chapter GARDENS, PARKS AND GREEN RESERVES

© The Author(s) 2019 P. G. Rowe and L. Hee, A City in Blue and Green, 05https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9597-0_5 05 D current socio-cultural environment. Consequently Consequently environment. socio-cultural current ’s in costs at all avoided almost must be trees uprooted and branches falling like events from risks successfully, sustained to be For this Singapore. of ‘nature’ so-called and conditions antecedent tropical primeval the with keeping more in large, and mature very is often and be can involved of vegetation scale the Also conditions. species mono-cultural than rather mixed under better thrive on, so and parks public verges, of roadway greening the former. not the have More prosaically, will you latter the without but, of course, caterpillars, than more beautiful are butterflies that true seems beholder, of the eye the upon it certainly Depending to secure. more be difficult might support public of whole-hearted appropriation the though even interpretations, garden-like earlier than of existence state natural to atruer closer to be opinion to expert appears also shift This service. into further pushed been have attributes wildlife and plant of Singapore’s aspects significant nature’, or in with a‘city towards occurred has that shift the In exploitation. of land era colonial the during depleted significantly was it although environment, of Singapore’s hallmark a also is Biodiversity activities. curatorial related other and Gardens Botanic magnificent of its form the in and practices agricultural discriminating than less other and of plantation onslaught the survived that those including circumstances, natural its by of way both came This worlds. botanical, horticultural and wildlife wildlife and horticultural botanical, the in amark to make began Singapore period, colonial the into back well ating 83 improving biodiversity and wildlife habitat are are habitat wildlife and biodiversity improving of of ways scrutiny rich data Similar functions. maintenance other and to monitor trimming and failures branch to help predict trees to large applied now is routinely structures ondeployed building usually for example, element analysis, Finite environments. to these applications data high-tech in engaging begun has Board Parks National the biophilic outcome. biophilic adistinctly towards moving to be appears Singapore time, Over elsewhere. transferable potentially to be appear again, and, unique are management environmental urban active and technology science, of mergers or These so. decade last the in forth sprouted has that of buildings greening literal the does ecology, as and life plant offorefront tropical the into reach Singapore’s extends also Gardens Botanic Singapore at the of researchers protocols DNA and hybridization remarkable The century. twenty-first the into activities of botanical program curatorial the thrusts also attention, tourist and local substantial Bay,’ attracting by the while ‘Gardens like projects, significant to come. Other remains however, landscapes, tropical of local embrace Amore complete management. water storm like to conditions solutions structural strictly earlier the than conservation and of greening agenda ‘natural’ of amore integration atcloser squarely aimed are Canal, Alexandra the like canals, to drainage and Park, Mo Kio atBishan-Ang River the like Waters PUB’s ABC The parks, to public approach areas. coastal vulnerable in especially ways, water of modeling dynamic fluid way,under including

CHAPTER 5 GARDENS, PARKS AND GREEN RESERVES a. BOTANIC AND HORTICULTURAL GARDENS

Specific types of gardens have existed in human as many as four million visitors in 2013. Then, history for many years. In the western ecumen, for the Singapore Botanic Gardens was inscribed as a instance, this interest by the ancient Romans first UNESCO World Heritage Site on 4 July 2015 at the started to focus on the medicinal properties and 39th session of the World Heritage Committee, the later, around the eighth century, monks brought very first of its kind in the island nation. this interest forth in their monastic gardens.1 The rise of the botanic garden, however, began with the sixteenth-century Italian university gardens, such as the very first in Europe at the Universita di Pisa, founded in 1543 by Luca Ghini both a physician and a botanist. By the mid-eighteenth century and later, the botanic garden was essentially a museum of living plants. Like other kinds of museums it had a double function.2 It was a place where plants could be studied by experts for the furtherance of scientific knowledge and a place where exhibits could be arranged for the education and recreation 59.SINGAPORE BOTANIC GARDENS and enjoyment of non-experts. At much the same time international trade propelled imperial powers Historically, after being founded in 1859 on a to bring newly discovered tropical species to Europe site at , at least partly under the banner and to cultivate them both in the homeland and of the Gardens of the Agri-Horticultural Society in their natural environment. Established in 1859, of Singapore, Lawrence Niven was engaged in Singapore Botanic Gardens served as a park for 1860 to develop the 23 or so hectare property Singaporeans and visitors, a scientific institution as a garden.3 This he did in the manner of the and as a testing ground for tropical plantation English Landscape Movement and of ‘Capability’ crops. The first of these functions was mainly for Lancelot Brown, and by 1864 a system of roads and the Singaporean elite at the time. In the 1800s it footpaths was in place. Then, in 1866, the Society’s was a centre for research and plant conservation finances permitted expansion to the northwest, with a focus on economic botany that had direct including the Swan Lake. However, having suffered repercussions, as pointed out earlier, on Malaya and substantial cost overruns during the construction Singapore. Also, among other characteristics, the of a Superintendent’s house, the Agri-Horticultural Botanic Gardens was the largest intact historically- Society appealed in 1874 to the government for relief. designed landscape in Singapore. It is also among the Henry James Murton was then appointed in 1875 as most visited botanic gardens in the world, hosting the Gardens Superintendent, with the assistance of

84 60. that collection a zoological established Valley’. He also ‘Palm spectacular of the construction the oversaw 1879, In interest. he of economic plants for instance, on afocus with garden botanic amoreinto typical gardens the he turned places, other among Lanka, Sri- and Malaya from materials plant Collecting Britain. Great at Kew in Gardens Botanic Royal the 4. Botany Centre Botany 4. Gate Tanglin 3. Gate Timah Bukit 2. 1. Building Raffles 0 0.1 PLAN OFTHESINGAPORE BOTANICGARDENS 0.2 0.4 8. Forested Area Forested 8. 7. Lake Eco Lake Symphony 6. Lake Swan 5. 0.6 11 6 7 2 0.8 5 km 9 7 8 10 4 1 3 11. Holland Road 11. Holland Road Timah 10. Bukit River 9. 85 Gardens on a firm systematic footing. systematic on afirm Gardens the placed also Cantley botanist at Kew. avid An trained were Cantley and Murton Both established. was trees for plant 1882 in nurseries and for instance, built, was Aherbarium gardens. the within buildings to about rationalize 1880 who set and in Murton succeeded Cantley 1904. Nathaniel in terminated was

