Sir John Herschel was father to twelve children – the succession of which curiously contrasted with dark adjacent spaces (called twelfth child, Constance Ann Herschel, was born in 1855. (Courtesy: by the old navigators coal-sacks), constitute the milky way in that portion National Library of South Africa.) of its course which lies between the Centaur and the main body of Argo.” Modern nomenclature has replaced the constellation Argo with others, Figure 46 Sir John Herschel’s passion of using the camera lucida to the major portion of which is the constellation of Carina: only visible from record landscapes extended to both the northern and southern hem- the Southern Hemisphere. Sir John Herschel remarked that the execution, ispheres. Seen in this drawing, produced soon after the arrival of Sir fi nal revision, and correction of this drawing and engraving over a period John in the Cape in 1843, is sunset behind Table Mountain. In the of several months “would, I am sure, be no exaggeration.” (Courtesy: foreground is an ox-wagon (Afrikaans: Ossewa) which was a traditional William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand.) early form of transport in Southern Africa. The ox-wagons were drawn by chains of oxen which were harnessed in pairs. (Courtesy: National Figure 44 While at the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa, Sir John Library of South Africa.) Herschel produced a most moving set of drawings using a camera luc- ida. The camera lucida superimposes by means of a prism a virtual image Figure 47 In the handwriting of Sir John Herschel, nebulae were clas- of any view onto the plane of a drawing board, so that it can be traced by sifi ed according to “magnitude” (great, large, middle, small, minute), an artist. Seen here is a view from the “stoep” (verandah) of the home “resolvability” (discrete, resolvable, granulated, mottled and milky) of Sir John Herschel on the property bearing the name Feldhuysen or as well as “brightness,” “roundness” and “condensation.” One neb- Feldhausen, situated approximately 10 kilometers from Cape Town ula might be “middle-sized, bright, round, stellate, resolvable” while on a gentle slope at the base of Table Mountain. Above, in the back- another might be “small-sized, dim, elongated, discoid, milky.” (From ground, towers a mountainous peak, known as Devil’s Peak, while in the the archives of the Royal Astronomical Society, London.) foreground a tree, with the minutest of detail in the leaves, is carefully sketched. It is the same incredible attention to detail, whether draw- Figure 48 Classifi cation extends to both the worlds of the microcosm ing a window frame or a fl ower, which is evident in Sir John Herschel’s below and the macrocosm above. Photographed here is coral spawning descriptions of his telescopic sweeps of the southern skies. (Courtesy: in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. The annual mass spawning takes National Library of South Africa.) place each spring or early summer. During the coral spawning process, corals release eggs and sperm into the water, and the timing is linked Figure 45 Sir John Herschel was a man of extraordinary wide inter- to the phases of the Moon. The most common period is 3–5 days after ests; he made contributions to geology, botany, ornithology, chemistry, the full moon, in November or December (late spring, early summer). mathematics and of course his monumental legacy in matters astronomi- As Majorie Nicholson writes: “… the Divine Artist … draws in little as cal. But he was also a family man; their marriage was described as being exquisitely as in large … for ‘Nature is the Art of God’.” (Photograph: of “unclouded happiness.” Reproduced here is a camera lucida sketch Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority – GBRMPA, Australia.) by Sir John Herschel showing three of his young children – Caroline, Isabella and Louisa Herschel – in the north-east avenue of the property Figure 49 Sir John Herschel as photographed by British master pho- “Feldhausen” at the Cape. Sir John Herschel married Margaret Brodie tographer Julia Margaret Cameron. Herschel’s role in the history of

Shrouds of the Night 410 photography is forever etched in time: Herschel discovered the “fi xing 72-inch “Leviathan” at Parsonstown, Ireland. It was on 28th August process” of using sodium thiosulfate (or “hypo”) in 1819. It is to Sir 1789, on the occasion of “fi rst light” of this telescope, that Sir William John Herschel whom we owe the word photography (derived from the Herschel discovered Saturn’s sixth known moon, Enceladus, and on 17th Greek photos – light – and graphien – to draw). (Photograph courtesy: September of the same year, its seventh known moon, Mimas. The instru- Bensusan Museum of Photography, Johannesburg.) ment constructed at Slough, England, is faithfully recorded by means of photography by his son, Sir John Herschel. Not only did Sir John Figure 50 Another, more famous portrait, of Sir John Herschel by Herschel introduce “hypo” as a photographic fi xative to the world, but Julia Margaret Cameron, dated 1867. The portrait carries the following he also discovered the cyanotype process for blue, monochromatic color inscription, written in pen by Sir John Herschel: “The one of the old photography in 1842. (Photograph courtesy: National Media Museum paterfamilias with his black cap on is I think the climax of photographic and the Science & Society Picture Library, London.) art and beats hollow every thing I have ever beheld in photography before.” In March of 1839, Sir John read a paper to the Royal Society Figure 53 In the handwriting of Sir John Herschel: a document contain- entitled: “Note on the Art of Photography, or The Application of the ing his comments on a method devised by Fizeau in 1840. The French Chemical Rays of Light to the Purpose of Pictorial Representation.” For physicist Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau (1819–1896) had discovered a some unknown reason, Herschel withdrew his pioneering 1839 Royal method of treating daguerreotypes with a solution of gold to contribute Society research paper on photography, from publication. In 1842 Sir to their permanence. Impressions could then be made in printing ink, John Herschel sent Julia Margaret Cameron early examples of pho- as in the process of engravings. Herschel begins: “The problem consists tographic images – the fi rst she had ever seen. (Photograph courtesy: in acting from the Dag: [Daguerreotype plate] impressions by an agent Bensusan Museum of Photography, Johannesburg.) which eats into the dark parts without affecting the light parts of the plate …” (Courtesy: Bensusan Museum of Photography, Johannesburg.) Figure 51 “Figments number 9”: a photographic platinum–palladium print of a fern. The noble metals of platinum and palladium are embedded Figure 54 The dream to permanently record images on photographic within the actual fi bres of the matte paper – there is no coating of gelatin. paper was realized by William Henry Fox Talbot (1800–1877), Fellow of It has been written that in all of photography, “there is nothing more the Royal Society. Talbot’s book entitled The Pencil of Nature, published beautiful, or more everlastingly permanent, or more completely satisfy- in 1844, was the fi rst book to be illustrated with photographs. Seen here ing to the cultivated eye, than the platinum print” to quote the “Photo– is one of William Talbot’s early photographs on paper, entitled “The Miniature” of 1911. First steps in the use of platinum in photography may Ladder.” (Photograph courtesy: Bensusan Museum of Photography, be traced to Ferdinand Gehlen, Johann Dobereiner, Robert Hunt and Sir Johannesburg.) John Herschel. The patenting of the platinum process occurred in 1873 by William Willis. (From a private collection. Gordon Undy’s hand–made Figure 55 A photo-engraving of a piece of lace, by William Henry book of platinum–palladium prints is entitled “Figments” and “Figments Fox Talbot. The earliest methods of photo-engraving, apart from that number 9” is reproduced here by permission of Gordon Undy.) of Nicéphore Niépce, included those developed by Alfred Donné in Paris (1839), Joseph Berres in Vienna (1840), and the French physicist Figure 52 A circular photographic image, on salted paper, by Sir John Hippolyte Fizeau (1841). Talbot placed a piece of lace on a steel plate Herschel. The photograph shows the 4-foot (48-inch) telescope built sentisized with a coating of gelatin and potassium bichromate. Talbot’s by his father, Sir William Herschel (1738–1822). This telescope was the technique is a photo-mechanical one; it uses a process in which, by means world’s largest for over fi fty years, until Lord Rosse erected the giant of the action of photons (light) upon chemical substances, a printing

Figure Captions 411 surface is prepared from which a large number of impressions can be photographic process and those rendered in earlier engravings by artists printed on paper using a printing press. This exquisite photo-mechanical gradually reduced with time. (Photograph by W.R. Sedgfi eld. Published impression of lace (an early example of a photoglyphic engraving) was pro- by A.W. Bennett London, 1862. Digitized image: Beith Laboratories, duced by Talbot in 1853. Talbot patented one photo-mechanical tech- South Africa.) nique in 1852; his second such patent followed in 1858, wherein the type of plate materials were expanded to include copper – and not only Figure 59 Using the newly discovered medium of photography as a meas- steel plates. (Courtesy: Museum Africa.) ure of objective scientifi c evidence did not take root immediately. Prior to the dawn of the photographic era, seeing was the only source of knowl- Figure 56 An early photograph of a water pump in South Africa. The edge available to the Victorian enquirer. As noted by Frances Robertson, it photograph, over 100 years old, was secured in the late sector of the was only in the mid-1870s that photography “as an objective and scientifi c 1800s. The long exposure time is betrayed by the water being out of mode of imaging … offered a fruitfully expectant moment for Nasmyth.” focus, forming a continuous stream. Exposure times up to 1900 were James Nasmyth was a mechanical engineer by profession, but he was lengthy – of the order of minutes, rather than fractions of a second. passionate about astronomy. In 1874 Nasmyth and his assistant, James The handwritten caption reads: “The airpump – water driven by water Carpenter, coauthored one of the fi rst books which allowed for the plac- obtained from the Disa Gorge.” (Photographer: Unknown.) ing of photographs to serve as a “reliable” record of Nature. Seen here is a pair of photographs entitled “Back of Hand & Wrinkled Apple” which Figure 57 Following the dawn of the photographic era by Joseph Nasmyth and Carpenter used to illustrate their belief that the origin of Nicéphore Niépce, Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre and William Henry certain mountain ranges on the Moon resulted from a shrinking of its inte- Fox Talbot, printed books started to appear with albumen photographs rior. (Reproduced from The Moon: Considered as a Planet, a World, and a actually pasted in to the book. Seen here is a view of the Furness Abbey Satellite by James Nasmyth and James Carpenter, 1874.) from a book dated 1862, entitled Ruined Abbeys and Castles of Great Britain, authored by William and Mary Howitt. The publisher took Figure 60 “Full Moon” – a Woodburytype photograph secured by pains to elucidate to the reader the advantages of the use of photography Warren De la Rue and Joseph Beck. (Reproduced from The Moon: in the book: “The reader is no longer left to suppose himself at the mercy Considered as a Planet, a World, and a Satellite by James Nasmyth and of the imaginations, the caprices, or the defi ciencies of artists, but to have James Carpenter, 1874.) before him the genuine presentment of the object under consideration.” (Photograph by R. Fenton. Published by A.W. Bennett London, 1862. Figure 61 A photograph of “The Lunar Apennines” in the aforemen- Digitized image: Beith Laboratories, South Africa.) tioned book by Nasmyth and Carpenter in 1874. The authors were faced with a dilemma of how to bring a fl at two-dimensional picture Figure 58 Another albumen print from Ruined Abbeys and Castles of to three-dimensional life, and to this end, plaster models of areas of Great Britain dated 1862. This print is entitled: “Rievaux: Old Gateway.” the Moon were fi rst constructed from drawings derived from detailed Though the church is “broken up by ruin, it yet presents … the noble telescopic observations. Next, the small plaster models (some of aspect of the whole when it was complete and in use; its windows approximate size 60 × 50 × 9 centimeters) were photographed under fi lled with painted glass … its lofty groins and traceried [ornamented very carefully controlled lighting, to yield the necessary contrasts or decorated with tracery] capitals, and the found of anthems swelling between shadow and light. (Reproduced from The Moon: Considered from the choir. The place is worthy of all its fame” commented authors as a Planet, a World, and a Satellite by James Nasmyth and James William and Mary Howitt. The tension between the accuracy of the Carpenter, 1874.)

Shrouds of the Night 412 Figure 62 A photograph of the lunar crater “Plato” and its environs. photograph, secured on 29th December 1888 with an exposure time The photograph is actually of a plaster model of this lunar area, but it of four hours, shows the Andromeda Spiral with two of its compan- looks so real. The work of Nasmyth and Carpenter received the great- ion galaxies. One of these, known as Messier 32, was discovered by est of acclaim in the scientifi c journal Nature. The astronomer Lockyer Le Gentil in 1749; the other discovered by Caroline Herschel in endorsed their methods used to present a vivid three-dimensional relief 1783. Roberts commented that “one of the features exhibited [on to readers, and noted that their photographs of the Moon were “far his photographs of the Great Nebula in Andromeda] was that the more perfect than any enlargement of [direct] photographs could pos- dark bands … formed parts of divisions between symmetrical rings of sibly have been.” (Reproduced from The Moon: Considered as a Planet, a nebulous matter surrounding the large diffuse centre of the nebula.” World, and a Satellite by James Nasmyth and James Carpenter, 1874.) Isaac Roberts had captured those enigmatic Shrouds of the Night in the Andromeda Spiral Galaxy. (Courtesy: The archives of the Royal Figure 63 The crater “Copernicus” photographed by Nasmyth and Astronomical Society, London.) Carpenter, using their methodology of constructing a model of plas- ter from detailed drawings through a telescope. Nasmyth and Carpenter Figure 66 A magnifi cent image by Isaac Roberts of the spiral galaxy expressed their ideas thus: “In order to present these illustrations with known as Messier 33, in the constellation of Triangulum, photographed as near an approach as possible to the absolute integrity of the original more than 100 years ago. Roberts secured this photograph on the 14th objects, the idea occurred to us that by translating the drawings into November 1895; the exposure time was 2¼ hours. The image not only models which, when placed in the Sun’s rays, would faithfully reproduce reveals the bright pair of inner spiral arms but also records faint detail the lunar effects of light and shadow, and then photographing the mod- in the outer disk of Messier 33. (Courtesy: The archives of the Royal els so treated, we should produce most faithful representations of the Astronomical Society, London.) original.” (Reproduced from The Moon: Considered as a Planet, a World, and a Satellite by James Nasmyth and James Carpenter, 1874.) Figure 67 The spiral galaxy Messier 51, photographed by Isaac Roberts on 29th April 1889, with an exposure time of 4 hours. Messier 51 remains Figure 64 The observatory of Isaac Roberts (1829–1904) on the sum- in history as the very fi rst galaxy in which spiral structure had been mit of Crowborough Hill in Sussex, England. Seen in this photograph detected – this observation had been made earlier, in 1845, by Lord is Roberts’ telescope of twenty inches aperture and ninety-eight inches Rosse in Ireland. Roberts of course refers to the galaxy as a “nebula;” the focal length, as well as a smaller refracting telescope, of seven inches awareness of galaxies external to our own, only came much later. Also aperture. The refl ector telescope was used for photographic work, while seen in this photograph is a companion galaxy, which we now under- the smaller telescope was used for eye observations. (Reproduced from stand has interacted with the larger spiral galaxy Messier 51. (Courtesy: A Selection of Photographs of Stars, Star-Clusters and Nebulae by Isaac The archives of the Royal Astronomical Society, London.) Roberts, D.Sc., F.R.S. and published by the Universal Press, London, 1893.) Figure 68 One of the most beautiful spiral galaxies in the northern skies is seen here, known as Messier 81. The galaxy was photographed by Figure 65 The contribution of Isaac Roberts is one of the most Isaac Roberts on the 30th March 1889 with an exposure time of 3½ important collections of early photographs of astronomical objects hours. Roberts remarked that his long-exposure photograph reveals this published, and his work represents a great landmark in both astro- object “to be a spiral, with a nucleus which is not well defi ned at its nomical and photographic history. Seen here is the “Great Nebula boundary, and is surrounded by rings of nebulous matter …” (Courtesy: in Andromeda” now known as the Andromeda Spiral Galaxy. This The archives of the Royal Astronomical Society, London.)

Figure Captions 413 Figure 69 We present two photographs by Isaac Roberts of the Great charcoal, ink and graphite pencil. The photograph reproduced here of cra- Nebula in Orion. The image seen here was captured in an exposure ters Ramsden, Elger and others, completed in 1897, appears in Krieger’s time of 205 minutes on the 4th February, 1889. Magnifi cent fi lamentary classic Mond-Atlas. (Photograph: Mond-Atlas, Trieste, 1898.) and wispy structure in the outer domains of the Great Orion Nebula is recorded, and ridges of cosmic dust are strikingly evident. (Courtesy: Figure 73 Krieger’s rendition of the Lacus Somniorum region of the The archives of the Royal Astronomical Society, London.) Moon, a basaltic plain located in the north-eastern sector of the Moon’s near side. Lacus is the Latin for lake: Lacus Somniorum is also known as Figure 70 A shorter exposure, of duration 81 minutes, by Isaac Roberts of the Lake of Dreams. With modern astronomical techniques, astronomers the Great Nebula in Orion reveals delicate inner structure which becomes today can secure a veritable multitude of images, and with the assistance “washed out” in the longer exposure seen in the preceding photograph. of a computer, select those images taken in moments wherein our atmos- This photograph was secured on Christmas eve, 24th December 1888. phere is very steady (often referred to as good to excellent seeing) but (Courtesy: The archives of the Royal Astronomical Society, London.) Krieger added such rille structures by hand. He completed this rendition in 1897. (Photograph: Mond-Atlas, Trieste, 1898.) Figure 71 The Pleiades star cluster, as photographed by Isaac Roberts on 8th December 1888, in an exposure time of 4 hours. Each particle of Figure 74 A photograph of lunar craters Aristarchus and Herodotus, dust lurking in interstellar space interacts with any starlight which it may prepared by Johann Krieger; fi ner rille structures added by the hand of encounter. It does so either by scattering photons off in other directions, Krieger. (Photograph: Mond-Atlas, Trieste, 1898.) or by absorbing them, or by a combination of both. Our sky is blue because of the scattering of short-wavelength blue photons from sun- Figure 75 The planet Jupiter, as drawn by the astronomer Edward light by particles of gas in our atmosphere. The Pleiades cluster contains Emerson Barnard (1857–1923), on the 11th July, 1880. Clearly depicted splendid examples of “refl ection nebulae,” wherein short-wavelength is one of Jupiter’s satellites or moons – seen in silhouette – crossing the photons of light are scattered by – or refl ected off – dust and gas parti- Great Red Spot. (From the archives of the Royal Astronomical Society, cles surrounding young, hot star members of the cluster. (Courtesy: The London.) archives of the Royal Astronomical Society, London.) Figure 76 Another drawing by the young Barnard, of the planet Jupiter. Figure 72 Challenges facing astronomers after the dawn of the photo- Barnard was in his early twenties when he produced this drawing on 25th graphic era included the recording of intricate details. The German astron- July, 1880. Little could Barnard have imagined that he would be the dis- omer Johann Krieger was intensely interested in lunar topography, but coverer of a fi fth moon of Jupiter in 1892; up to then, the only known he realized that low resolution photographs of the Moon failed to reveal moons of Jupiter were the four discovered by Galileo Galilei. (From the intricate structures such as lunar rilles (trenchlike lunar features, some archives of the Royal Astronomical Society, London.) thought to be remnants of ancient lava fl ows). The reason is that our often turbulent terrestrial atmosphere through which the Moon is observed Figure 77 The Crocker telescope boasted a 6-inch portrait “Willard acts as a mask of the Moon, hiding thin sinuous, straight and branching lens.” Here was the telescope used to produce the fi rst photographs rilles. To address this, Krieger meticulously made telescopic observations showing the detailed structure of our Milky Way Galaxy in the years of the Moon and then added exquisite details which he saw by eye at the 1892–1895. The Willard lens allowed photons from a wide-angle fi eld to telescope, during moments of atmospheric steadiness. These details were strike the photographic plate: every inch on the original glass negatives subsequently drawn on low resolution lunar photographs by hand, using spanned nearly two degrees, the equivalent of almost four full moons.

Shrouds of the Night 414 E. E. Barnard’s photographs of the Milky Way with the Willard lens in the constellation of Ophiucus. Barnard comments: “The main lane … were published by the Lick Observatory in 1913. (Photograph: Lick is continuous for more than 6 degrees [12 full moons] from the nebula Observatory, California.) … it gradually shatters into fragments … These lanes and spots, though mostly devoid of all stars, are not truly vacant, for there is apparently Figure 78 The astronomer Edward Emerson Barnard. “Barnard is to be some sort of obscuring matter in them.” A 3 hour exposure secured from reckoned as one of the greatest observers of all time, and his work may the Mount Wilson Observatory site on 3rd/4th June 1905. (Photograph be compared with that of Tycho Brahe, J.D. Cassini, and the Herschels” courtesy: The Carnegie Institution of Washington.) reads the obituary published by the Royal Astronomical Society in London. Barnard’s career and struggles prove a very important point: Figure 82 A sector of the Milky Way in Scorpio and Ophiucus. Barnard it is never a large telescope alone, which is the seed for great discover- likens the dark “holes” to “sink-holes” and references the Century ies. Rather, it is the mind of the astronomer. (Photograph courtesy: The Dictionary, wherein a sink-hole is defi ned as … “One of the cavities Boyden Observatory.) formed in limestone regions by the removal of the rock through the action of rain or running water, or both. The rock being dissolved away Figure 79 A section of the Milky Way in the constellation of Taurus. underneath, local sinkings of the surface occur, and these are sometimes The astronomer E.E. Barnard had this to say about the view seen here: wholly or partly fi lled with water, forming pools.” An exposure span- “Very few regions of the sky are so remarkable as this one. Indeed the ning 3 hours 42 minutes secured on 29th / 30th May 1905. Barnard photograph is one of the most important of the collection, and bears the personally examined 35 700 photographic prints to select only the best strongest proof of the existence of obscuring matter in space.” This pho- to feature in his Atlas, of which seven hundred copies were produced. tograph by Barnard was secured on 9th January 1907; the exposure time Every photograph in the Atlas is pasted in; no photographs were repro- was 5 hours and 29 minutes and appears in his magnum opus entitled: duced by means of a mechanical printing press. (Photograph courtesy: A Photographic Atlas of Selected Regions of the Milky Way. (Photograph The Carnegie Institution of Washington.) courtesy: The Carnegie Institution of Washington.) Figure 83 Nebulosity in the Milky Way – a region in Scorpio and Libra. Figure 80 Breathtaking beauty – the Milky Way as seen in the constel- This exposure, approaching nine hours (8 hours and 40 minutes to be lation of Ophiucus. Barnard comments on this exposure (of duration 4 precise) was secured over two nights on 29th and 30th April 1905. This hours 30 minutes, secured on 5th/6th April 1905): “The region of Rho is the longest exposure of any of the photographs in the Barnard Atlas. Ophiuchi is one of the most extraordinary in the sky. The nebula itself (Barnard never actually saw his Atlas in print, for he died at age 65, in is a beautiful object. With its outlying connections in which it is placed 1923, four years before the Atlas saw the light of day. It was published and the vacant lanes running to the east from it, it makes a picture almost in 1927 by the Carnegie Institute of Washington.) The Barnard Atlas unequaled in interest in the entire heavens.” Barnard used the Bruce was completed by Edwin Frost, Director of the Yerkes Observatory and telescope, which had been transported to the site of the Mount Wilson by Barnard’s niece, Mary Calvert. (Photograph courtesy: The Carnegie Observatory in California. Barnard secured forty of the fi fty photographs Institution of Washington.) in his Atlas from Mount Wilson, including this one in Ophiuchus. (Photograph courtesy: The Carnegie Institution of Washington.) Figure 84 “Great Star Clouds in Sagittarius.” Barnard recalls: “These great clouds were among the fi rst portions of the Milky Way to be pho- Figure 81 Dark lanes or rifts in the Milky Way are strikingly captured in tographed by the writer with the Willard lens at the Lick Observatory, the photograph by E.E. Barnard. The dark lanes photographed here lie in the year 1889. They are the most magnifi cent of the galactic clouds

Figure Captions 415 visible from this latitude.” In his description of these immense starry questioned. There seems to be every evidence of their reality.” Barnard fi elds, Barnard notes: “These great broken clouds, so beautiful to the eye uses the terms “black tufts,” “black loops” and “curled dark fi gures” to and on the photograph, rapidly thin out to the south and east [upper describe different sectors of the photograph. (Photograph courtesy: The right in this orientation], the stars being fewer and fainter. This gives Carnegie Institution of Washington.) … the impression of greater distance.” Barnard identifi es a narrow strip or bridge “between two portions of the great cloud” … and he also Figure 87 A photograph of our Milky Way Galaxy entitled: “Dark comments on the crude form of a creature with “round head, nose, Markings near Theta Ophiuchi.” Barnard speaks of “straggling vacan- mouth, ears, and great staring eyes.” Barnard concludes: “The whole cies” and “vacancies within vacancies” in this photograph of exposure star fi eld is broken up with many rich structures which it would be dif- time almost 5 hours (4 hours 45 minutes to be precise). Barnard cap- fi cult to describe.” Much like a cosmic fog, dark and dusty Shrouds of tured this view on 5th / 6th June 1905. In this orientation, the star “Theta the Night are most effective in their obscuration effects. The result is Ophiuchi” is the bright star above and to the left of the center of the a “fragmenting” of the immensely rich starry fi elds of the Milky Way photograph. The imagery is almost that of mysterious dark creatures Galaxy, a portion of which is seen here in the constellation of Sagittarius. lurking as enigmatic Shrouds of the Night. (Photograph courtesy: The Photons from the “Great Star Clouds in Sagittarius” were captured on a Carnegie Institution of Washington.) photographic plate on 6th / 7th July 1905. The exposure time was a mere 2 minutes short of 4 hours. (Italics: ours. Photograph courtesy: The Figure 88 A photograph secured by E.E. Barnard, entitled “Region Carnegie Institution of Washington.) of Theta Ophiuchi and Eastward,” spawns myriads upon myriads of grains of cosmic dust in the constellation of Ophiuchus. The view shows Figure 85 Shrouds of The Night – dark veils of cosmic dust – lie sprawl- breathtaking beauty in those starry vaults of the Via Lactea (Milky Way) ing everywhere on this breathtaking photograph secured by E.E. Barnard lying in the vicinity of the star Theta Ophiuchi (seen toward lower left in on 28th / 29th June 1905. The exposure time was 4 hours 33 minutes this orientation). The “great vacancy” which lies toward the center of the and shows part of the Milky Way in Ophiucus and Scorpio. Barnard photograph is known as Barnard object number 78. In describing a sector speaks of this photograph as portraying “some of the most remarkable of this image, Barnard speaks of the dark “curved horns extending from features in the sky.” He writes further that the “great vacancy” (seen a black head, as if the head were in the act of charging.” Barnard further- toward lower right in this orientation) “is covered with a veiling of what more writes: “It is clearly shown that there is some kind of matter in the is probably obscure nebulosity, with some detail, hiding the background great vacancy, which is feebly luminous over its entire area … Whatever of stars beyond it.” (Italics ours. Photograph courtesy: The Carnegie the material in the dark spot may be, it is evident that we are not looking Institution of Washington.) out into space through an opening in the Milky Way.” Exposure: 4 hours 45 minutes. Date: 30th June/1st July 1905. (Photograph courtesy: The Figure 86 Extraordinary Shrouds of the Night photographed by E.E. Carnegie Institution of Washington.) Barnard on 8th/9th May 1905, from the Mount Wilson site in California. Exposure time: 3 hours 30 minutes. Another region of the Milky Way Figure 89 “Region of 58 Ophiuchi” as captured by the astronomer E.E. Galaxy, in the constellation of Ophiucus, north of the star Theta Ophiuchi. Barnard on 2nd/3rd August 1905, using the Bruce telescope of the Yerkes Barnard is captivated by the pervasiveness of dark areas and writes: “It is Observatory, Chicago, transported to Mount Wilson in California. The so extremely puzzling that one attempts a description of it with hesita- duration of the photographic exposure was 4 hours. Upon describing tion. That most of these dark markings which, in a word, ornament this this image, Barnard writes: “The naked-eye star 58 Ophiuchi … close to portion of the sky are real dark bodies and not open space can scarcely be the middle of the plate, is apparently placed in the midst of a large mass

Shrouds of the Night 416 of small, cloudlike forms …” Barnard uses “curious curved dark mark- grains lie throughout scattered throughout the region. Barnard is capti- ing,” “peculiar matter” and “sharp loops” to describe sectors of this pho- vated by “chains of small stars.” One is reminded of a poem by Chaucer tograph. Barnard also comments on the “beautiful cluster Messier 23” ca. 1380: “See yonder, lo, the Galaxye, Which men clepeth the Milky seen toward lower right hand in this orientation. (Photograph courtesy: Wey, for hit is whyt.” Chaucer is beckoning his reader to “see yonder the The Carnegie Institution of Washington.) Galaxy, Which men call[eth] the Milky Way, for [because] it is white.” The terms “galaxy” and “Milky Way” fi rst appeared in the English litera- Figure 90 “Region in Serpens and Sagittarius” as captured by E.E. ture in this poem written over 600 years ago. (Photograph courtesy: The Barnard on 25th/26th July 1905 in an exposure time of 4 hours 10 min- Carnegie Institution of Washington.) utes. In describing different regions of this photograph, Barnard notes the presence of “brighter clouds to the east” (to the right of the photo- Figure 93 “This, the gem of the Milky Way, is the fi nest of the stars graph, in this orientation) and furthermore describes the extremely fi ne clouds” writes E.E. Barnard of the “Great Star Cloud” in Scutum. distribution of stars in terms of powder: “… the darker sky is thinly sprin- Barnard photographed this region of the Milky Way from California on kled with a fi ne powdering of small stars with some vacant spaces …” 30th/31st July 1905. Barnard writes that: “In looking at this great cloud He also remarks on the presence of “several curved sprays of small stars one cannot imagine that it is anything but a real cloud in form, with [stretching] out from the cluster [Messier 23]” seen above center of the a depth comparable to its width … [its] serrations are possibly due to image. (Italics ours. Photograph courtesy: The Carnegie Institution of dark, obscuring matter … it serves well as a background against which Washington.) intermediate opaque or non-luminous objects may be seen.” Barnard speaks of a “great hammer-like head” [of this star cloud] while noting Figure 91 An area of the Milky Way in the constellations of Aquila and that the “main body is apparently made up of extremely minute stars.” Sagittarius, secured by E.E. Barnard on 24th/25th July 1905. The pho- A photograph revealing the most exquisite detail; photons from this star tograph shows a magnifi cent nebula in the upper left hand sector; this fi eld fell upon the photographic plate of Barnard for a period spanning 5 nebula, technically known as Messier 17, is more commonly referred hours and 30 minutes. (Photograph courtesy: The Carnegie Institution to as the “Omega Nebula” or the “Swan Nebula.” It is not diffi cult of Washington.) to imagine a graceful Cosmic Swan drifting upon a calm lake of fi ne powdery stars in our Milky Way Galaxy. Below the Swan Nebula lies Figure 94 “Region of the North America Nebula.” Barnard comments Messier 16 – the Eagle Nebula – which Barnard describes as “a mixture thus: “This wonderful object, which has so happily been called the ‘North of stars and nebulosity which rather closely resembles the great neb- America Nebula’ by Dr. Max Wolf, is shown here in great perfection. It is ula of Orion.” Barnard furthermore comments: “One cannot avoid the a splendid mixture of stars and nebulosity … The beautiful nebula, with conclusion, when examining the original negative, that the entire plate the outlying nebulosities, is in splendid contrast with the blackness of the is covered with a faint fi lm of nebulosity.” (Photograph courtesy: The sky, which is relieved here and there by bright stars – like lighthouses in Carnegie Institution of Washington.) Dark, dusty Shrouds of The Night a great sea – and by a liberal sprinkling of lesser stars.” Barnard describes betray themselves in apparent “holes” or “vacancies” which are seen in the bright rim (seen above center in this orientation) as “[brushing] striking contrast, in this image of exposure 3 hours 52 minutes. out over the dark sky … almost like electrical or auroral streamers. An exposure of duration 4 hours 20 minutes secured on 4th/5th September Figure 92 “Region in Aquila and Sagittarius” as imaged by the astrono- 1905 by E.E. Barnard using the photographic Bruce telescope on the mer E.E. Barnard on 1st/2nd August 1905. This 5 hour exposure shows Mount Wilson site in California. (Photograph courtesy: The Carnegie brilliant fi ne sprinklings of stars; veils or shrouds of dark cosmic dust Institution of Washington.)