CHAPTER 5 GARDENS, PARKS AND GREEN RESERVES Henry Nicholas Ridley took over from Cantley in scientist and emphasized horticulture with orchids 1897, becoming the Garden’s first ‘Director’ and as a focus.5 As early as 1928 he set up an in vitro making it a regional centre for understanding propagation unit, which from the 1930s onwards the flora of , a position it retains began to see the merits of this approach, resulting in today.4 Ridley’s interests were broad, encompassing 1956 with the beginnings of the Gardens VIP Orchid zoology, geology and botany with a special interest Nursery Program. Certainly by the mid -1950s the in the latter category for orchids. Coming from Gardens was known globally for orchid propagation. the National History Museum in London, he Today staff’s interest and work in genetic aspects of launched the first scientific agricultural journal in plants and DNA sequencing for plant identification the region – The Bulletin of the Malay Peninsula are prominent areas of expertise.6 – and became involved, as noted earlier, in rubber plant development and cultivation. Issac Henry During the Japanese occupation from 1942 to 1945, Bukhill took over from Ridley in 1912 and saw the Hidezo Tamakadate and Kwan Koriba were Directors Gardens through a critical transition period from of the Gardens. After the war Murray Hudson Ross, British rule to part of Malaya. Much later during curator of the herbarium before the war, took over. the Fourth World Orchid Conference in 1963 held Eventually the Gardens then played an important for the first time in Singapore, he delivered a paper role during the greening of Singapore described on Singapore’s role in hybrid propagation. Richard earlier, and being taken over by the National Parks Eric Holttum succeeded Bukhill in 1925. He was a Board in 1986. During the 1970s the Botanic Gardens

61. SINGAPORE BOTANIC GARDENS

86 ! 62. of One zone. discovery and educational an is which Timah, at Bukit are Garden Foliage and Eco-Lake The Garden. Fragrance the and Garden Healing the Garden, Orchid the including area, central the in located is belt tourist the Tanglin; in located are portions heritage The Timah. Bukit and Central Tanglin, cores: main three into hectares in area. now role 65 of park, apublic the assumed also 5. Indian Garden Indian 5. Garden Chinese 4. Garden Malay 3. Forest Cloud 2. Dome 1. Flower 0 PLAN OFGARDENSBY THE BAY 0.1 17 0.2 7 Today’s Gardens are divided divided Today’s are Gardens 0.3 10. Fruits and Flowers and 10. Fruits 9. Understorey World8. Palms of Trees of Life 7. Secret Garden Colonial 6. 0.4 3 6 km 12 4 11 13 10 5 9 1 8 7 14. Garden Golden Grove 13. Supertree Discovery 12. 11. Web Life of 14 2 87 unpublished data. unpublished and journals books, of over 28,500 alibrary is there addition In specimens. typical are 8,000 of which species of 750,000 aherbarium trees, heritage 44 and species 6,500 accessions, plant living 36,400 had 2014 in region, Gardens the the in research biodiversity and of taxonomic centres important most, not the if most, the 17. Bay 17. 16. Marina Garden Founder’s the of Location Planned Garden: East 15. Bay 8 15 16

CHAPTER 5 GARDENS, PARKS AND GREEN RESERVES The second extraordinary botanical and horticultural the Mediterranean area, as well as in semi-arid contribution by Singapore is the Gardens by the and tropical regions like Australia, South America Bay project, first announced in 2005 by then Prime and South Africa. It is comprised of seven different Minister on its 101 hectare gardens which also merge together in unique ways site adjacent to the in central as a singular display across a sloping topography.10 Singapore. It was the subject of an international The Cloud Forest is the second conservatory. It competition in 2006 won by Grant Associates for occupies a 0.8 hectare site and rises to enclose a 42 the Bay South Garden and Dominic White for the meter tall cloud mountain, accessible by elevator Bay East Garden. The third garden – the Bay Central and covered in epiphytes such as: orchids, ferns, Garden – is a link between the other two gardens. mosses and ormeliads. An exterior catwalk allows A central and prominent feature of the Gardens by visitors to descend around the mountain’s edge to the Bay is the two conservatories beside the Marina the lower entry level. In addition, another prominent Reservoir.9 Both were designed by William Eyre to constructed feature is the super-trees that are from be energy efficient. The Flower Dome is the larger 25 to 50 meters in height.11 They are outfitted with of the two and sits on a 1.2 hectare site and rises 38 environmental technologies, like photo-voltaic cell meters. It is the largest column-less greenhouse in and rainwater devices, which allow them to mimic the world and maintains an interior atmosphere of ecological functions. They are also environmental between 23 and 25 degrees centigrade, replicating engines for the gardens, having hot air evacuation a mild dry climate and featuring plants found in units and methods of cooling water.