Figure Captions 417 Figure 95 A portion of the Milky Way in the constellation of Cepheus, Figure 98 The spiral galaxy NGC 253, as photographed by James photographed by E.E. Barnard on 1st/2nd September 1905. The expo- Keeler on 18th–20th December, 1902 in an exposure time of 3 hours. sure time was 4 hours 47 minutes. Barnard describes this sector as “a (Photograph: Lick Observatory.) very extraordinary region of widespread nebulosity and dark markings.” Barnard remarks that the center “is occupied by a large, irregular nebula Figure 99 The spiral galaxy Messier 33, as photographed at the Lick with a patch of brighter stars than usual.” He comments that the central Observatory using the Crossley refl ecting telescope. Keeler photo- domain is “gritty with small stars which are entirely free of nebulosity.” graphed this galaxy on 12th September 1899 in an exposure of duration The descriptions given by Barnard continue to be rich and varied; he 3½ hours. (Photograph: Lick Observatory.) uses terms such as “sharp, black irregularities,” “stratum of stars” and a “straggling zigzag lane.” One can almost imagine a wearisome cos- Figure 100 Dusty and dark Shrouds of the Night are beautifully mic traveler, after a long sojourn, following a zigzag path to his home, captured by James Keeler in this very long exposure of the spiral located somewhere in the Via Lactea, amidst the starry fi elds in Cepheus. galaxy NGC 891. Keeler imaged this galaxy with the Crossley refl ec- (Photograph courtesy: The Carnegie Institution of Washington.) tor in a 4 hour exposure on 6th November, 1899. (Photograph: Lick Observatory.) Figure 96 Our journey through the Barnard Atlas ends in the same constellation at which we began: the constellation of Taurus. Seen here is Figure 101 The Pleiades star cluster as photographed by James Keeler, a photograph entitled “Region of the Pleiades,” showing the pronounced on 28th December 1899. The exposure time was 4 hours. (Photograph: effect of “Rayleigh scattering.” Foreground cosmic dust grains not only Lick Observatory.) obscure the light from more distant stars, but they are also extremely effective in scattering starlight. Our daytime sky is blue as a result of Figure 102 Striking contrasts between dark and light: a celestial dis- the scattering of sunlight by particles of gas in our atmosphere. The play of the inextricable link of clouds of gas and surrounding interstellar nebulosity seen here is a result of clouds of gas and dust scattering short particles of dust. Seen here is a blue refl ection nebula – known as NGC wavelength, blue photons of light from young blue stars wreathed within 1977 – in the constellation of Orion. Image secured by James Keeler these moving cosmic clouds. Barnard himself writes at the beginning of in an exposure of duration 2 hours 50 minutes on 21st January 1900. his description: “This plate was intended to illustrate the distribution of (Photograph: Lick Observatory.) some of the exterior masses of nebulosity that surround the Pleiades.” Photograph by E.E. Barnard, observing from the Mount Wilson site, on Figure 103 The spiral galaxy Messier 66 (also catalogued as NGC 7th/8th September 1905, in an exposure of duration 3 hours and 48 min- 3627) displays its dark lanes of cosmic dust in a most profound manner. utes. (Photograph courtesy: The Carnegie Institution of Washington.) This galaxy was photographed at the Lick Observatory by James Keeler, using the Crossley refl ector, on 23rd April 1900; the exposure time was Figure 97 The Andromeda Spiral Galaxy, as photographed on 7th 3½ hours. (Photograph: Lick Observatory.) September 1899 by James Keeler using the Crossley Refl ector. The Crossley Refl ecting telescope, with a mirror of diameter 36-inches, was Figure 104 James Keeler photographed this spiral galaxy, known as made by Dr. A.A. Common of London, in 1879. It was at fi rst sold to Mr. NGC 4565, on 21st April 1901. Exposure time: 3 hours. The galaxy Edward Crossley of Halifax, England and later donated by Mr. Crossley to is oriented almost “edge-on,” allowing astronomers to clearly view the Lick Observatory in California. In its day, it was the largest instrument Shrouds of the Night located in the plane of its disk. (Photograph: Lick of its kind in the United States. (Photograph: Lick Observatory.) Observatory.)

Shrouds of the Night 418 Figure 105 The fi rst galaxy in which spiral structure had been identifi ed the constellation Cepheus. Sometimes called the Iris Nebula and dutifully by Lord Rosse, Messier 51, photographed at the Lick Observatory on catalogued as NGC 7023, this is not the only nebula in the sky to evoke 10th May 1899 in a 4 hour exposure. Also seen toward lower center of the imagery of fl owers” is the description provided by Robert Nemiroff Messier 51 is the companion galaxy catalogued as NGC 5195, displaying and Jerry Bonnell. The Iris Nebula was imaged on 19th/20th August its mask of cosmic dust. (Photograph: Lick Observatory.) 1903; the exposure time was 3 hours. Keeler never saw this photograph, secured three years after his death which occurred on 12th August 1900. Figure 106 One of the most beautiful spiral galaxies in our skies is Messier (Photograph: Lick Observatory.) 101, with its small central bulge of stars and its fi lamentary (thin) multiple set of spiral arms. The spiral arms are seen to contain numerous bright “knots,” Figure 111 The Hubble galaxy classifi cation scheme is based on the associated with the birth of young stars. James Keeler imaged Messier 101 optical appearance of galaxies. To represent the scheme graphically in on 8th June 1899; the plate-holder of the Crossley refl ector was kept open his book The Realm of the Nebulae, Hubble used a musical “tuning for a time interval of 4 hours. (Photograph: Lick Observatory.) fork” which was rotated by ninety degrees. Following detective work by astronomy historian William Sheehan and the authors, the provenance of Figure 107 The Trifi d Nebula in our Milky Way Galaxy, as photographed the “tuning fork diagram” can be traced back to Sir James Jeans. (From at the Lick Observatory by James Keeler. Three dominant lanes of cosmic The Realm of the Nebulae, E.P. Hubble.) dust divide the nebula into three lobes, from whence the name “Trifi d” is derived. This stellar nursery was photographed on 6th July 1899, in an Figure 112 The scientifi c contributions of Mr. John Henry Reynolds exposure of duration 3 hours. (Photograph: Lick Observatory.) (1874–1949) cannot be overemphasized. Without any formal astronom- ical training, Mr. Reynolds was undoubtedly one of the world’s most Figure 108 The most exquisite fi lamentary structure is captured by profound thinkers regarding the classifi cation of galaxies. Edwin Hubble James Keeler in a sector of the “Veil Nebula” in our Galaxy. Glowing fi la- sought the ideas of Mr. John Reynolds. Mr. and Mrs. Reynolds enter- ments of interstellar gas fl ow out into space, as we behold the remnants tained some of the foremost astronomers and cosmologists of the age of an exploding star. Keeler and others had well demonstrated the enor- at their home in Birmingham; these included Sir Arthur Eddington, Sir mous power of the photographic method in matters astronomical, both James Jeans, Sir Frank Dyson, Professor Willem de Sitter – and many within and beyond the confi nes of our Milky Way Galaxy. This image of others. Mr. Reynolds served as President of the Royal Astronomical the Veil Nebula was secured on 29th August 1899, sixty years after Talbot Society of London during the period 1935–1937. (Photograph: The presented his paper on photography to the Royal Society. The Crossley Royal Astronomical Society of London.) refl ector was carefully kept on its target, the Veil Nebula, for a period of 4 hours. (Photograph: Lick Observatory.) Figure 113 The telescope at the private observatory of Mr. John Reynolds at Low Wood, Harborne, England. At the time that this pho- Figure 109 Spawning innumerable dark globules of cosmic dust is the tograph was taken, the telescope contained a mirror of diameter 28- stellar nursery, Messier 8, in our Galaxy. Imaged with the Crossley refl ec- inches. Reynolds was a man with a most generous spirit: he built large tor on 7th July 1899, in an exposure time of 4 hours. (Photograph: Lick refl ecting telescopes and then donated them to other observatories. This Observatory.) telescope was later fi tted with a 30-inch mirror made by A.A. Common and the instrument was then donated by Reynolds to the Commonwealth Figure 110 “Like delicate cosmic petals, these clouds of interstellar dust Solar Observatory (now known as the Mount Stromlo Observatory) in and gas have blossomed 1300 light years away in the fertile star fi elds of Canberra, Australia. There was another “Reynolds telescope” in Egypt,

Figure Captions 419 which, under the directorship of Knox-Shaw, did pioneering research Figure 119 The “Tarantula Nebula” (also known as 30 Doradus) in nebular photography. (Photograph from the archives of the Royal is an area of star formation in one of our nearby galaxies, the Large Astronomical Society of London.) Magellanic Cloud. This nebula, with its spidery “tarantula” appearance, lies in the southern constellation of Dorado;photographed using the Figure 114 The administrative building of the Commonwealth Solar Reynolds telescope in Australia by author Ken. (Photograph: Kenneth Observatory, Mt. Stromlo, with a Crossley motor car in the foreground. Freeman.) It was relatively close to this building that the 30-inch telescope donated by Mr. John Reynolds was erected in Canberra. (Photography courtesy: Figure 120 One of the most symmetrcal galaxies in the southern sky is National Library of Australia.) technically catalogued as NGC 1566. This galaxy was photographed in Australia using the telescope donated by Mr. John Reynolds. The promi- Figure 115 The disassembled Reynolds telescope arrived in Canberra nent “spots” outside of the main circular images are known as “calibrat- during the years 1928–1929. A steel dome of diameter 26 feet was con- ing spots” and are used for intensity – or brightness – determinations. structed to house the telescope. Erection of the dome was completed (Photograph: Kenneth Freeman.) in 1932, and the fi rst photographs through that telescope, from the Canberra site, were secured in 1933. (From the collection of Vince Ford Figure 121 Astronomers Ken Freeman (left) and Ben Gascoigne (right) at Mount Stromlo.) both used the Reynolds telescope in Australia. Ben Gascoigne was allo- cated nine months of observing time on the telescope in the early 1950s; Figure 116 The astronomer Walter Stibbs seen using the 30-inch his research on “Cepheid variables” with the Reynolds telescope is leg- Reynolds telescope in Australia. Until the 1950s, this telescope was one endary. (Photograph: David L. Block.) of the largest operational telescopes in the Southern Hemisphere. The late Gerard de Vaucouleurs secured about 250 one hour exposures of Figure 122 In this letter from Edwin Hubble to John Reynolds, Hubble galaxies in our southern skies with this instrument. The generosity of Mr. seeks for the ideas of Reynolds. The letter commences: “All suggestions John Reynolds was thus indirectly crucial to the development of the de on this diffi cult subject, coming from one of your expertise, are extremely Vaucouleurs classifi cation criteria, as is clearly evident in the “Memoirs welcomed.” At the top of the next page, Hubble requests: “Could you not of the Commonwealth Observatory No. 13” published in July 1956. throw your ideas into the form of a precise classifi cation so we could actually (Photograph: Historical Archive Collection at the Mount Stromlo apply it to a large number of nebulae representing the various sizes and Observatory.) degrees of brightness with which we will be dealing?” (Italics ours. From the archives of the Royal Astronomical Society of London.) Figure 117 The Reynolds telescope was used by author Ken to secure images of nebulae and galaxies. Seen here, and in the fi gure following, Figure 123 Astronomers David Block (left) and Allan Sandage (right) are two different exposures of the Great Nebula in Orion. In this shorter photographed at the Athenaeum in Pasadena. Sandage’s monumen- 45 second exposure, secured on 29th November 1967, intricate inner tal contributions to the history of our Galaxy and his research papers structure in the nebula is captured. (Photograph: Kenneth Freeman.) about globular clusters are no less important than his fundamental con- tributions to the fi elds of galaxy morphology and of cosmology. Allan Figure 118 A longer (15 minute) exposure of the Great Nebula in Sandage made galaxy morphology accessible to the general astronomical Orion, as imaged on 29th November 1967 using the Reynolds refl ecting community, by authoring the photographic Hubble Atlas of Galaxies. telescope in Australia. (Photograph: Kenneth Freeman.) (Photograph: Robert Groess.)

Shrouds of the Night 420 Figure 124 John Reynolds at a meeting in London of the Club of the Figure 129 “Bridge through a Cavern, Moonlight” as depicted by the Royal Astronomical Society (RAS). Seen in this photograph, dated 12th English landscape and portrait painter Joseph Wright (1734–1797). February 1937, is Mr. John Reynolds, fl anked by Sir James Jeans and Sir A bright full moon acts as a highly effective mask. Light from the full Frank Dyson. Sir Arthur Eddington is seated at the extreme right of the moon masks the light from fainter stars. The view of the captain of a ship photograph. (Photographed by Dr G Merton. From the archives of the approaching a harbor at night may similarly be greatly dominated by the Royal Astronomical Society Club.) intensely luminous light of a harbor lighthouse. In an analogous way, our view of spiral galaxies in the optical (visible) part of the spectrum may be Figure 125 Another meeting of the Club of the RAS includes greatly skewed by the brilliant light from hot young stars. (Reproduced John Reynolds seated with, amongst others, the Danish astronomer by permission of the Derby Museum and Art Gallery.) Ejnar Hertzsprung. Hertzsprung is the co-originator of the famous Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, a fundamental tool in the determina- Figure 130 Our Universe presents a rich duality in structure – that of the tion of the distances to stars. The photograph is dated 12th June 1936. mask and that behind the mask. The Australian Aborigines capture this (Photographed by Dr G Merton. From the archives of the Royal profound duality in their x-ray paintings, one of which is seen here. While Astronomical Society Club.) their paintings of a fi sh and a turtle have the unmistakable outlines of these creatures, they also unveil their hidden skeletal backbones and organs, as Figure 126 The American astronomer Edwin Hubble attended a if seen with x-rays. Just as Röntgen opened up a new era to penetrate the meeting of the RAS Club held in London on 13th November 1936. skeletal frame encased in a mask – our skin – so too, can infrared images Hubble is fl anked by Frank Dyson and Richard Woolley, both of whom allow us to unveil the actual backbones of galaxies. (Artwork: Collette served as Astronomer Royal. Also seen at the extreme right is the leg- Archer, of the tribe Djunban in Far Northern Queensland, Australia.) endary cosmologist, Sir William (“Bill”) McCrea. (Photographed by Dr G. Merton. From the archives of the Royal Astronomical Society Figure 131 An optical photograph of one of the largest spiral galaxies Club.) identifi ed in our Universe, catalogued as NGC 309. Note that spiral gal- axies such as Messier 81 – inset in the photograph – can comfortably fi t Figure 127 The British mathematician and physicist, Sir James Jeans, in between the gargantuan spiral arms of NGC 309. When galaxies are center, was a prolifi c author of popular books, such as The Universe imaged photographically in the visual domain of the spectrum, the focus around Us, The Mysterious Universe and The Growth of Physical Science. is on the young and brilliant stars delineating the spiral arms; astrono- The graphical representation of the Hubble tuning fork must be attrib- mers are preferentially observing the icing or frosting on a cake. Behind uted to Sir James Jeans – a scientist who had a great passion for music, the mask lies the older stellar component, where ninety-fi ve percent of was intimately acquainted with the use of tuning forks and who wrote the galaxy’s total luminous mass is distributed. (Photograph: National a famous book entitled Science and Music. (Photographed by Dr G Optical Astronomy Observatories.) Merton. From the archives of the Royal Astronomical Society Club.) Figure 132 A dust penetrated image of NGC 309, secured at the Mauna Figure 128 A photograph of Mr. John Reynolds, facing the camera and Kea Observatories in Hawaii. What emerges from behind the Shroud of seated in the Chair as President of the Royal Astronomical Society of NGC 309 is a two arm “grand design” spiral galaxy, with a small central London. Sir James Jeans is seen standing at right, addressing a meeting of elongated feature known as a “bar.” Could it be that this image was the Royal Astronomical Society. (Photograph: The Royal Astronomical hinting at a fundamental new and general Hidden Symmetry in Nature? Society of London.) (Photograph: David L. Block, Richard J. Wainscoat and Nature.)

Figure Captions 421 Figure 133 Seen here is a composite image – a comparison of blue and Figure 137 Our closest active radio galaxy, known as Centaurus A, is yellow sensitive images of the Whirlpool Galaxy Messier 51 and its com- seen in optical light to proudly adorn its colossal mask of cosmic dust. panion NGC 5195. The Whirlpool is seen to display a pair of magnifi cent Dust grains stride across the central regions of this system in a most “smooth arms” in yellow sensitive light. In 1957, the astronomer Fritz impressive manner. In 1954, two astronomers, Walter Baade and Rudolph Zwicky elucidated: “We are confronted with the possible case of being Minkowski, suggested that Centaurus A actually presented two galaxies a spiral when seen in the light of its blue stars and a barred spiral in the in collision. What lay behind the Shroud of the Night in Centaurus A? light of the yellow-green stars.” That there was a New View of our cos- The answer awaited dust penetration of its mask by means of infrared mos was already beginning to surface in the 1950s. The duality of spiral imaging. (Photograph: David Malin.) structure is strikingly seen in this composite photograph, produced using images secured with the 200-inch telescope at Mount Palomar, California. Figure 138 Penetrating the Dust Shroud of Centaurus A reveals an (Photograph from the work of Fritz Zwicky in Morphological Astronomy.) extraordinary history: the remnant of a spiral galaxy lies at the center of Centaurus A. We have indicated the shape of the remnant spiral, detected Figure 134 An optical image of the Whirlpool Galaxy, Messier 51, using infrared camera arrays, by means of contours. We then overlaid and its companion galaxy NGC 5195. Notice the very irregular opti- these contours on an optical image of Centaurus A, to show the spatial cal appearance of the companion galaxy as a result of its hugely promi- position of the spiral galaxy observed in the infrared. (Image: David L. nent mask of cosmic dust. (Photograph: National Optical Astronomy Block and M. Sauvage.) Observatories.) Figure 139 Using specialized computer techniques, Centaurus A is Figure 135 An enlargement of the preceding Figure shows, to full seen to spawn vast arrays of shells in its outer parts. These shells cannot advantage, the dusty Shrouds of the Night in the companion to the be seen by eye on conventional glass plates, such as that reproduced in Whirlpool Galaxy. The presence of grains of cosmic dust are all pervasive the preceding fi gure – but they become evident upon use of a special in this optical photograph; dark ridges of cosmic dust lie throughout its method whereby low surface brightness features on fi ne-grain emul- disk. It is indeed no wonder that astronomers classifi ed this galaxy as sions are enhanced in the darkroom. They are also clearly evident in this “irregular.” Sources labeled “A” and “B” assist the eye in comparing this enhanced image produced by means of computer. Arrays of shells and optical image to the dust penetrated view seen in the image following. inner ridges of cosmic dust are highly suggestive of the “worlds in col- (Photograph: National Optical Astronomy Observatories.) lision” scenario painted by Baade and Minkowski. (Image courtesy: E. Peng and collaborators.) Figure 136 Penetrating the Dusty Shroud of the companion galaxy NGC 5195 shows a radically different structure in this near-infrared Figure 140 Seen here is an optical image of the spiral galaxy catalogued image secured at the Mauna Kea Observatories in Hawaii. No longer as NGC 253. Such optical images show a plethora of short, fl eece-like does irregularity or “chaos” reign supreme, but its backbone of old stars spiral arms, with no apparent regularity whatsoever. A grand surprise is stunningly symmetric. In fact, there is a hint of an incipient two-armed awaits the investigator seeking to observe the stellar backbone of this spiral galaxy. Stars “A” and “B” assist the eye in comparing this infra- galaxy. (Photograph: David Malin.) red image with the optical view seen in the preceding fi gure. Given an infrared image, it is impossible to predict what the optical dust mask will Figure 141 In infrared light, the spiral galaxy NGC 253 reveals an exqui- look like. (Reproduced from a research paper by David L. Block and site hidden symmetry of two dominant spiral arms. Furthermore, a bar collaborators.) – completely obscured in the optical domain – emerges in the infrared.

Shrouds of the Night 422 The infrared image seen here has been mathematically de-projected using an almost head-on galaxy collision, as a companion galaxy (most likely special image processing software on a computer, so that we are viewing Messier 32) plunged almost head-on near the center of the Andromeda the fl at disk of the galaxy as if it were precisely “face-on” as opposed to Spiral Galaxy. (Adapted from a research paper in Nature, with authors: “edge-on.” (Much like a fl at circular plate can be viewed either “face-on” David Block, Frederic Bournaud, Francoise Combes, Robert Groess, or “edge-on,” in which case one would only see the rim of the plate.) Yet Pauline Barmby, Matthew Ashby, Giovanni Fazio, Michael Pahre and another striking example of the duality of spiral structure: one classifi ca- Steven Willner.) tion unfolds from optical imaging, and a radically different morphology presents itself in the disk of older stars. (Photograph courtesy: O.K. Park Figure 145 Rings of Fire – a close-up mid-infrared view of the inner and Kenneth Freeman.) regions of the Andromeda Galaxy through the eyes of the Spitzer Space Telescope. The square inset (box) dramatically shows the existence of an Figure 142 Giovanni Fazio of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for inner ring, with sectors of the outer ring visible above and below the gal- Astrophysics, together with a highly dedicated team, devoted over fi f- axy center. The inner ring is completely masked, in optical light, by myri- teen years from the fi rst conceptual phases of an infrared camera to its ads of stars in the luminous bulge of the Andromeda Galaxy. Both rings fi nal construction – the camera is onboard the Spitzer Space Telescope, are expanding; the outer ring expands at about 50 kilometers per second launched in 2003. The marvel of the instrument is that instead of tiny while the expansion velocity of the inner is approximately 20 kilometers molecules and minute grains of dust being viewed as dark dust rifts and per second. The scenario which unfolded before us is that a companion patches, one can see bright Shrouds of the Night, as these dust grains and galaxy (probably M32) had collided with the disk of the Andromeda molecules glow in the mid-infrared light detected by the Spitzer Space Spiral at a velocity of about 265 kilometers per second, almost 3900 Telescope. (Photograph: Robert Groess.) light years from the center of the disk. (Adapted from a research paper in Nature, with authors: David Block, Frederic Bournaud, Francoise Figure 143 The fi rst ever color photograph of our nearest giant spiral Combes, Robert Groess, Pauline Barmby, Matthew Ashby, Giovanni galaxy, the Andromeda Spiral Galaxy, or Messier 31. The galaxy measures Fazio, Michael Pahre and Steven Willner.) about 140 000 light years in diameter, and lies at a distance of 2½ million light years from us. Also seen are two of its companion galaxies: Messier Figure 146 A press release image prepared at the Headquarters of the 32 (below center) and NGC 205 (right, above center). Astronomer Spitzer Space Telescope in Pasadena, reveals that the centers of both the William Miller used the then revolutionary GAF Super Ansco fi lm which outer and inner “glowing rings of fi re” do not coincide with the exact had a nominal ASA of 100. He secured the photograph on 11th August center of the Andromeda Spiral Galaxy. The centers of the outer ring, 1958, with the Palomar 48-inch Oschin Schmidt Telescope in California. inner ring and of the Andromeda Galaxy are labeled 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The exposure time was 2 hours. (Photograph: David Malin, Australia The inner ring is offset by forty percent from the center of Messier 31; the and the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena: William Miller.) outer ring by a smaller factor of about ten percent. Such off-centring of the rings are fully consistent with a near head-on collision in our nearest giant Figure 144 Imaging the Andromeda Spiral Galaxy with the Spitzer Space spiral galaxy. (Photograph: Headquarters of the Spitzer Space Telescope in Telescope by Pauline Barmby and her collaborators, secured by pointing Pasadena. Adapted from a research paper in the journal Nature.) the telescope in 700 different positions to cover the entire galaxy. The image reveals two glowing rings of dust: the outer ring has a diameter of Figure 147 A drawing of the Andromeda Spiral Galaxy by E. Trouvelot in approximately 65 000 light years, while the second inner ring measures 1874 emphasizes that the galaxy contains very dark lanes of cosmic dust. It about 4900 light years by 3300 light years. These two rings testify to is only upon penetrating the luminous bulge of stars in this galaxy as well as

Figure Captions 423 the dusty shrouds in its disk, that both the inner and outer rings are detected. in this montage) can belong to the tightly wound α bin whereas an (Drawing reproduced from the Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of “early-type” galaxy (such as NGC 1365) resides in the open γ infrared Harvard College, Volume VIII, published in Boston, 1877.) class. (Adapted from research conducted by David Block in collaboration with astronomers Ronald Buta and Ivânio Puerari.) Figure 148 Members of the genus Allosaurus (a multi-ton bipedal predator, equipped with dozens of sharp teeth and averaging 30 feet in Figure 151 The giant loop in the lower section of the image is known as length, although some are believed to have reached 40 feet) would have Barnard’s Loop. It lies within our Milky Way Galaxy, in the constellation been roaming the Earth as the Andromeda Spiral Galaxy experienced an of Orion. Barnard’s Loop (named after E.E. Barnard) spans some 20 almost head-on collision with one of its companion galaxies. Of course degrees in the sky – the equivalent of 40 full moons, and measures about the collision could not actually be observed on Earth (special infrared 600 light years across. The Loop encompasses the famous Horsehead detectors onboard a space-borne telescope are required), but the draw- Nebula seen to striking contrast in this image. Barnard’s loop is also vis- ing serves to highlight the timescale of when the collision actually took ible in ultraviolet light, as dust grains within the loop scatter energetic place: a relatively recent event, measured not in billions – but rather mil- photons of light from neighboring stars. (Image: Peter Erdman.) lions – of years. The impact is believed to have occurred only 200 million years ago. (Drawing courtesy: Cobus Prinsloo.) Figure 152 An optical image of the spiral galaxy NGC 2841 reveals the scattering of starlight by dust grains on an extraordinary scale. Arrowed Figure 149 An important physical parameter which we use in our dust in the inset is an amorphous, linear strip of light. A spectrum of the strip penetrated galaxy classifi cation scheme is the angular pull or “torque” was secured using the Keck telescopes in Hawaii; the spectrum matches provided by a rotating bar of stars. Seven classes of “bar strength” are that of the bulge stars. What we are seeing is a vast lane of cosmic dust recognized. In this montage, spiral galaxies have been arranged in rows, in the disk, scattering photons of light which originate from stars in in order of increasing bar strength: from NGC 3631 to NGC 1300. the bulge of this galaxy. The strip is 6500 light years in extent, by far The four small black dots in each image are generated by computer to the largest “refl ection nebula” we have yet studied. (Photograph: Peter indicate those spatial positions where the gravitational force fi eld of the Kukol, Adam Block, National Optical Astronomy Observatories, AURA bar is measured to reach a local “maximum.” (Adapted from research by and the National Science Foundation. Adapted from a Letter to Nature Ronald J. Buta, David L. Block and their collaborators.) by David L. Block, B.G. Elmegreen and R.J. Wainscoat.)

Figure 150 Eyes to the future: quantifying the shapes of spiral galax- Figure 153 Inhabitants of Papua New Guinea. A unique environment ies behind their dust masks. Each galaxy seen here is “dust penetrated” to explore the mind of Man, without heavy infl uence of Western culture. in these near-infrared images, secured at several different observatories Adam in Arrows, Adam in Plumes and Adam with Arrows are but three dotted around the globe. The two classifi cation criteria presented here of myriads of books written about these regions. (Photograph: David L. are the “bar torque” (measuring the gravitational strength or tug of the Block.) bar) and the degree of openness of the spiral arm pattern. Three spiral arm “form families” are recognized in the infrared: the classes are des- Figure 154 Looks of wonder and mystery upon seeing a camera lens. ignated a, b and g. Spiral galaxies of class α have tightly wound spiral These young children reside on the Trobriand Islands, an archipelago of arms whereas those of type g have an open spiral arm morphology. These coral atolls located off the eastern coast of Papua New Guinea. Several “form families” are not at all correlated to the optical classifi cation types of their homes are seen in the background. There is almost a sense of of Hubble: note that a “late-type” galaxy (such as NGC 5236 included timelessness in these regions. (Photograph: David L. Block.)

Shrouds of the Night 424 Figure 155 “Tree House, Koiari Village” as photographed by J.W. Lindt. Galaxy; an approach known as chemical tagging. (Photograph: Atlas of In Papua New Guinea, time is temporal; determined by the wanderings the Northern Milky Way by Frank E. Ross and Mary R. Calvert, 1934. of celestial bodies such as the Sun and the Moon. (Reproduced from Reproduced by permission of the Yerkes Observatory.) Picturesque New Guinea, Plate XIV. Longmans, Green, and Co. 1887.) Figure 160 Another wide angle view, spanning over 400 square degrees, Figure 156 “Lakatoi, near Elevala Island” as photographed by J.W. of the starry vaults in our Milky Way Galaxy (1600 full moons would fi t Lindt. In a certain sense, space is more fundamental than time in these into this image). The future lies in chemical tagging of stars, much like regions. Can time be thought of as a spatial concept? Theorists Stephen human beings may be genetically tagged by their DNA. (Photograph: Hawking and James Hartle actually place time and space on compara- Atlas of the Northern Milky Way by Frank E. Ross and Mary R. Calvert, ble footings. Christopher Isham comments: “From an aesthetic point 1934. Reproduced by permission of the Yerkes Observatory.) of view, there is something rather attractive about the completeness as represented [by Hartle and Hawking] … one can almost imagine the Figure 161 Left Panel: The discovery of arcs of carbon stars in the Universe being held in the cup of God’s hand.” (Reproduced as plate outer disk of the Triangulum Spiral Galaxy, Messier 33, was published VII in Picturesque New Guinea by J.W. Lindt. Longmans, Green, and in 2004 by coauthors David and Ken and their collaborators. The left Co. 1887.) panel shows extensive outer arcs of carbon stars in an infrared image of Messier 33; the ellipse serves to guide the eye through these arcs. Figure 157 The spiral structure of our Milky Way Galaxy, as drawn by North is at the top. A pair of two prominent inner spiral arms is also C. Easton in 1912. Easton made use of a selection of photographs from seen in this “negative” image, wherein stars appear black and the back- a number of astronomers (including those of Barnard, Wolf, Russell, ground, white. The presence of carbon stars was identifi ed on account Pickering and Bailey) to deduce the spiral morphology depicted in his of their very red infrared colors. Right panel: Follow-up spectroscopy drawing. In the inner parts of a spiral galaxy such as our Milky Way, of some of the members was conducted in Hawaii, using the Keck I and stars do indeed contribute most of the mass, but as astronomers probe Keck II telescopes and confi rmed their carbon star status. Shown in the their disks further and further out in radius, another component of the panel at right is an optical image of the Triangulum Spiral Galaxy. The mass dominates. This is the “missing mass” or enigmatic “dark matter.” area circled is centered on a carbon star in the outer extremities of the (Photograph: The Royal Astronomical Society of London.) optical disk, while other members observed with the Keck telescopes are labeled with plus (+) signs. If these brilliant light beacons of carbon Figure 158 The galaxy imaged here (NGC 5084) is one of the most stars are pervasive in the outer disks of spiral galaxies, the implications massive galaxies known. It is viewed “edge-on,” as if viewing a thin plate could be that the disks of spiral galaxies are not fi xed, but rather grow from one side. All looks so perfectly normal around the environs of NGC with time – from the inside, outwards. More recent infrared studies of 5084 – there is no dimming of background galaxies – its dark matter Messier M33 have been published in 2007 by astronomers M. Cioni and halo emits no light whatsoever, and remains undetected on optical pho- collaborators. (Left panel: From a research paper entitled “Very lumi- tographs. (Photograph: Anglo Australian Telescope.) nous carbon stars in the outer disk of the Triangulum Spiral Galaxy” by D.L. Block, K.C. Freeman, T.H. Jarrett, I. Puerari, G. Worthey, F. Figure 159 A wide-angle view of a section of our Milky Way Galaxy as Combes and R. Groess. Right panel adapted from a paper presented seen “now,” billions of years after its birthing process. What happened in Prague at a meeting of the International Astronomical Union, by when the Milky Way was actually being assembled? Astronomers use a David Block, Francoise Combes, Ken Freeman, Ivânio Puerari and novel archaeological approach to probe the primordial history of our collaborators.)