63.THE FLOWER DOME OF

88 65. 64. THE CLOUDFORESTOFGARDENSBYBAY THE SUPERTREESOFGARDENS BYTHEBAY 89

CHAPTER 5 GARDENS, PARKS AND GREEN RESERVES 66.GENERAL VIEWS OF GARDENS BY THE BAY

90 67. 1984 Tange in Kenzo fact, and In development. its for plans early were There for 35 or years. so fallow lay that land reclaimed complex occupies entire The Garden. Memorial aFounders’ house will which emplacement, Barrage the across and Reservoir Marina side of the eastern development on the undergoing is area Another bodies. water accompanying and plants the among interspersed sculptures striking several as well as staff, curatorial garden’s by the trips overseas on periodic gathered materials other and rocks with replete is ensemble entire The diversity. plant involving relationships and connections displays and theme to Plant’ ‘Plants the under is part larger other The circumstances. Indian and Malay Chinese, from plants representing People’ theme, and ‘Plants the under gardens heritage the are arrangement of this Part areas. forested to dense meadows open from ranging domains, horticultural varying defining pathways and of roads comprised further site is overall The MARINA SOUTHSTUDY 1983,BYKENZOTANGE(LEFT)ANDI.M.PEI (RIGHT) 12

91 of the most extraordinary botanical installations in in installations botanical extraordinary most of the doubt one year. without It per is $58 million around for operations and budget 2014. with in built It was visitors million some 6.4 2012, in attracting opened development. Bay of Marina concepts subsequent the shaped which Yew,Kuan model Pei’s adopted government the of Lee behest at the Commissioned incrementally. parcels of land sales the facilitated This District. Business Central existing the with integrated was that model agrid Pei proposed island. a tropical as of Singapore character on the drawing areas, of green by swaths development separated intense of scheme aradial proposed of Singapore vision greening up the site. Tange, South taking Marina of the hectares on 266 for anew downtown designs and layouts to propose Pei commissioned were I.M. expert, especially with regard to orchids. regard with especially expert, Dr. Tan plant eminent Wee an brilliant and Kiat, congenial of the brainchild the world chiefly and the 13 Finally, the Gardens by the Bay was was Bay by the Gardens the Finally,

CHAPTER 5 GARDENS, PARKS AND GREEN RESERVES b.

NATURE RESERVES

As described earlier, during the last third of the with several other reserves at and nineteenth century, following on the heels of some mangrove reserves, especially the Pandan extensive deforestation for agricultural purposes, Forest Reserve. Within reserves, reservoirs were the extent and scope of mature species and forest constructed as noted in order to serve expanding trees came under scrutiny with the McNair population growth. MacRitchie was created in Report of 1879. This was followed in 1884 with 1867, Kallang in 1911, and Sungei in 1922 the creation of the Forestry Department in order with expansions in 1967 and 1969. Generally, to conserve remaining forested assets on the early colonial administration of Singapore had island, totaling, as noted earlier, around eight little land management. Unfortunately, in the percent of Singapore’s total area. The Municipal end, natural reserves of dryland primary forest Catchment Reserve was established in 1900, along amounts to only 0.5 percent of its original area.14

9 3

1

5 1. Nee Soon Swamp Forest 4 2. Bukit Timah 3. 4. Upper Pierce Reservoir 8 5. Lower Pierce Reservoir 2 6. Macritchie Reservoir 7 7. Treetop Walk (suspension bridge) 8. Eco-Link 9. Zoo 6

km 0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4

68.THE CENTRAL CATCHMENT AND THE BUKIT TIMAH NATURE RESERVES

92 69. comprises for instance, area, Reservoir MacRitchie the watching, nature and bird site for hunting, Aprimary Reservoirs. Pierce Lower and Pierce Upper Upper Seletar, MacRitchie, the housing from name its earning catchments, such two one of only major the is Catchment Central The Forest. Swamp Soon Nee the as such forest, swamp freshwater primary rarer the hosts It also island. of the once characteristic was that forest lowland primary of rich species the forests, of dipterocarp to patches home 1971 is by and the Plan Concept ringed area an it is Indeed, of Singapore. centre the in lung green alarge as acting and area in hectares 2800 spanning largest, the is Reserve Nature Catchment Central Reserve. Nature Labrador the and Reserve Wetland Buloh Sungei the Reserve, Nature Timah Bukit the Reserve, Nature Catchment Central the is there reserves nature major four Singapore’s Among THE ECO-LINK @ BUKIT TIMAH EXPRESSWAY TIMAH @BUKIT ECO-LINK THE 15 The The 93 species access to the much smaller habitat of the of the habitat much smaller to the access species animal larger discourages link side of the Catchment Central the across fence mesh Awire bridge. on the planted shrubs and trees with plan in hour-shaped is eco-link The of fauna. species some 500 and plants of flowering or more some species 840 comprise combined reserves two The chances. survival and pool genetic natural their to expand some wildlife allowing reserves, nature adjacent two the between connection ecological to restore aims and Asia Timah. to Bukit Eco-Link@BKE by the Expressway Timah Bukit the across linked is Reserve Nature Catchment Central the days These area. forested of the views high-level tower, unrivaled observation offering and bridge long meter 250 suspension spectacular the also is There boardwalks. and of trails kilometers 20 Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. Nature Timah Bukit 16 This link is the first of its kind in Southeast Southeast in kind of its first the is link This 17

CHAPTER 5 GARDENS, PARKS AND GREEN RESERVES 70. THE TREETOP WALK AND SUSPENSION BRIDGE IN THE CENTRAL CATCHMENT NATURE RESERVE

The Bukit Timah Nature Reserve is located 12 2003, followed by Bukit Timah Nature Reserved kilometers from the centre of urban Singapore and which was declared in 2011. They both became part is a very rich and diverse ecological system.18 It is of the prestigious network of 35 protected areas about 164 hectares in area and the highest point in within the ASEAN member states. Like the Central Singapore at 163.63 meters above sea level. Originally Catchment Nature Reserve, Bukit Timah Nature established in 1883 it is one of the very few areas Reserve plays host to trekking, mountain biking and, of primary rainforest in the country. It has also consequently, falls under Singapore’s rules of trail been a botanical collection area for over 100 years etiquette. and is reputed to have approximately 40 percent of the nation’s flora and fauna.19 1951 saw island-wide The two smaller reserves are the Sungei Buloh enactment of a Nature Reserves Ordinance, along Wetland Reserve at 130 hectares in area and the with establishment of a Nature Reserves Board at ten hectares in area.20 to manage these areas. In 1990 both the Central The Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve is located in Catchment Nature Reserve and the Bukit Timah the northwest of the island and was gazetted as a Nature Reserve were gazetted for propagation, nature reserve in 2002. As mentioned earlier, it is protection, and preservation of Singapore’s flora replete with a rich ecology of plant and animal life. and fauna. This was also reinforced by the Parks The Labrador Nature Reserve, by contrast, is located and Trees Act of 2005. Then, Sungei Buloh Wetland on the southern edge of the island, facing out to sea Reserve was declared an ASEAN Heritage Park in and is part of the built on the edge

94 72. 71. four the Collectively, Park. and Park, Mount Telok Faber Park, Hill comprising Blangah of Singapore area interesting a topographically is Ridges Southern The reserve. anature as 2002 in gazetted also It was views. picturesque and vegetation cliff-side with forest of asecondary THE SUNGEIBULOHWETLANDRESERVE LABRADOR NATURERESERVE 95 and aesthetic. and of landscape kind to this refers it generally used is Nature’ in metaphor of a‘City the When fauna. and of flora species diverse numerous and most the with along Singapore, in landscape vegetated natural of up most the make reserves nature

CHAPTER 5 GARDENS, PARKS AND GREEN RESERVES c. THE ACTIVE, BEAUTIFUL, CLEAN WATERS PROGRAMME

The Active, Beautiful, Clean Waters (ABC Waters) 2017, over 36 projects have been completed by PUB as Program was implemented in 2006 as a part of well as another 62 projects by other public agencies Singapore’s storm-water management strategy and and by developers. The accompanying map shows the reflects the nation’s move towards ‘blue-green’ location of many of the projects. First initiated by the sensitive urbanization through the adoption of a Water-bodies Design Panel led by the URA in 1989, low-impact development ideology and practices.21 and later formalised by PUB, the blue plan has been In this manner the ABC Waters Programme seeks eventually incorporated into Singapore’s Masterplan, to transform the utilitarian drains, canals and forming an environmental overlay called the Parks reservoirs, which have served the island from and Waterbodies Plan. The Parks and Waterbodies colonial days onwards into beautiful and clean Plan features a pervasive network of parks, open waterscapes which are seamlessly integrated spaces, water bodies and connectors among them. into adjacent developments and provide a host of With approximately two-thirds of Singapore’s recreational activities. Part of the PUB Singapore’s surface area designated as water catchment, it is National Water Agency’s larger strategy is also to important to ensure that runoff draining into its bring people close to the water so that they can canals and reservoirs is well managed with regard better appreciate it. The city’s blue map comprises to quantity and quality. On the other hand, besides seventeen reservoirs, 32 major rivers and more water catchment and conservation per se. The PUB’s than 8,000 kilometers of canals and drains. Over ABC Waters Programme is a strong component of 100 locations have been identified for ABC Waters their effort to have Singaporeans take ownership and projects to be implemented in phases by 2030. By become stewards of the nation’s water resources.

Phase 1 Projects Long Term Projects

km 0 2.5 5 10

73. MAP OF THE ABC WATERS PROGRAMME PROJECTS

96 74. and canals, of parks, array traditional the involves of storm-water. component pathway origin The at the starts whereby treatment storm-water management, to approach of asource-pathway-receptor use the is domain conceptual second The scarcity. of this out of 140th 170 one account in ranked nations and scarce, water being as classified be would Singapore attitude this Absent resource. of aprecious something as regarded also is water book, this throughout Moreover, stated as undertaking. anon-trivial is storm-water management and year, per rainfall days 178 like rain something and annum per of rainfall mm 2,400 2010 around 2011. and with Singapore In in occurred that those as such adequately floods flash accommodating includes also This environment. sustainable and amore to livable provide and landscape urban the with waterways to integrate is aim the doing so In processes. hydrologic to natural returning and landscapes multi-functional creating methods, simple using storm-water origin, atits of catching ideas by adopting pollutants water to remove site storm- and urban to an regime flow pre-development the to return is principle underlying low-impact development approaches. using of storm-water runoff treatment the is first The domains. broad conceptual three embraces to storm-water approach management Programme’s Waters PUB’s ABC the More technically, KALLANG RIVERATBISHAN-ANG MOKIOPARK 22 There, the the There, 97 results and other forms of technical data. It covers, data. of technical forms other and results about best management performance practices, local documentation 2011, extensive provides for instance, and 2009 in Waters Features’, published ABC Design for Procedures ‘Engineering Board’s the Framework’, Design ‘Water Urban Sensitive Australian on the heavily Drawing pollution. water to reduce need the about public the to educate and improve quality water (C) component Clean to is the and spaces, pleasing aesthetically and for is vibrant (B) part Beautiful The bodies. water around spaces new community involves (A) aspect Active the Waters ABC the Programme For Waters ABC of the Programme. implementation the is domain final and third The expectations. network drainage general exceed that events rainfall with to cope is aim the where outflows and basins of flood comprised are receptors and ditches, drainage regard to the’ Clean’ component. Clean’ to the’ regard with clearly components, but less ‘Beautiful’ and ‘Active’ to the regard Waters with ABC Programme, the in of low-impact development use practices for the praise high gave evaluation and account one summary Indeed, selection. plant and media location, sizing, with concerned practices of such aspects various with deals It also systems. infiltration and wetlands, constructed gardens, rain and bio-retention basins bio-retention swales, swales, basins, sedimentation are: They of practices. kinds six atleast for example,