Figure Captions 425 Figure 162 It is often not appreciated just how extensive the disks of Figure 167 The optical and very faint outer disk of the barred spiral spiral galaxies can be, outside of their optical boundaries. Seen here is the galaxy NGC 1300 are both seen to full advantage. The outer disk is extensive outer disk of the spiral galaxy known as Messier 83 (or NGC believed to contain the same population of principally old stars which 5236). Beautiful outer loops or fi laments are strikingly captured in this astronomers see when they image galaxies in the near-infrared, through image, which has been photographically “stacked.” In the “stacking” their masks of dust. (Photograph: David Malin.) process, several long exposures of the galaxy are secured, and each is sequentially projected in a darkroom onto a sheet of photographic paper Figure 168 The faint outer regions of the Sombrero Galaxy. Overlaid or fi lm. Prior to projection, registration (alignment) of every photo- is a color image showing the optical extent of the galaxy. While the dis- graph is absolutely critical. In this exquisite photograph by David Malin, tribution of dark matter must be responding to the gravitational fi eld of an optical color image of Messier 83 has been meticulously overlaid. the stars within the optical limits, the reverse is true in the outer regions: (Photograph: David Malin.) there, the stars must be following the unseen halo of dark matter. Such images serve to highlight the dynamic interaction between the structure Figure 163 The outer disk of the spiral galaxy NGC 1566. An optical of spiral galaxies (as seen in the optical) and their mysterious halos of color photograph of the galaxy is overlaid, for comparative purposes. The nonluminous dark matter in which they are embedded. Halos of dark reason astronomers cannot routinely capture these amazing outer arms matter are dynamically “live” and interactions of stars and dark matter in NGC 1566 is that although their dust content must be low and almost must be continuously taking place. (Photograph: David Malin.) devoid of brilliant young blue stars, they are far too faint to be recorded using traditional infrared detectors. Photographer David Malin would Figure 169 An optical image of the Sombrero Galaxy shows a dramatic “stack” photographs which had fi rst been “photographically amplifi ed” lane of cosmic dust which lies in the disk of this galaxy. When astrono- before following the “multi-image” or “stacking” procedure in the dark- mers penetrate the masks of edge-on spiral galaxies, the dust becomes room. (Photograph: David Malin.) almost transparent. The complete story of the production and of the time development of dust grains in galaxies, however, still requires a Figure 164 The outer disk of the spiral galaxy NGC 2997, as imaged great deal of research. (Photograph: David Malin.) using the Anglo Australian Telescope, and subjected to specialized pho- tographic techniques. Also overlaid is an optical image of the galaxy, in Figure 170 The Large Magellanic Cloud spawns myriads of bubbles of color. (Photograph: David Malin.) neutral hydrogen gas. Turbulence on a grand scale indeed, with no sig- nature of spiral structure in the hydrogen gas. (Image: S. Kim.) Figure 165 The outer disk of the spiral galaxy NGC 4321, with an opti- cal image of NGC 4321 overlaid. (Photograph: David Malin.) Figure 171 One of the most famous spiral galaxies in the sky, as imaged in the near-infrared from Hawaii. The galaxy displays exquisite symmetry with Figure 166 An optical color view of a galaxy catalogued as NGC 1313 a striking pair of spiral arms. The arms are very tightly wound around the shows intense star formation; the inner disk is brightly illuminated by bulge, with a winding (pitch) angle of only 10 degrees. To emphasize the young, massive stars. The optical image is seen against a remarkably duality of spiral structure, we leave it as an exercise to the reader to ponder “deep” set of exposures secured by David Malin in Australia. Extraordinary which famous galaxy is imaged here, and what the optical image of this gal- detail is captured in the outer disk, including faint fi laments and plumes. axy might look like. Having identifi ed the spiral, the reader is then referred NGC 1313 continues to be an object of much astrophysical interest. to Figure 184 to verify their answer. (Near-infrared image courtesy: UKIDSS (Photograph: David Malin.) Consortium, with additional image processing by David L. Block.)

Shrouds of the Night 426 Figure 172 The Large Magellanic Cloud, as seen with the naked eye original sketch of a man with hat and sack walking along a road in the from “Feldhausen” in the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa. Sketch by Cape, South Africa is in pencil, and comes from a collection of unpub- Sir John Herschel, published in 1847. It is extraordinary that Sir John lished drawings attributed either to Sir Thomas Maclear (1794–1879) or Herschel visually detects both stellar spiral structure and the appearance his family. Thomas Maclear was a great friend of both Sir John Herschel of an elongated feature of stars – a bar – in the Large Magellanic Cloud. and of the explorer David Livingstone. (Photographic reproduction: The The confi rmation of stellar spiral structure in the Large Magellanic Cloud Studio. From a Private Collection.) by means of photography followed in 1890, forty-three years after the publication of Herschel’s observations at the Cape. (Courtesy: William Figure 177 The discovery by Sir William Herschel of two moons orbit- Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand.) ing the planet Uranus. This drawing was presented by Sir William at a meeting of the Royal Society in London; it is dated 1787. The planet Figure 173 This photograph published in 1890, secured by the Uranus (then known as the Georgian planet) was discovered by Sir Australian astronomer H.C. Russell in Sydney, Australia, not only shows William Herschel six years earlier, in 1781. Subsequently, two moons the presence of a bar in the Large Magellanic Cloud, but also provides were discovered by Sir William Herschel in 1787; the moons appear as evidence of incipient spiral structure. Russell commented that “the num- small white dots here. Pertaining to these two moons or satellites, its bers of clustering stars [are] arranged in a way that is very suggestive of discoverer expressed his thoughts as follows: “The great distance of the spiral structure.” The exposure time was 7 hours and 3 minutes and the Georgian planet … has rendered it uncommonly diffi cult to determine photograph was secured on 17th / 18th October 1890. (Reproduced as whether, like Jupiter and Saturn, it be attended by satellites … The 11th photograph number 13 in “Photographs of the Milky-Way & Nebulae of January, therefore, in the course of my general review of the heavens, I taken at the Sydney Observatory” by H.C. Russell, Sydney.) selected a sweep which led to the Georgian planet … I perceived near its disk, and within a few of its diameters, some very faint stars … I do not Figure 174 “The Hand of God” modeled ca. 1896 by Auguste Rodin doubt that I saw them both, for the fi rst time, on the same day, which (1840–1917). Is humanity to be likened to a mere candle fl ickering in was January the 11th, 1787.” Sir William continued: “…the heavens now the corner of a dark medieval cathedral, or are there cosmic fi ngerprints displayed the original of my drawing, by showing, in the situation I had of design? Does the imagery of men and women being held in the great, delineated them, The Georgian Planet attended by two Satellites.” The life-giving Hand of God ring true in our modern astronomical age? two moons depicted here, discovered by him on 11th January 1787, are (Photograph by David L. Block.) now known as Oberon and Titania. (Reproduced from “An Account of the Discovery of Two Satellites revolving round the Georgian Planet” by Figure 175 A family portrait of the Local Group. Our Milky Way William Herschel, read at the Royal Society, 15th February, 1787. From belongs to a group of galaxies, known as the Local Group. Members of the library of the South African Astronomical Observatory.) the Local Group include the Andromeda Spiral Galaxy M31 seen in the lower left of the montage, the Triangulum Spiral Galaxy M33 (upper Figure 178 “So vast, without any question, is the Divine Handiwork of left), the Milky Way Galaxy itself (lower right), the Large Magellanic the Almighty Creator” wrote Nicolaus Copernicus in his monumental Cloud (designated in the montage as LMC), the Small Magellanic Cloud work entitled “De revolutionibus”. Photographed at Harvard University (SMC), and numerous smaller galaxies. (Montage: Bruno Binggeli.) are Professors Owen Gingerich (left) and Giovanni Fazio (right) examin- ing a copy of the work of Copernicus (1473–1543). Professor Gingerich Figure 176 The centrality of the observer in our fi ne-tuned Universe: is writes in one of his William Belden Noble lectures: “I am personally the entire cosmic canvas so framed that it might display our name? The persuaded that a superintelligence exists beyond and within the cosmos,

Figure Captions 427 and that a rich fabric of congeniality toward the existence of self-con- magi – gavisi sunt gaudio magno valde.” The latter is translated: “And scious life shown by our Universe is part of its design and purpose.” seeing the star they rejoiced with exceeding great joy.” (Printed in France (Photograph: Robert Groess.) by G. Hardouyn.)

Figure 179 Some of the earliest woodcut illustrations of shepherds abid- Figure 182 The Universe evokes in many a sense of wonder. Joseph ing their fl ock may be found in a manuscript entitled “The Shepheardes Wright captures this wonder in his painting entitled “A Philosopher lec- Calender” [sic] by Edmund Spenser, originally published over 400 turing on the Orrery,” exhibited in 1766. An Orrery depicts the move- years ago, in 1579. These woodcut illustrations were printed only 60 ments of the planets in our solar system, with the light in the center years after Ferdinand Magellan began his epic voyage to circumnavigate representing our Sun. “Natural Philosopher” was a term used to charac- the globe, in 1519. The Psalmist David compared the guidance of his terize a scientist. (Reproduced by permission of the Derby Museum and God to a Shepherd, the Great Shepherd, when he wrote “The Lord Art Gallery.) is my shepherd: I shall not want … thy rod and thy staff they comfort me” in Psalm 23. (Courtesy: The William Cullen Library, University Figure 183 Minute and exquisite detail is captured during this total of the Witwatersrand. Reproduced from the original edition of 1579 eclipse of the Sun, which took place on 12th December, 1871. “Engraved in Photographic Facsimile with an introduction by H. Oskar Sommer, from a drawing made from the original negatives taken at Baikul. By published by John C. Nimmo, London, 1890.) Lord Lindsay’s assistant Mr Davis.” (As published in Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, Volume XLI, 1879. Courtesy: The Royal Figure 180 According to the New Testament, it was to shepherds abid- Astronomical Society of London and the South African Astronomical ing their fl ock that the miracle of God becoming Man was announced. Observatory.) This woodcut illustration comes from E. Spenser’s “The Shepheardes Calender” [sic] which fi rst appeared in print in 1579. (Courtesy: The Figure 184 The graceful Whirlpool Galaxy, Messier 51 (NGC 5194) William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand. Reproduced and its companion (NGC 5195), was imaged optically in January 2005 from the original edition of 1579 in Photographic Facsimile with an with the Advanced Camera for Surveys abroad NASA’s orbiting Hubble introduction by H. Oskar Sommer, published by John C. Nimmo, Space Telescope, to produce the sharpest-ever optical image of this sys- London, 1890.) tem, seen in the left hand panel. In the right hand panel, we view Messier 51 and its companion galaxy through its dusty Shrouds of the Night by Figure 181 “In a small Parisian shop, amid a clutter of presses and imaging the galaxy in the near-infrared. The view rendered in Figure 171 parchment, a team of printers works feverishly each day to meet the is produced by carefully cropping away the companion galaxy. (Optical demand of the era’s bestseller. The year is 1514. The bestseller? A com- image: NASA, ESA, S. Beckwith and the Hubble Heritage Team at pact, illustrated prayer book known as a Book of Hours” writes Sonia STScI/AURA; near-infrared image courtesy: The UKIDSS Consortium, Ellis in her article “The Miracle of Print.” Reproduced here is a leaf with additional image processing by David L. Block.) (recto) from a Book of Hours: the term recto–verso describes two sided printing; the recto is the right hand page. Although the actual text is Figure 185 The pipe of shepherd “Colin cloute” [sic] lies broken “in printed, the image of Matthew (at left) writing his gospel is illuminated peeces” (in pieces) on the ground, as depicted in the fi rst Æglogue in color, by hand. The text on the recto is from the second chapter of “Ægloga Prima” of January (“Ianuarye” [sic] ) in E. Spenser’s masterful Matthew, and describes the sighting of the Star of Bethlehem by Magi work entitled “The Shepheardes Calender” [sic] fi rst published in 1579. from the Orient – “stellam eius in oriéte” and “videntes autem stellam (Courtesy: The William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand.

Shrouds of the Night 428 Reproduced from a photographic facsimile of the original edition of Figure 190 Arcs of hydrogen gas glow warmly in this color image, pho- 1579, with an introduction by H. Oskar Sommer. Published by John C. tographed from the European Southern Observatory in Chile. Wondrous Nimmo, London, 1890.) indeed are these dynamic stellar nurseries, where young stars and dark grains of cosmic dust are both seen to striking contrast. (Photograph: Figure 186 Comet McNaught – also known as the Great Comet of David L. Block.) 2007 – with the majestic Table Mountain in South Africa seen to the east (left) of the Comet. Comets are “dirty snowballs” of ice mixed with Figure 191 A gelatin silver print reproduction – with applied water- grains of cosmic dust; they often show the most magnifi cent tail(s) as color – of Joseph Nicéphore Niépce’s “View from the Window at Le they approach the Sun and the ices begin to melt. Over four hundred Gras” (ca. 1826) produced at the request of Helmut Gernsheim by years ago, in 1579, the English poet E. Spenser poetically intertwines a the Research Laboratory of the Eastman Kodak Company in Harrow, Comet with the emotions of his character, Colin – in his famous work England. Although this famous reproduction produced in 1952 fails to entitled “The Shepheardes Calender” [sic]. Colin’s manhood was “con- accurately duplicate what the First Photograph actually looks like (see sumed with greate heate” [sic] (consumed with great heat) and “exces- Figure 192 for a faithful rendition), it does allow the eye to identify (from siue drouth” [sic] (excessive drought) writes Spenser, “caused through a left to right) the upper loft or “pigeon-house” of the family home; a pear Comet or blasinge starre” [sic] – i.e., “caused through a Comet or blaz- tree through which a patch of sky may be seen through the branches; the ing star.” (Comet McNaught photograph: Mary Fanner.) slanting roof of the barn and, at right, another wing of the family house of Nicéphore Niépce. (Gernsheim Collection, Harry Ransom Center, Figure 187 Comet McNaught as photographed from Hout Bay, South The University of Texas at Austin.) Africa. The comet is seen above the famous Sentinel, with Hout Bay harbor lying in the foreground. (Photograph: Richard Ball.) Figure 192 A color digital print reproduction of the world’s First Photograph (ca. 1826). The reproduction was recently produced in Figure 188 An ox-wagon in the Cape, South Africa, is beautifully 2003, at the Getty Conservation Institute in California and is “an depicted in this sketch, against a range of mountains in the back- attempt to reveal more of the unretouched image while still provid- ground. The sketch, in pencil, is believed to have been drawn by ing a sense of the complex physical state of the photograph.” It gives either Sir Thomas Maclear (who served as a Director of the Royal an accurate rendering of what visitors to the Harry Ransom Center at Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, in the period 1834–1870) or by the University of Texas can expect to see upon examining the historic one of his family members. Ox-wagons were typically drawn by chains heliograph which Nicéphore Niépce produced using a camera obscura of oxen, harnessed in pairs. The mode of dress of mother and child at (as discussed in Chapter 6) and a polished pewter plate coated with right is typical of the 1800s. (Photographic reproduction: The Studio. bitumen of Judea – an asphalt derivative of petroleum. (Gernsheim From a Private Collection.) Collection, Harry Ransom Center, the University of Texas at Austin. Digital photograph by Jack Ross, Ellen Rosenbery and Anthony Peres: Figure 189 An African Farm, with ox-wagon. The wheels of this ox- The J. Paul Getty Museum. The quotation is from the Harry Ransom wagon (used in the 1800s) has wide rims. The axle and wheel appear in Center.) silhouette against the slopes of the Helderberg Mountain Range near Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa. Trellised vineyards cling to Figure 193 While the world applauded the birth of photography by the granite slopes, from where some of the world’s fi nest wines are pro- Daguerre and Talbot in 1839, the photographic incunabula by Nicéphore duced. (Photograph: David L. Block.) Niépce lay shrouded in obscurity. Seen here is a heliograph on pewter

Figure Captions 429 entitled “Interior of a Ruined Abbey” produced by Nicéphore Niépce Figure 195 “Today mankind is beholding the fi rst real dawn of astro- twelve years earlier, in 1827. Niépce sensitized plates of pewter with bitu- nomical science. Yesterday was the preparation for that dawn – how splen- men of Judea to reproduce images by photochemical means. During a did were the pioneers of that time!” An early photograph of the Moon, visit to Britain in 1827, Nicéphore Niépce handed this heliograph as a gift dated 18th October, 1896. The photograph, secured using the 36-inch to Francis Bauer, a Fellow of the Royal Society. Niépce died of a stroke in telescope at the Lick Observatory in California, shows rich detail and has 1833; his invention unknown to the world. When news reached England an impressive scale – the Moon’s diameter would span three French feet from France in January 1839 that Daguerre had invented photography, (38.36 inches or 97.45 cm) in the original enlargements. (Photograph Bauer found the report “incomprehensible” stating that “Niépce is the reproduced from an Observatory Atlas of the Moon, Lick Observatory, inventor of this interesting art.” This heliograph of a print lay in relative 1896. The quote is from Charles Holmes, 1918.) obscurity for over 100 years. The correct date associated with the inven- tion of photography is ca. 1826, as attested to by Helmut Gernsheim, Figure 196 One of the most exquisite early photographs of the Great Francis Bauer and Victor Fouque. We have digitally increased the con- Nebula in Orion, secured in a one hour exposure by A.A. Common on trast in this heliograph to allow the eye to readily identify features such 4th February, 1883. “We,” said the stars, “have seen the earth when it was as the rounded pillars in the Abbey, the stairs, as well as a cross between young. We have seen small things creep upon its surface – small things two of the pillars. The higher contrast does reveal myriads of tiny white that prayed and loved and cried very loudly, and then crept under it marks. The inset gives an accurate rendition of the plate of pewter as again. But we,” said the stars, “are as old as the Unknown.” (Photograph: it currently appears behind its frame. (From the Royal Photographic Royal Astronomical Society of London. Text: Olive Schreiner, from her Society Collection at the National Media Museum and the Science and novel The Story of an African Farm.) Society Picture Library.) Figure 197 “The Southern Milky Way” – a view captured by Solon Figure 194 Images through a pinhole date back to antiquity: their roots Bailey at the Harvard College Observatory. Bailey used a Cooke lens, may be traced as far back as 500 BC. Naturally occurring rudimentary about one and a half inches in diameter, of focal length approximately examples would be the passage of light rays through the slits of wicker thirteen inches. The glass plates used were 8 by 10 inches in size, and the baskets and the crossing of leaves. The tenth century mathematician, fi eld covered here is an extraordinary 30 × 40 degrees. The exposure time physicist and astronomer Ibn al-Haytham discovered that the smaller was 20 hours and the photograph was secured over three nights: 20th, the “pinhole,” the sharper the image. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) 22nd and 23rd July 1909. Bailey noted that: “The region shown on this discusses pinhole image formation in his Codex Atlanticus. A “pinhole plate is in many respects the most remarkable in the sky.” Beautifully seen camera” with a 0.5 mm diameter pinhole (produced using a needle or are the rich star fi elds in Sagittarius upon which this photographic plate is sharp drill) with a 50 mm focal length has a “f-stop” of 100, resulting in centered. Bailey continued: “Probably no other extended region of the remarkably sharp images. The still life scene captured here was produced Milky Way equals in brightness the large area [seen here] …” Bailey com- using a pinhole camera and a yellow fi lter. There is no conventional lens; mented that “both sides of the Milky Way are broken up by numerous rather, light entered a minute pinhole which focused the rays onto pho- rifts and holes … their ramifi cations are extremely intricate.” (Courtesy: tographic paper. This image by Rael Wienburg, secured in 1971, has an Boyden Observatory, Bloemfontein, South Africa. From the Annals of the exposure time of 2 hours. It is believed to be one of the early examples of Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College, Volume LXXII, 1913.) color pinhole photography. In other words, a sheet of color (Cibachrome) paper was placed inside a pinhole camera. (Photograph: Rael Wienburg Figure 198 A globular cluster of stars, known as 47 Tucanae, was dis- in London, Ontario.) covered by Abbe Nicholas Louis de Lacaille on 14th September, 1751.

Shrouds of the Night 430 The name “globular cluster” is derived from the Latin globulus – a small book. An eight-panel mosaic was constructed using state-of-the-art dig- sphere of stars, bound together by gravity. The cluster 47 Tucanae con- ital equipment: the exposure time per panel is ten hours, so that the total tains approximately two million stars. It spans an angle in our south- exposure time required to produce this eight-panel swath of the starry ern skies of approximately the full moon and measures about 340 light vaults in Cygnus, is 80 hours. (Photograph: Peter Erdman.) years in diameter. This vault of stars comprises an ancient Rosetta Stone, whose age is estimated at 11 billion years. The original negative of this Figure 202 “A race in the night – a cheetah in silhouette?” In study- image (on glass) was secured by coauthor Ken, observing and “riding” ing this pillar of cosmic dust in the constellation of Carina, the shape is in the prime focus cage of the Anglo–Australian Telescope; the primary somewhat reminiscent of a cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), known for its mirror of this telescope has a working diameter of just under 4 meters. great speed and stealth. The cheetah, a member of the cat family, Felidae, Reproduced here is a contact positive from the original negative taken on can reach speeds of over 100 kilometers per hour; the head of this cosmic 14th/15th December, 1974, with an exposure time of 1 hour and 45 min- monster may remind some readers of a cheetah in silhouette as it hunts utes. (Negative: K.C. Freeman and the Anglo–Australian Observatory. in the African savannah. This imposing dark pillar of dust measures over Contact positive platinum–palladium print: Gordon Undy, Sydney.) 2 light years in length. (Image secured with the Hubble Space Telescope. Courtesy: NASA, ESA, Nathan Smith at the University of California, Figure 199 The spiral galaxy NGC 6872 lies in the southern constel- Berkeley, and his collaborators, together with the Hubble Heritage Team lation of Pavo. It was identifi ed by coauthor David as one of the largest at the Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore.) known spiral galaxies in our local Universe, spanning a diameter of about seven times that of the Milky Way. The galaxy presents a prominent central Figure 203 Mammoth pillars of cosmic dust and gas within our Milky bar. NGC 6872 was photographed on a glass plate mounted at the prime Way Galaxy, as imaged by the orbiting Hubble Space Telescope, in the focus of the 4-meter Victor M. Blanco telescope at the Cerro Tololo southern constellation of Carina. One is truly viewing the genesis of Inter-American Observatory in Chile, South America. (Photograph: star formation. Blistering ultraviolet radiation from newly born stars Victor Blanco and the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory.) will eventually erode these cosmic leviathans of dust on a timescale of approximately 100 000 years. (Image courtesy: NASA, ESA, Nathan Figure 200 Spawning a veritable multitude of dark and dusty Shrouds Smith at the University of California, Berkeley, and his collaborators, of the Night: the nebula NGC 281, within our Milky Way Galaxy, as together with the Hubble Heritage Team at the Space Telescope Science imaged recently by Peter Erdman in the United States. “…tomorrow” Institute, Baltimore.) wrote Charles Holmes in 1918, “we shall be overwhelmed by the vast- ness of sidereal discoveries and progress …” How far photography of Figure 204 “Sunset with her brilliant rays at Golden Gate” – nestled the night sky has advanced since the early work of our pioneers. Modern in the rolling foothills of the Maluti mountains lies the Golden Gate astrophotography no longer uses a negative, but rather captures photons Highlands National Park in South Africa. At certain times of the day, of light by means of digital detectors. (Photograph: Peter Erdman.) these Highlands appear as though painted with brushes of gold, due to refl ected sunlight off the imposing cliffs of sandstone. Sunsets as viewed Figure 201 “None of us today can wholly comprehend … such an infi n- from meandering paths near Phutaditjhaba in Qwa–Qwa, the Free State ity of space; but all of us tomorrow will be able to explain why the Cosmos Province, South Africa are spectacular. A concluding thought from could not be limited …” said Charles Holmes in 1918. This image, recently Lucretius (95–55 BC): “This fright, this night of the mind, must be dis- secured by astrophotographer Peter Erdman, shows a portion of the Milky pelled not by the rays of the sun, nor day’s bright spears, but by the face Way in Cygnus. It represents the longest exposure of any image in our of nature and her laws.” (Photograph: David L. Block.)

Figure Captions 431 Index CHAPTER 1

A Asaro Mudmen, 6–7, 217, 405 Barred galaxies rotation rate of bars, 244, 315 Abney, W. de W., 125 Astronomy and Cosmogony (Jeans), 204 and active galactic nuclei, 246 stars trapped in bars, 241 Accretion processes, 291–293, 298–299, Atmospheric turbulence, and “good bar fraction, 327 time evolution of, 314–316 314–315 seeing,” 138 bar strength, 245–246, 424 ubiquity of, 241 Active galactic nuclei, 246 Aurora Borealis, 9, 10–11, 12–14, 405 and “bowing mechanism” for velocities of stars within bars, 244 Albumen printing process, 111, 115, Australian Aborigines, 217, 218, 421. See structure, 258 Zwicky’s observation of barred 116–117, 412 also Archer, Collette classifi cation in the near-infrared, structure in Whirlpool Galaxy, 222 Allen, Ronald, 258–259 245–246, 247–248, 249, 424 See also specifi c galaxies Aller, Lawrence, 340 B computer detection of bars, 245, Barrow, John, 356 Amalthea, discovery of, 143 Baade, Walter, 225, 330, 422 247, 424 Bauer, Francis, 106–110 Amino acids, 46 Bacon, Francis, 49, 322 Curtis’s recognition of bars in spiral Beck, Joseph, 118, 120, 412 Anderson, Lawrence, 334 Bahcall, John, vii, 276 galaxies, 183 Beckett, Samuel, 253 Andromeda Galaxy, 125 Bailey, Solon Irving, 185, 208, 392, 430 de Vaucouleurs’ insights into, 323–324 Beilby, Jim, 345 approach to Milky Way, 290 Ball, Richard, 380, 429 in the early Universe, 322–323, 326, 327 Bennett, John J., 109 Cepheid variables in, 181 Ball, Sir Robert, 67–70 elongated orbits of stars trapped in bars, 241, 243–245 Bertin, Giuseppe, 257, 302 collision with M 32, 236, 238, 241, Ball, W. Valentine, 67 fi gure rotation, 245 Big Bang, 271, 274, 349–350, 355 257–258 Barmby, Pauline, 238, 423 and fl ock of birds analogy, 244 Bigourdan, Guillaume, 185 generation of spiral structure, 300 Barnard, Edward Emerson, 19, 139–168, Birr Castle, Ireland, 53, 59, 408–409. See hidden structure revealed in the 145, 414, 415 Herschel’s visual observations of bar in the Large Magellanic Cloud, 82 also Boeddicker, Otto; Rosse, Earl of infrared, 235–236, 238–240, 241 Jupiter drawings, 140, 141–142 and Hubble classifi cation, 183–184, Bitumen of Judea, 97, 386–387, Keeler photograph, 167, 418 at Lick Observatory, 143, 146 184, 419 429–430 Roberts photograph, 125, 127, 413 Milky Way images, 146–147, and infalling gas clouds, 315–316 Black holes, 246, 288 Trouvelot drawing, 242, 423 148–165, 415–418 “lens” region, 316 Blanquart-Evrard, Louis Désiré, 115 Anthropic Principle, 356, 359 at Mount Wilson Observatory, 147 Magellanic spiral galaxies, 323, Bleek, W., 5 Aquinas, Thomas, 345 and refl ection nebulae, 250 324–325, 427 Block, David, vii, x, 202 Arago, François Jean Dominique, 107 at Yerkes Observatory, 146–147 and near-infrared observations, 219, and Andromeda Galaxy, 235–236, Archer, Collette, 14–16, 17, 218, 405, 421 Barnard Loop, 250, 251, 424 221, 421 (see also classifi cation in the 238–240, 241 Aristophanes, 32 Barnard Merope Nebula, 250, 253 near-infrared under this heading) on Bahcall letters, 276 Index 433 Block, David (Continued) Camera obscura, 97 and Reynolds telescope, 198 observations; Symmetry: hidden and carbon stars, 296, 425 Cameron, Julia Margaret, 99–100, 115, Rubin’s insights into “form families” symmetry in galactic backbones) and Centaurus A, 231, 422 410–411 of rotation curves, 222 Greenberg’s predictions about, 43–44 classifi cation of galaxies in the near- Camus, Albert, 299 and symmetry, 319, 327 infrared, 245–246, 247–248, 249, Carbon stars, 293–297, 296 and time allocation issues, 328–334 ice mantles, 45–46 319, 326–327, 424 Carlberg, Ray, 315 Clerke, Agnes M., 92 in Milky Way, 20, 21, 22–31, 35, 148–165, 395, 397–398, 405–406, on God, 366 Carnegie, Andrew, 332 Closest packing problem, 319, 321 415–418, 431 and Greenberg, 43 Carpenter, James, 118, 119–123, Coalsack, 44, 79, 81, 83, 409 molecular clouds, 47–48, 312, 314 near-infrared images of the 412–413 COBE. See Cosmic Background Explorer “backbones” of galaxies, 219, 221, origins of, 45, 312, 314 Carr, Bernard, 356 Coma cluster, 182 224–225, 228, 421, 422 particle size, 43, 45 CCDs, 197 Combes, Francoise, 236, 288, 291, 315 Papua New Guinea trip, 263, size of dust clouds, 46 Centaurus A, 225, 229, 230, 264–267, 424–425 Comet McNaught, 379–380, 429 231–232, 422 as small fraction of mass in galaxies, 217 photographs by, 22–29, 33, 38, 40, Comet Tebbutt, 53 Cepheid variable stars, 181, 215, 330 and submillimeter observations, 382, 384, 399, 405, 423, 429 Common, Andrew Ainslie, 118, 124, 32–33 Chandra X-Ray Observatory, 235 187, 213, 391, 430 and refl ection nebulae, 250 temperature of, 32–33, 35, 43, Chesterton, G. K., 328 and very large spiral galaxies, 394, 431 Composite photography, 222, 223, 45, 48 Clark, Kenneth, 293 224, 422 and wave propagation in galaxies, 257 thickness of dust layer in galactic Classifi cation of galaxies Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory, Boeddicker, Otto, 59–60, 63–64, 408 disks, 312, 314 Block et al. classifi cation of galaxies in 230, 235 Bok, Bart, 47, 276 See also Refl ection nebulae the near-infrared, 245–246, 247–248, Computers Bondi, Hermann, 352 Cosmic irons, 281, 291–293 249, 319, 326–327, 424 computer-aided photography, 232, Cosmology. See Universe Book of Hours, 369, 428 de Vaucouleurs classifi cation, 198, 326 422–423 Cowper, William, 98 Bournaud, Frederic, 236 early galaxy classifi cation, 93–94 detection of bars, 245 Crab Nebula (M 1), 294 Brahe, Tycho, 352 and early ideas on time evolution of modeling of galaxies, 298–299 Craig, William, 373 Brown, Robert, 109 structures, 205–210 Comte, Auguste, 319 Crocker telescope (Lick Observatory), Bruce, Catherine W., 146 Herschel classifi cation of nebulae, Copernicus, Nicolaus, 302, 347, 357, 427 86–87, 93, 93, 410 143, 144, 414 Bruce telescope, 146, 147 Coral, 95, 410 Crossley refl ector (Lick Observatory), Burbidge, Geoffrey, 352 Hubble classifi cation, 183–184, 184, 322, 326, 419 Cosmic Background Explorer 166, 418, 419 Burchell, William John, 73–74 (COBE), 351 infl uence of Reynolds and Jeans on Crowther, J. G., 337 Bushman Folklore (Bleek and Lloyd), 5–6 Cosmic dust, vii Hubble classifi cation system, 199–208 Curtis, Heber, 166, 183, 185, 210, Buta, Ronald, 245, 424 Jeans’s Y-shaped diagram, 203–208 and Centaurus A, 225, 231, 422 241, 327 Lundmark classifi cation, 210–211 as chemical factory, 45–47 C optical Hubble classifi cation different composition of, 45–46 D Caltech Submillimeter Observatory, 32 from near-infrared classifi cation, 219, density of, 46 Daguerre, Jacques Mandé, 97, 106–110 Calvert, Mary R., 147, 152, 283–284, 425 222, 246, 249, 424 galactic structure hidden by Daguerreotypes, 97, 106–107, 111, 411 Camera lucida, 88, 89–91, 410 Reynolds classifi cation, 199–203 (see Infrared and near-infrared Dallas, Eneas Sweetland, 86