CHAPTER 5 GARDENS, PARKS AND GREEN RESERVES Among completed projects, several stand out for their relative success or demonstration of the range of undertakings within the ABC Waters Programme. One of the largest and most ambitious was the Project, which converted a concrete, structural storm-water conveyance into a scenic river by essentially making room for the river and use of low-impact development practices. Within this scheme of the Kallang channel, the Bishan- Park deserves particular attention and comment.23 Carried out by the Atelier Dreisetl, the Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park is one of the most popular parks in the heartland of Singapore. It occupies a 62 hectare site that once incorporated concrete- lined Kallang channel, running beside the Bishan Township. Remodeling of the landscape involved converting the 2.7 kilometer long straight channel into a 3.2 kilometer long sinuous river, with natural characteristics and planting, meandering through the overall space with fluctuating water levels and ample spaces and facilities for park users. These include three playgrounds, restaurants and a new vantage point constructed from the material of the 75. ALEXANDRA CANAL old channel. Ecological treatment of the water’s edge and inclusion of appropriate planting also help Improvement has also been made to the venerable to cleanse the storm-water. The return of wildlife MacRitchie Reservoir within the Central Catchment and birdlife to the park also adds to its success. One area of Singapore. Primarily these improvements disappointment might be found in the planting arising from the ABC Waters Programme have scheme which does not resonate as much as it might focused on the visitor experience and use of the with tropical vegetation and general milieu. Another reservoir. An amenity centre and structured car prominent project, also concerned with channel park have been added, along with floating pontoons drainage is the Alexandra Canal, a 1.2 kilometer for kayakers. There is also now a food and beverage stretch through a dense urban area. Transformed in outlet, prominently located on one of the hills, 2011, with CH2M Hill as the consultant, the canal as well as a submerged boardwalk along which now has softened banks, with a stretch decked over visitors can experience walking in and on water. to create an interesting cascade and water play area.24 Allowance of visitors and recreational uses within Located in conjunction with the deck are a series of the reservoir preserve itself is a break with the past wetlands that engage in public learning regarding and a testament to the viability of Singapore’s closed water cleansing and bio-remediation. loop and treatment of its water system. A relatively

98 76. between of co-ordination a lack as well as ideas, more even unconventional to try of afear something and of zone practice acomfort within mindset in rigidity acertain include These management. and operations of its critical projects, Waters Programme ABC of the context the in emerged have issues Some new development. of this parks and places sports clubs, the among and between connection a seamless provides also wetland The ecosystems. wetland about learn and observe can they that so water to the close people brings Aboardwalk fish. and for birds habitat natural agood provides and to improve quality water helps wetland floating The centre. town its through site the traverses that ‘My Waterway atPunggol’ the is at feature Aprimary installation. Wetland Floating its particularly and Reservoir Punggol the is of area water new reservoir MACRITCHIE RESERVOIR 99 consideration and adoption by others. adoption and consideration careful merits Waters ABC of the Programme success the in public the with experience Singapore’s settings. semi-topical and tropical other in to followers a boon be can development guidelines of low-impact extensiveness and clarity the Third, by or topography urbanization. in hemmed are which areas urban tropical to other appropriate and adaptable be also may that to use, features impact low- suitable most the are gardens rain and systems bio-retention Second, climate. in to similarities due started first low-impact development practices where areas temperate from taken guidelines than applicable and more adaptable are Waters Guidelines ABC current the First, reasons. for several feasible seems regions semi-tropical and tropical in locales projects. and agencies 25 Transferability to other to other Transferability 26 Finally, Finally,

CHAPTER 5 GARDENS, PARKS AND GREEN RESERVES 77. NATURE WAY ALONG DRIVE 3

d.

PARK AND OTHER CONNECTORS

In 2002 Singapore launched its ‘Streetscape a local identity from nearby circumstances or those Greenery Masterplan’, emphasizing greater variety on hand. In addition Singapore’s heritage in trees and improved scenic quality as well as identity and landscapes were also safeguarded as a part of the for roadway landscapes.27 In all there were five program, with heritage trees woven into the street specific landscape treatments. They were: parkway landscapes. In fact, heritage trees became landmarked treatments, gateway treatments, coastal treatments, in 2001. Earlier on Singapore’s ‘Park Connector forest treatments, and rural treatments. These were Network’ started on the heels of the ‘Park Linkage guided, in turn, by four design principles. They Program’ of 1989. This Program aimed to use canals were: connectivity and convenience, luxuriousness and open spaces of residential estates to link major of landscaping, landscapes enriched with elements of parks like, for instance, the five kilometer-long nature, and emphasis on quality, variety and creating Kallang River park connector. Then in 1991 the ‘Park

100 78. of reserves; road double use included: These ways. several in value created and space open public optimized network connector park the Materially, 1991 for the Singapore. in Plan Concept incorporated also was idea connector park The involved. agencies across appropriately coordinated was implementation and policies City Garden Development to ensure of National Ministry the 1960s within late the since place in been had that Committee Action City Garden venerable approved by the was Program’ Connector 1903 and 1932 to transport rubber and tin from from tin and 1903 rubber 1932 and to transport between constructed (KTM) originally was Melayu Tanah by Keretapi operated was which railway The to . Singapore connecting line railway former over the developed to be Corridor’ ‘Rail the is projects connector green prominent most ofOne the Northern Explorer Loop Explorer Northern Eastern Coastal Loop Loop Urban Central THE GREENPARKWAYCORRIDORPLAN Western Adventure Loop Adventure Western Loop Ridges Southern Loop Riverine Eastern North 101 eventual 350, or so, kilometers. eventual to way an on the completed, been had connectors of park 103 kilometers end of fully 2009, By the 2002. of Parks National and Development Authority Urban Waterbodies of the and Plan’ ‘Parks the for instance, in, communicated concept, aGarden’ in of a‘City to creation integral became connectors park Quickly Park. Bishan like separators, and corridors green and parks linear of wider use the and pathways; landscaped into conversion of drains drains; covered the centre of Singapore Island. In re-purposing re-purposing In Island. of Singapore centre the through running abarrier was corridor railway the Government. Singapore the to back reverted lands railway the and operations ceased 2011 1July On railway Singapore. the in port the through for export Peninsula Malay the 0 29 1.5 For most of its life For life of most its 28 3 6 9 12 km