Shrouds of the Night 434 Danielson, Dennis, 357, 359 Dreyer, J. L. E., 59, 185 Fehrenbach, Charles, 224 active galactic nuclei, 246 Dark matter, vii, x, 275–290, 299, 315, Dumbbell Nebula (M 27), 59, 62, 408 Feldhausen, 78, 80, 89–90 active radio galaxies, 225, 229, 422 425, 426 Dust. See Cosmic dust Figure rotation, 245 composite photographs of, 223, composition of, 288–289 Dwarf galaxies, 289–291, 315, 341 First Photograph, 107, 109–110, 224, 422 evidence for, 285–287 Dynamical mask of galaxies, 280–282 386–387, 429 computer modeling of, 298–299 galactic halo shapes, 289–290, Dyson, Freeman, 356 Fizeau, Armand Hippolyte, 105, 411 and dark matter, 275–290, 299 303–304 47 Tucanae, 393, 430 dust as small fraction of mass in, 217 as mask, 279–280 E Fouque, V., 107, 108 dwarf galaxies, 289–291, 315, 341 and outer disk of galaxies, 311, 426 Eagle Nebula (M 16), 160, 417 Fourier, Jean Baptiste, 256 early speculations about, 124–125 Zwicky’s calculations ignored, 182 Early-type galaxies, 184, 205–208 Fowler, Ellen, 39 and early Universe, 322–323, 326 Dark-adapted eyes, 51, 65–66, 68, 70 Easton, C., 277, 425 Franklin, Benjamin, 218–219 edge-on views, 174, 278, 279, Darwin, Charles, 344–345 Eccles, Sir John, 341, 368–369 Franks, W. S., 125 312–313, 313, 425 Dashwood, Winifred, 15 Eclipse, solar, 53, 374, 428 Franz, Otto, 222, 224 formation of, 298 Daudin, Alice, 224 Eddington, Sir Arthur, xvi, 203, 352 Frebel, Anna, 339 images seen through different fi lters and detectors, 138 Davy, Humphry, 102 Einstein, Albert, 350, 371 Freeman, Ken, vii, x, 199 and information loss during early de Chardin, Teilhard, 333 Elements, production of, 339–340 and carbon stars, 296, 425 history, 280–282 de Fontenelle, Bernard, 347, 353, 359 Eliot, T. S., 272 and Centaurus A, 230 as “island Universes,” 124, 181 de la Rue, Warren, 115, 118, 120, 412 Elliptical galaxies, 183–184, 184, and dark matter, 276 Keeler’s photographs of galaxies and de Lacaille, Abbe Nicholas Louis, 393, 430 211, 419 and fl ock of birds analogy, 244 nebulae, 167–180, 418–419 Elmegreen, Bruce, xiii, 250, de Sitter, William, 203 globular cluster 47 Tucanae 401–403, 424 lenticular galaxies, 312–313 de Vaucouleurs, Gerard, 198, 322–324, photograph, 393, 430–431 Emmanuel, 366 luminosity profi les, 211 326, 427 on God, 364 Erdman, Peter, 395–396, 431 massive galaxies, 279, 338 Dick, Thomas, 139–140 NGC 253 studies, 234, 422–423 recognition of extragalactic nature Dobereiner, Johann, 102, 411 EURECA satellite, 46 NGC 300 outer disk studies, 311 of some nebulae, 166, 181 European Southern Observatory, 22–31, Dodge, N. S., 74, 88 NGC 5084 studies, 279 311, 405–406 and refl ection nebulae, 250, 252, 253 Doppler shift, 181 on Reynolds telescope, 190, 196–197 Evolution, Darwinian, 342–345 rotation curves, 285–287 Draper, Henry, 166 Reynolds telescope photographs, 189, Exobiology, 46–47 time evolution of, 295, 314–316 Drawing techniques, 65–72, 88 192–195, 420 Extrasolar planets, x, 335–345 velocities of, 181–182 at Birr Castle, 408–409 on telescope time allocation issues, wave propagation and “bowing” Extraterrestrial life, 338–342 329–330 Herschel’s techniques, 409 mechanism (music analogy), 255–262 Eyes, dark-adapted, 51, 65–66, 68, 70 Frost, Edwin, 147 Krieger’s combination photograph/ young Population I stars as mask of drawings, 414 galactic structure, 218 photogenic drawings, 98, 99–100, F G See also Barred galaxies; Classifi cation 101, 410–411 Fanner, Mary, 379, 429 Galaxies of galaxies; Infrared and near-infrared and transition to photographs, 110, Fazio, Giovanni, xv, 235, 236, 295, 365, accretion of infalling gas, 291–293, observations; Spiral galaxies; Star 134, 135–137, 138, 414 367, 423, 427 298–299, 314–315 formation; specifi c galaxies

Index 435 Galaxies and the Universe (Sandage), 49 Gravity, 300 astronomical drawings, 82, 83–85, Howitt, William and Mary, 412 Galileo Galilei, 1–4, 143, 329, and accretion processes, 292–293 409–410 Hoyle, Sir Fred, 352 357, 366 and barred galaxies, 241, 243–245 camera lucida sketches, 88, 89–91, 410 Hubble, Edwin P., 207, 212, 421 Gallico, Paul, 50 and dark matter, 286–288, 290 and Centaurus A, 225 Cepheid variable observations, 181 Gas and modeling of spiral structure, classifi cation of nebulae, 86–87, 93, expanding Universe discovery, 182, 350 93, 410 and “bowing mechanism” for spiral 301–302 galaxy classifi cation system, 183–184, structure, 258 Great Nebula in Orion (M 42), 409, 430 and Dumbbell Nebula name, 408 184, 314, 322, 326, 419 (see also cosmic rain of infalling gas, 291–293, Common’s photographs, 118–119, early photographs by, 102, 104, 411 Classifi cation of galaxies) 298–299, 314–316 391, 430 and early photography, 98, and IAU Commission on Nebulae and disks of gas extending beyond disk Draper’s photograph (fi rst photo 101–102, 411 Star Clusters, 185 of stars, 300 of nebula), 166 family of, 410 infl uence of Reynolds and Jeans hydrogen gas arcs, 384, 429 Earl of Rosse’s drawing, 70, 71, 408 and Gould’s Belt, 47 on Hubble classifi cation system, 199–208, 212 hydrogen gas bubbles in LMC, Freeman’s photographs, 192–193, 420 letter on daguerreotypes, 102, 105, 411 317, 318 letter to Reynolds, 199, 201, 420 Herschel’s drawing, 82, 84, 409 and Magellanic Clouds, 81–82, 323, reservoir of hydrogen gas surrounding luminosity profi le across galaxies, 211 Roberts’s photographs, 131–132, 414 324, 427 spiral galaxies, 315 and Lundmark, 210–211 Trouvelot’s drawing, 53, 56, 407 on mysteries of the cosmos, 361–362 Gascoigne, Ben, 198, 199, 215, and priority in classifi cation system, Greenberg, Mayo, xv, 39, 43–47, 406 on observation and theory, 92 330–331, 364, 373, 420 210–211 photogenic drawings, 98, 99–100, Gehlen, Ferdinand, 102, 411 Groess, Robert, 236, 423 101, 410–411 and Reynolds, 198–203 Gemini South telescope, 311 and telescope allocation time, 330 H sky surveys, 72–74, 78–79, 81 Gernsheim, Alison, 111 Hale, George Ellery, 147 “star gauging” technique, 82, 86 Hunt, Robert, 102, 411 Gernsheim, Helmut, 107–109, 111 Hales, Thomas, 321 telescope of, 80, 104, 409, 411 Hunter-gatherers, 5–6, 14–16, 270. See Gibson, Steve, 250 also Australian Aborigines; Papua New Hand, early photo of, 119, 412 Herschel, Sir William, 19 Gingerich, Owen, 48, 66–67, 364–365, Guinea Handy, Richard, 67 and M 33, 295 365, 427 Hart, John, 197–198 on religious belief, 362 Gliese 581, 335 I Hartle, James, 271–274 and Saturn’s moons, 411 Ibn al-Haytham, 430 Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae, 393, 430 Hawking, Stephen, 271–274, sky surveys, 72 Ice, 45–46 351–352 God, 94, 271–272, 343–345, 347, telescope made by, 104, 411 Infrared and near-infrared observations, 357–358, 361–375 HE 1523-0901, 339–340 and Uranus’s moons, 363, 427 32–33, 217–219, 220–221, 231–232, 234 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 280 Heliography, 97 The Herschels and Modern Astronomy Andromeda Galaxy, 235–236, Gold, Thomas, 352 Helwan Observatory, 187, 208 (Clerke), 92 238–240, 241 Golden Gate Highlands National Henry, Paul and Prosper, 111, 115 Hertzsprung, Ejnar, 203, 206, 421 and carbon stars, 294, 297 Park, 399 Herbig, George, 314, 328, 362 The History of Photography (Newhall), 111 classifi cation of galaxies in the Gonzales, Guillermo, 364 Herschel, Caroline, 413 Hodge, Paul, 362–363 near-infrared, 245–246, 247–248, Gould, Benjamin, 47 Herschel, Sir John, 99–100, 323, Hordierna, Giovanni, 295 249, 424 Gould’s Belt, 47–48 410, 411 Horsehead Nebula, 30, 406 and high redshift galaxies, 322

Shrouds of the Night 436 and theories on generation of spiral The King’s Mirror (Larson, translator), Life Walker’s composite photographs, 222 structure, 301–302 9–14 extraterrestrial, 338–342 M 42. See Great Nebula in Orion and wave propagation and “bowing Kiriwina, 263, 265, 268 and parameters of the Universe, M 51 (Whirlpool Galaxy; NGC 5194), mechanism,” 258–260 Knox-Shaw, Harold, 208 356–357 175, 320, 375, 419, 426, 428 Infrared Array Camera (IRAC), Kormendy, John, 406 Light tables, 279 composite image, 223, 422 235, 238 Krieger, Johann, 134, 135–137, Lin, C. C., 257, 302 optical image, 226–227, 422 Infrared Astronomical Satellite, 138, 414 Lindblad, Bertil, 21 Roberts’s photograph, 129, 413 35–39 Kron, Gerald, 198, 330 Lindt, J. W., 115, 266–267, 425 spiral structure identifi ed in, 53 International Astronomical Union Lipperhey, Hans, 1 Zwicky’s observation of barred Commission on Nebulae and Star L structure in, 222 Clusters (Commission Number 28), 185, Lake Como, 97 Lloyd, L., 5 203, 209 M 66 (NGC 3627), 173, 418 Lamps/lanterns, 68, 70, 72, 81, 409 Local Group, 353, 354, 427 International Virtual Observatory Alliance M 81, 130, 413 Large Magellanic Cloud Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 147, 166, (IVOA), 331 282, 294, 373 M 83 (NGC 5236), 246, 248, 304, 426 carbon stars in, 294, 297 IRAC. See Infrared Array Camera Low Wood Observatory, 187, 196, 203 M 101, 59, 60, 176, 408, 419 Herschel’s observations, 81–82 Iris Nebula (NGC 7023), 180, 419 Lucretius, 431 M 104 (Sombrero Galaxy), 310, 312, hydrogen gas bubbles, 317, Isham, Christopher J., 272, 273 313, 426 318, 426 Lundmark, Knut, 210–211 IVOA. See International Virtual Maclear, Sir Thomas, 360, 381, 427, 429 refl ection nebulae in, 250 Observatory Alliance M Magellanic spiral galaxies, 323 spiral structure identifi ed in, 323, 324, M 1 (Crab Nebula), 294 325, 427 Magi, 366, 369 J M 8, 179, 419 James Clerk Maxwell Telescope, 32 star formation in, 317 Malin, David, x, 82, 229, 233, 303, M 13, 55, 407 304–310, 311, 422, 426 James Webb Space Telescope, 261, 297 Tarantula Nebula, 194, 420 M 16 (Eagle Nebula), 160, 417 Malinkowski, B., 263, 265 Jeans, Sir James, 203–208, 208, Larson, L.M., 9 M 17 (Swan Nebula), 160, 417 Masks, 5 209, 421 Late-type galaxies, 184, 205–208 M 20 (Trifi d Nebula), 177, 419 atmosphere as the “mask” of the Jefferson, Thomas, 187 Leavitt, Henrietta, 181 M 27 (Dumbbell Nebula), 59, Moon, 138, 414 John Reynolds & Sons (Birmingham), 185 Lens region of barred galaxies, 316 62, 408 dark matter as, 279–280 Johnson, Martin, 203 Lenticular galaxies, 312–313 M 32, 127, 413 masks of the Milky Way, 275–285 Jupiter, Barnard’s drawings, 140, Leonardo da Vinci, 430 141–142, 414 collision with Andromeda Galaxy, 236, Moon as mask of fainter stars, 215, Leonid meteor shower, 58, 408 238, 241, 257–258 216, 421 Leviathan of Parsonstown, 53 K M 33 (Triangulum Galaxy), 61, 295, Papua New Guinea, 6–8, 405 Keck telescopes, 295, 425 Lewis, C. S., 301, 364, 371–372 408, 425 time as mask of cosmic beginnings, 271 Keel, William, 364 Lick Observatory, 418 Bahcall letter on missing mass, 276 young Population I stars as mask of Keeler, James Edward, 166, 167–180, 418 Barnard and, 143, 146 carbon stars in, 294, 296 galactic structure, 218 Kepler, Johannes, 66, 319, 321, Crocker telescope, 140, 144, 414 Earl of Rosse’s drawing, 59, 61, 408 See also Cosmic dust 364–365, 371 photographs from, 167–180 Keeler’s photograph, 169, 418 Mass telescope, 279, 289–290 The Kingdom of God (Traheme), 358 Walker’s composite photographs, 222 Roberts’s photograph, 128, 413 Mayor, Michel, 335

Index 437 Mayr, Ernst, 342 Trouvelot’s drawing, 51, 52, 407 Nebulae, 418 near-infrared images of, 38, 224 McCrea, Sir William, 207, 366–367 weak central bar, 326 Barnard’s Milky Way photographs, outer disk structure, 306, 426 Mellinger, Axel, 407 Miller, William, 423 152, 160, 162, 165, 415–418 NGC 3576, 26, 406 Menzel, Donald, 342 Minkowski, Rudolph, 225, 422 and early sky surveys, 166 NGC 3627 (M 66), 173, 418 Messier, Charles, 295 Mirabel, Felix, 225 Keeler’s photographs of galaxies and NGC 3631, 247 nebulae, 167–180, 418–419 Meteor showers, 16, 53, 58, 408 Missing mass. See Dark matter NGC 3992, 248, 249 recognition of extragalactic nature, Microwave background radiation, Molecular clouds, 47–48, 312, 314 NGC 4123, 247 166, 181 350–352 Moon, 390, 414 NGC 4254, 247 velocities of, 181 Middle Ages, 9 atmosphere as the “mask” of the NGC 4314, 247 See also Refl ection nebulae; specifi c nebulae Milgrom, Moti, 287–288 Moon, 138 NGC 4321, 307, 426 Neutron capture, 339 Milky Way Galaxy, 409 early photograph, 430 NGC 4548, 247 Newhall, Beaumont, 97, 111 and Andromeda Galaxy, 290 Galileo’s observations, 2 NGC 4565, 174, 416 Newton, Sir Isaac, 19, 286, 333, 337, Archer’s drawing, 17, 405 Krieger’s combination photograph/ 352, 357 NGC 4594 (Sombrero Galaxy; M 104), Bailey’s photograph, 392, 430 drawings, 134, 135–137, 138, 414 310, 312, 313, 426 Newton’s laws, 286–287 Barnard’s photographs, 143, 146–147, Nasmyth and Carpenter images of NGC 5084, 278, 279, 425 NGC 253, 168, 230, 233–234, 258, 148–165, 415–418 model, 118, 121–123, 412–413 323, 418, 422 NGC 5194 (Whirlpool Galaxy). See M 51 birth of, 282–283, 425 Wilkins on, 337–338 NGC 281, 395, 431 NGC 5195, 222, 223, 224–225, Boeddicker’s drawings, 59, 63–64, 408 Woodburytype images of, 226–228, 375, 422 115–116, 120 NGC 300, 276, 311 in Bushman Folklore, 5–6 NGC 5236 (M 83), 246, 248, 304, 426 Mount Stromlo Observatory, 189, NGC 309, 220–221, 248, 258, 301, 421 computer modeling of, 298 NGC 5371, 248, 249 189–190, 212, 279. See also Reynolds NGC 718, 248 dark matter halo, 290 NGC 5850, 247 telescope NGC 891, 170, 418 dust in (see under Cosmic dust) NGC 5861, 249 Mount Wilson Observatory, 147 NGC 1073, 247 Easton’s drawing, 277, 425 NGC 6872, 394, 431 Music: wave propagation and “bowing” NGC 1169, 247 Gould’s Belt, 47–48 mechanism in galaxies, 255–262 NGC 7023 (Iris Nebula), 180, 419 NGC 1300, 247, 309, 426 Herschel’s drawings, 83–85, 409–410 NGC 7083, 248, 249 N NGC 1313, 308, 426 and Herschel’s “star gauging” NGC catalog, 59 Nail production, 185, 187 NGC 1365, 248, 249 technique, 82, 86 Nicholson, Marjorie, 94 Narlikar, Jayant, 352 NGC 1566, 195, 305, 420, 426 masks of, 275–285 Niépce, Isidore, 108 NASA: Great Observatories Programme, NGC 1977, 172, 418 as massive galaxy, 338 230 Niépce, Joseph Nicéphore, 97, 106–111, NGC 2543, 248, 249 in poetry, 15–16 Nasmyth, James, 118, 119–123, 385, 388, 429–430 NGC 2841, 250, 252, 424 refl ection nebulae in, 250, 251 412–413 First Photograph, 107, 109–110, Ross and Calvert photographs, 283–284 Naturalism, 342–345 NGC 2857, 248 386–387, 429 Slipher’s recognition of Milky Way as a Near-fi eld cosmology, 333 NGC 2997, 37, 38, 406, 407 Norris, John, 340 spiral galaxy seen from within, 181 Near-infrared observations. See Infrared infrared - optical image, 40 North American Nebula, 162, 417 study of ancient objects in, 333 and near-infrared observations lack of bar, 303 North Celestial Pole Loop, 250

Shrouds of the Night 438 O Barnard and early astrophotography, Talbot and, 97–98, 102–103, background, 185, 187 Oberon, 363, 427 139–168 110–111, 411–412 galaxy classifi cation system, 199–203 Observer, role of, 359, 360, 427 Barnard’s Milky Way photographs, Talbot’s photos, 111, 112–113, 411 and Hubble, 198–203 146–147, 148–165, 415–418 Omega Nebula (M 17), 160, 417 Woodburytype printing, 115, 118, Hubble’s letter to, 199, 201, 420 Common and, 118, 124 119–123, 412 Oort, Jan, 21, 45 and IAU Commission on Nebulae and The Origins of Photography (Gernsheim), Daguerre and, 97, 106–110 Pinhole camera, 389, 430 Star Clusters, 185, 203 107–108 daguerreotypes, 97, 106, 111, 411 Pioneer 10, 11 spacecraft, 287 luminosity profi le across galaxies, 211 Orion Molecular Cloud, 47 early astrophotography, 124–166, Planets and Reynolds telescope, 187, 189, 196 Orion Nebula. See Great Nebula in Orion 413 (see also specifi c photographers Barnard’s Jupiter drawings, 140, under this heading) and Royal Astronomical Society, Ox-wagon, 91, 378, 381, 382 141–142, 414 211–212 exposure times, 97, 111, 114, 118, extrasolar planets, x, 335–345 147, 412 Reynolds telescope (Canberra, Australia), P Galileo’s observations, 2 124, 187, 188, 189, 190–191, 419, 420 Herschel (Sir John) and, 98, 101–102, Papua New Guinea, 264–267 Sir John Herschel’s Uranus drawing, 411 destroyed by fi re, 212 masks, 6–8, 217, 405 363 Herschel’s photogenic drawings, 98, Freeman and, 190, 192–195, “The Stars Helped a Man” folktale, Plantinga, Alvin, 343–345 99–100, 101, 410–411 196–197, 420 268–270 Platinum prints, 101–102, 103, 411 invention of photography, 106–110 Gascoigne’s comments on, 198, 215 time and space concepts, 263, 265, Pleiades, 133, 165, 414, 418 Hart’s comments on, 197–198 268, 271, 274, 425 Keeler’s photos of galaxies and nebulae, 167–180, 418–419 Keeler photograph, 171, 418 Rheticus, Georg, 302 Parsons, William. See Rosse, Earl of Krieger and, 134, 138 and refl ection nebulae, 250, 253 Riem, 383, 385 Part, Arvo, 258 Krieger’s combination photograph/ Prinsloo, Cobus, 424 Roberts, Isaac, 124–125, 127–133, Pascal, Blaise, 371 drawings of the Moon, 134, 135–137, Problems of Cosmogony and Stellar 134, 413 Paul the Apostle, 139 414 Dynamics (Jeans), 208 Robertson, Frances, 412 Payne, John Howard, 338 Nasmyth and Carpenter Proust, Marcel, 334 Rodin, Auguste, 348, 427 The Pencil of Nature (Talbot), 98, Woodburytype images of the Moon, Puerari, Ivânio, 245, 424 Rogers, Samuel, 300, 301 102–103, 110, 411 118, 119–123, 412 Peng, Eric, 230 Niépce and, 97, 106–111, 388, Rosette Nebula, 22–23, 311, 405 429–430 R Ross, Frank E., 283–284, 425 Penzias, Arno A., 350 Radio galaxies, 225, 229, 230, 231–232, Peterson, Eugene, 139 Niépce’s First Photograph, 107, 422 Ross, Jan, 357, 358 109–110, 386–387, 429 Pfenniger, Daniel, 288 Ray, John, 49–50 Rosse, Earl of (William Parsons), 53, 59, photoglyphic engraving, 111 65–66, 211 Philo, 271 The Realm of the Nebulae (Hubble), 212 photography term origin, 101 astronomical drawings, 59, 60–62, Photogenic drawings, 98, 99–100, 101, Redshift, 322 pinhole camera, 389, 430 65–67, 71, 408 410–411 Refl ection nebulae, 172, 250, 251, 252, Ball on, 67–70 A Photographic Atlas of Selected Regions platinum prints, 101–102, 103, 411 253, 414, 418, 424 and M 33, 295 of the Milky Way (Barnard), 146–147 Roberts and, 124–125, 134, Reminiscences and Letters of Sir Robert Photography, history of, 97–182 413–414 Ball (W. Valentine Ball, ed.), 67–70 Rosse, Lord and Lady, xiv, 70, 72 albumen printing, 111, 115, Roberts’s photos, 125, 127–133, 413 Reynolds, John H., 205–206, 209, Rotation curves of galaxies, 285–287 116–117, 412 “stacked” images, 303, 304–310 419, 421 Rubin, Vera, ix–xii, 222, 246

Index 439 Ruined Abbeys and Castles of Great Smith, Nathan, 431 Large Magellanic Cloud, 82, 323, Summa Theologica, 345 Britain (Howitts), 116–117, 412 Smoke, 34, 45, 406 324, 427 “Superspace,” 271–273 Russell, H. C., 323, 427 Smyth, Charles Piazzi, 76, 409 relation between pitch angle and shape Swan Nebula (M 17), 160, 417 of rotation curve, 246 Rutherfurd, Lewis, 115 Snowfl akes, 319–321, 327 Symmetry, x reservoir of hydrogen gas Solar eclipse, 53, 374, 428 and galaxy classifi cation, 319, 327 S surrounding, 315 Sombrero Galaxy (M 104), 310, 312, hidden symmetry in galactic Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy, 289–291 star formation in, 280 (see also Star 313, 426 backbones, 219, 225, 226–227, 230, Sandage, Allan, xvi, 49, 94, 182, 202, formation) Space 258 (see also Infrared and near-infrared 204, 420 two-fold symmetry, 321, 327 observations) and Big Bang, 349 on designing a Universe, 359 ubiquity of bars in, 241 Hawking–Hartle “Superspace,” discoveries on origins of Hubble wave propagation and “bowing” T 271–273 classifi cation system, 202–205 mechanism (music analogy), 255–262 Table Mountain (Cape of Good Hope), time and space concepts in Papua New 75–77 379 and refl ection nebulae, 250 See also Andromeda Galaxy; Infrared 73–74, , 78, , 409 Guinea, 263, 265, 268, 271, 274, 425 and Reynolds luminosity profi le, 211 and near-infrared observations; Milky Tagore, R., 19, 361 Spenser, Edmund, 377–378, 385, 428, Way Galaxy; specifi c galaxies Talbot, Henry Fox, 97–98, 102–103, and Reynolds telescope, 198 429 Spitzer, Lyman, Jr., 230 110–111 Saturn, Trouvelot’s drawing of, 53, 54, 407 Spiral galaxies Spitzer Space Telescope, 230, 235, 238, photos by, 111, 112–113, 411 Sauvage, Marc, 225, 231, 422 barred (see Barred galaxies) 295, 423 Tampach, Godfrey, 319 Schalen, Carl, 21 and carbon stars, 293–297 Stamps, Dennis, 185, 187 Tarantula Nebula, 194, 420 Schreiner, Olive, 381–383 classifi cation of (see Classifi cation Star formation, 280 Taurus Molecular Cloud, 47 Schulze, J., 102 of galaxies) carbon stars in the early Universe, Te Deum, 259 Seagull Nebula, 24, 406 Curtis’s recognition of bars in spiral 293–297 galaxies, 183 Templeton, Sir John, 373 Sellwood, Jerry, 315 cessation of star formation in lenticular “The Shepheardes Calender” and dark matter halo shapes, 303–304 galaxies, 312–313 Sharpless, Stewart, 222, 224 (Spenser), 373 early use of term, 211 Sheehan, William, xv–xvi, 19, 204, 419 and cosmic rain of infalling gas, Three Essays (Dallas), 86–87 exponential law for disk surface 291–293 “The Shepheardes Calender” (Spenser), Time 367–368, 377–378, 378, 428, 429 brightness, 292–293 trigger for, 317–318 and cosmic beginnings, 271, 350 Shew, Wm., 143 fl occulent spiral arms in optical “Star gauging” technique, 82, 86 images, 219, 230, 233, 252, 258, and Hawking–Hartle “Superspace,” Shrouds of the Night, unveiling. See 421, 422, 424 “Starfi eld Observatory” of Isaac Roberts, 271–273 Infrared and near-infrared observations 125, 126, 413 generation of spiral structure, 299–303 time and space concepts in Papua New Shu, Frank, 249, 257 Stephens, Andrew, xiv, 70, 72, 408–409 optical views of young Population I Guinea, 263, 265, 268, 271, 274, 425 Sidereus Nuncius (“The Sidereal stars tracing spiral arms, 218 Stewart, Ian, 321 time evolution of galaxy morphology, Messenger”; Galileo), 1–4 outer disk structure, 303, 304–310, Stibbs, Walter, 191, 420 295, 314–316 Slessor, Kenneth, 272 426 Stone, E. J., 213 Time allocation issues for modern Slipher, Vesto, 181, 185, 200, 203, 209 and recognition of extragalactic nature Stone, John, 78–79 telescopes, 328–334 Slone, Thomas, 268 of some nebulae, 166, 181 The Story of an African Farm (Schreiner), Tipler, Frank, 356 Small Magellanic Cloud, 215 recognition of spiral structure in the 381–383 Tissandier, Gaston, 134

Shrouds of the Night 440 Titania, 363, 427 Big Bang, 271, 274, 349–350, 355 U.S. Naval Observatory, 407–408 Willard lens, 143, 146, 414 Titi, Fani, xiii carbon stars in the early Universe, Usner, Charles, 143 Willis, William, 102, 411 Townes, Charles, 369–371 293–297 Wilson, Robert W., 350 Traheme, Thomas, 357–358 decoupling epoch, 351 V WMAP. See Wilkinson Microwave van de Hulst, Henk, 21, 45 Triangulum Galaxy. See M 33 delicate tuning of parameters, Anisotropy Probe 353–355 van der Laan, Harry, 224 Trifi d Nebula (M 20), 177, 419 Woodburytype printing, 115, 118, and the Divine, 361–375 Veil Nebula, 178, 419 119–123, 412 Trimble, Virginia, 19–20 expansion of, 182, 349–350, 353–355 Via Lactea, 74, 416, 418 Woolley, Sir Richard, 330 Trobriand Islands, 263, 265, 274, 424 and Hawking–Hartle “Superspace,” Wordsworth, William, 280–281 Trouvelot, Etienne Leopold, 51, 52, 53, 271–274 W 54–58, 242, 407, 423 Wright, Joseph, 216, 370, 421, 428 microwave background radiation, Wainscoat, Richard, 221, 250, 421 Turner, Joseph Mallord William, 293 Wright, W. H., 185, 209 350–352 Walker, Merle, 222 Twain, Mark, 213, 331, 333 opacity of early Universe, 351 Wedgwood, T., 102 X U size of, 347, 355–359 Wells, H. G., 253 X-ray paintings of Australian Aborigines, Undy, Gordon, 411 “steady state” theory, 352 Whirlpool Galaxy. See M 51 217, 218, 421 Universe and studies of nearby ancient Wienburg, Rael, 389, 430 age of, 353–354 objects, 333 Wilkins, John, 336–338 X bars in the early Universe, 322–323, “Uranium” stars, 339–340 Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe Zodiacal light, 35, 53, 57, 407 326, 327 Uranus, 363, 427 (WMAP), 351 Zwicky, Fritz, 182, 222

Index 441