CHAPTER 5 GARDENS, PARKS AND GREEN RESERVES it as a green corridor it was now to be seen as a Redevelopment Authority placed emphasis connector and much more of an inclusive and on co-visioning and co-creating the future of shared space, as well as a platform for community the Rail Corridor with the public. As far as development and shared experience. In fact, within precedents, the corridor draws inspiration from a one kilometer reach to either side of the corridor the Promenade Plantée in Paris, constructed in some one million Singaporean inhabitants reside, the 1980s and 90s, as well as the Highline in New along with a plethora of community facilities, York City as former railway lines that have been parks and heritage sites, some 58 schools as well as re-purposed into well-loved public spaces. History various places of work nearby. Recently, in 2016, and conservation of the memory of the rail line a concept masterplan for the 24 kilometers Rail will also be incorporated, especially with regard Corridor was awarded to a design team led by to the re-purposing of the railway stations at Nikken Sekkei following the launch of a Request Bukit Timah and into community for Proposal (RFP) internationally. A separate team buildings. Also other remaining artifacts, like led by MKPL and Turenscape won the award for the cast-iron bridges, will also be conserved and re-purposing the former Tanjong Pagar Railway protected during the project. To be eventually Station, the memorable art deco terminus built in developed in segments, the project has a total 1932, into a multi-purpose community building. area of about 100 hectares over a length of about The Tanjong Pagar Railway Station is now a 24km, which is substantial for a connector and National Monument.30 Prior to the RFP, an ideas community space.31 The Rail Corridor when competition called the “Journey of Possibilities” completed will be connected to the network of was held to engage members of the general public, island-wide park connectors and the round-island students and professionals that resulted in many route, hence ensuring that this centrally located other wonderfully provocative ideas. Throughout Rail Corridor will be easily accessible from all the period of community engagement, the Urban corners of the island.

79. THE RAILWAY CORRIDOR PROJECT

102 80A. perspective From on. so asocial and reduction, energy-use quality, air improved comfort, thermal emissions, gas of greenhouse reduction include: ecosystem urban to the by greenery provided services and benefits potential The more and, spaces recently, architecture. green green of urban preservation tree-planting, promoting policies adopted have governments city Many measure. mitigation and adaption an as popularity gained recently has greenery Urban e. SUNDALAND Sundaland CONSIDERATIONS THEMES ANDMANAGEMENT Malaysia Singapore 0 Indonesia 180 103 Java 360 contributions and services, as well as an appraisal appraisal an as well as services, and contributions activities, of these a summary is follows What studies. ecosystem sundry development, alongside and installation building green management, and modeling tree sequestration, carbon biodiversity, include: They programs. greening state’s island the to regard with arise themes several of Singapore, case the In benefits. psychological and recreational of arange and promotes health greenery of Singapore’s relative performance. relative of Singapore’s Brunei 720 Borneo 1080 1440 km

CHAPTER 5 GARDENS, PARKS AND GREEN RESERVES Species % Endemism

Mammals from 328 to 115

Birds from 815 to 139

Reptiles from 431 to 268

Amphibians from 226 to 179

Plants from 25,000 to 15,000

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

80B.ENDEMISM WITHIN SUNDALAND

Tropical ecosystems are exceptionally rich and social, scientific and logistical elements. Social exclusive reservoirs of much of the earth’s aspects are population growth, poverty, shortages of biodiversity and Singapore is no exception, except conservation resources and corruption.33 Scientific for the historically high rate of deforestation that elements are neglect of research, low levels of occurred from 1819, as described earlier. Of 25 research and publication of results, and logistical hotspots of biodiversity in the world, four are in elements encompass the diversity of habitat types and Southeast Asia, although like Singapore, the region numbers and scope of protected areas. could lose as much as 75 percent of its original forests by 2100 and 42 percent of its biodiversity.32 These With regard specifically to Singapore, the first four hotspots have been produced over time by the reliable species records date from the 1870s, from conversion of mountains into islands, producing which inferences of the possible pristine species ideal condition for speciation and with the migration composition in 1819 have been made. From this of biota from the mainland of Asia to the archipelago. exercise extinction rates were variable across Of the hotspots Singapore is part of Sundaland, taxonomic groups, with the overall loss of species otherwise comprised of a lower part of the Malaysian diversity of around 28 percent, or 881 of 3,196 of Peninsular, Sumatra, Java and Borneo. As elsewhere, recorded species.34 This did not include species the rate of extinction is fixed to the endism of that were extinct prior to the 1870s records. In the hotspot or to its specific location and place. particular, extinction of well-listed taxa was high, Recent study showed that endemism in Sundaland at from 34 to 43 percent for butterflies, freshwater was around 35 percent for mammals, eighteen fish, birds and mammals. Based on these inferences percent for birds, 61 percent for reptiles, 80 percent of biodiversity loss in Singapore, losses in Malaysia, for amphibians and 60 percent for plants. These also part of Sundaland, could be as high as 73 percent numbers are comparable to the other three Southeast with 60 percent of habitat. Differing magnitudes of Asian hotspots and indicate the precariousness of extinction were due to what researchers described the resource. Threats to biodiversity, as described as “complex generational scaling effects on long- here, are largely anthropogenic and made up of forest term population persistence”. In other words, larger conversion, forest fires, hunting for bush meat and organisms have more habitat to support viable wildlife trade. Conservation challenges include: populations, but live longer. Most extinctions

104 82. ECOSYSTEM CARBON STORAGE (TONNES HA-1) 81. PERCENTAGE OF SPECIES EXTINCT IN TAXON Large involved. also was collecting and hunting However, effects. edge exclusionary dispersal as well as loss, thicket erosion and soil predation, increasing sites, feeding and breeding by wrecking extinction caused modification and fragmentation loss, Habitat development. by urban followed initially, destruction habitat large-scale rapid and were extinctions of Singapore’s cause predominant The habitats. open-forest or edge tolerated preferred that species for percent those to seven compared of extinction, 33 rates percent with habitats, forest to related biota among occurred to have appear 1000 1200 SPECIES EXTINCTIONBYTAXONOMICGROUPS CARBON SEQUESTRATION BYFORESTTYPE 200 600 800 400 100 20 60 80 40 0 0 PLA Boreal DEC PHA Temperate BUT FIS Tropical AMP 105 resources must be protected. and pools existing all short, In criteria. listing regional on World Union based Conservation threatened, be to continue species island’s of the percent 77 Fully to some experts. according biodiversity, surviving for Singapore’s look bleak prospects future fact, In fauna. on forest effect adetrimental probably had II World during War preserves of natural shelling the Also life. 125 of human losses with animals, some 99 1930, shot in of was tiger of atotal last the earlier noted As livestock. and life to human menaces as Tiger, hunted were Malaysian the like vertebrates, REP Mangroves BIR MAM MAM Mammals BIR Birds REP Reptiles AMP Amphibians FIS Fish BUT Butterflies Decapod Crustaceans PHA Phasmids DEC PLA Plants Inferred Recorded Belowground Carbon Storage Carbon Belowground Storage Carbon Aboveground

CHAPTER 5 GARDENS, PARKS AND GREEN RESERVES To date there is little empirical evidence showing time scales carbon storage will depend on the the effectiveness of urban vegetation to reduce amount of urban expansion, greenery management greenhouse gas emissions or concentrations of and carbon allocation to biomass and organic airborne pollutants.35 This includes evidence material. Each year biomass is transferred to the soil demonstrating the direct removal of carbon and removed from the urban ecosystem through dioxide from the atmosphere by urban vegetation. pruning and debris collection. In Singapore, There are a number of reasons for this, but a although large trees account for 36.8 percent of all complete assessment of the contribution to carbon trees they contain 95.3 percent of the biomass and, sequestration by urban greenery needs to consider therefore, carbon. When taking vegetation and soil both the carbon accumulated by trees and by the together the biogenic component was found to add soil respiration. In other words, contributions 4.4 percent extra carbon dioxide in the Telok Korau from above ground vegetation and underground neighborhood of Singapore. Mangrove forests, soil processes. Many studies show, for instance, however, also to be found in Singapore perform far that recently disturbed ecosystems tend to lose better overall. In fact, the below-grade soil and dead carbon, unlike old-growth forests that usually root pools, which increase in size with age have a act as carbon sinks. To date more studies have very high carbon to mass ratio, relatively speaking. been made of these phenomena in temperate climatic circumstances, but far fewer in tropical Part of NParks’ conservation strategies is an and semi-tropical climes, such as Singapore’s extensive program of tree monitoring and research. tropical rainforest climate. There trees are usually Central to NParks’ tree management program is a evergreen and, therefore, potential for carbon tree registry system, where trees are individually dioxide assimilation is larger than in boreal and geocoded, tracked and managed. The tree registry temperate forests. A recent study was undertaken, system captures information such as tree height, including the Telok Kurau neighborhood of girth and species, which allows finite-element Singapore. There the major anthropogenic structural analyses to be performed remotely to contribution of carbon dioxide came from determine the stability of the trees. The results of vehicular traffic, followed by human metabolic the analyses are used to guide pruning decisions to respiration, especially given population pressures strengthen the resilience of the trees against strong and density. Data from tests suggested that above winds.36 Finite-element models are more usually ground vegetation sequestered 7.8 percent of used to make computer simulations of buildings the total emitted carbon dioxide. This occurred and other structures. Few, if any other cities, have mainly by photosynthesis. However, the soil or deployed such techniques in order to protect the below-ground efflux from the perennially warm security of people and property around trees, as well and humid soil cancelled out much of the possible as to guide pruning and trimming activities along carbon uptake, making the biogenic component with general plant management. In addition, all a net emission source. In other words, carbon Singapore’s trees managed by NParks are subject to dioxide was recycled into the atmosphere and not regular inspection and pruning, as well as routine sequestered. It was further estimated that a forest maintenance such as fertilizing and mulching. area 30 to 50 times the area of the city state would Indeed, Singapore’s entire ‘green and clean’ be needed to offset the 38,790 Cg of carbon dioxide campaign is supported by this intensity and style of equivalent, or 97 percent of emissions. Over long monitoring, data keeping and research.

106 needs by adding mass and thermal resistance and and resistance thermal and mass by adding needs heating reduced include: These numerous. are systems roof and wall living of green benefits The level. ground up from growing of plants systems well-irrigated also and for plants deeply-rooted depth sufficient allow systems free-standing and systems Wall-mounted concrete. impregnated like materials, wall conventional with incorporated confections, or similar of bio-soil, systems impregnated also are there Then facades. to grow up building plants allow that or frameworks trellises using systems, free-standing also are There or structures. of walls outside to the attached are of vegetation comprised components or similar panels where systems, flyovers. and bridges as such structures, other and on buildings provided be can walls living green which in ways several are there Technically, 70s. 1960s and to the back dates installations roof and wall ‘living’ such in interest fact In landscape. urban of Singapore’s feature prominent arelatively become has walls and roofs ’living’ as walls and of roofs greening The 83. GREEN WALLSFROMTHESINGAPOREINSTITUTEOFTECHNICALEDUCATION 37 Most common are wall mounted mounted wall are common Most 107 communal spaces. Through its ‘Skyrise Greenery Greenery ‘Skyrise its Through spaces. communal as and forms loftier and larger in encouraged been have terraces sky fact In roof-top and gardens. levels mid- terraces, on sky level, at ground landscaping of form the for in development provided site must be of a area to the equivalent area a landscaped Consequently ground. on the loss landscape and greenery up for all to make areas landscaped to provide required are and were areas certain in new developments that meant Policy’ Replacement respectively. 2011 and 2009 in roofs and walls living green to promote advance and URA the and NParks by the efforts policy concerted with space, roof of 2017,As of vegetated hectares 100 had Singapore centigrade. to 5 to degrees from 30 centigrade 10 degrees from to much 60 as as be can reductions Temperature fluctuation pollutants. air to filter capacity acertain and creation habitat of natural occur, alongside also can storm-water runoff holding or Reducing cooling. reduced with reverse the also 38 Introduction of the ‘Landscape ‘Landscape of the Introduction

CHAPTER 5 GARDENS, PARKS AND GREEN RESERVES Incentive Scheme’, NParks agreed to cover 50 percent flowering plants, greening up the side elevations of installation costs. Prominent among living green towards a partially-enclosed sky terrace with a large buildings in Singapore are two hotels by the local mid-level opening and mid-level terrace within the architecture firm of WOHA.39 One is the Parkroyal overall volume of the building. In recent years many on Pickering, on the edge of Chinatown, replete other buildings have incorporated similar living wall with green roofs, wall elements and façade trellises. and roof systems. In addition, considerable effort has The other is the Oasia Hotel Downtown, which is been given to improve the overall resource demand fashioned as a high-rise tower in the form of a trellis and residual production efficiencies of buildings, wrapping of the overall building shell. Elegantly commonly covered in LEED or similar rating shaped this red-painted trellis hosts 21 species of systems.

84.PARKROYAL ON PICKERING HOTEL BY WOHA

108 85. OASIA HOTELBYWOHA 109

CHAPTER 5 GARDENS, PARKS AND GREEN RESERVES f.

TOWARDS A BIOPHILIC OUTCOME

At a certain basic level there are two types of green state in these regards and particularly over the last landscapes in Singapore. The first belongs to its half century. natural systems, catchments, native forests and so on. The second are artificial constructs of parks, Lurking closely behind Singapore’s efforts to connect gardens, streetscapes, canals and skyline terraces. its citizens with nature is that such association is From its inception and particularly during the beneficial and in fundamental ways. In a word, it trend from Singapore as a ‘Garden City’ to a ‘City is about becoming biophilic or certainly verging in a Garden’ and on to a ‘City in Nature’, NParks, towards that condition. Simply put, biophilia the authoritative oversight and driver, has been suggests that humans possess an innate tendency restoring ecosystems into artificial constructs and to seek connections with nature and other forms of ecological processes with regard to the natural life. It is a state of being, popularized by luminaries systems in place. The overall aim is to have like Edward O. Wilson in his book with a similar Singapore functioning as a fully urban ecological name of 1986.40 More succinctly he describes system. Further, part of the aim is to connect and biophilia “as the urge to affiliate with other forms re-connect people with nature and to bring a more of life”. From this it closely follows that ’biophilic profound sense of being with nature into their lives. space’ strengthens and supports social psychological In so doing NParks is highly proactive, constantly capacities of life, spanning acts that unburden searching for and identifying elements of the built cognitive systems and further sensorial experience. environment that can be associated with greenery More prosaically, biophilic undertakings, by creating or all it portends. In fact, Singapore is unique strong connections between nature and man-made among nations in the way it manages greenery. environments has benefits. To date there is evidence This derives from the scope of activities, the variety to suggest that this can include helping to make office of activities, and the technical sophistication and workers more productive, encouraging children to scientific, botanical and other research backing up learn and develop, as well as helping hospital patients its greening efforts. The preceding sections have to get better. There it is very much about natural described these efforts and the almost inexorable light, views of nature, presences of plant life and the trend and even obsession that has gripped the island use of natural materials, textures and patterns.

110 86. DIAGRAM OFTHELANDSCAPEREPLACEMENT POLICY Sky Terrace 111 Planter Boxes Roof Garden First Storey Landscape

CHAPTER 5 GARDENS, PARKS AND GREEN RESERVES endnotes

1. Soderstorm, M. 2001. Recreating Eden: A Natural History of 17. As observed on a field trip to the Eco-Link and Bukit Timah Botanical Gardens (London: Vehicule Press) and Hill, Arthur Reserve. W. 1915. “The History and Functions of Botanic Gardens”. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden,pp. 185-240. 18. National Parks.2017. Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (Singapore: NParks) online bulletin. 2. Holttum, R.E. 1970. “The Historical Significance of Botanic Gardens in Southeast Asia”. Taxon, vol 19, no 5, pp.707-714. 19. Conversation with Ms Sharon Chan, Director of Central Reserves at the , February 2017. 3. Paragraph based partially on Taylor, Nigel P. 2014 “The Environmental Relevance of Singapore” in Timothy P. 20. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Nature_reserves_ Barnard. Ed. Nature Contained: Environmental Histories of in_singapore and Lim, Shirley S.L.; Peter k. l. Ng and Leo Singapore (Singapore: NUS Press), p.117, p.118 and p.119. W. H. Tan et al. 1994. Rhythm of the Sea: The Life and Times of Labrador Beach (Singapore: Division of Biology: National 4. Taylor, p.123 and Kiew, Ruth. 2001, Singapore Botanic University of Singapore). Gardens (Singapore: Landmark). 21. Lim, H. S. and X. X. Lu. 2016. “Sustainable urban storm 5. Taylor, p.18. water management in the tropics: an evaluation of Singapore’s ABC Water Program”. Journal of Hydrology, 538, 6. Based on observation and presentation during a field trip p. 842. to the Singapore Botanic Gardens on Feb 11, 2017. Also, see Yam, T.W. 1995.Orchids of the Singaporean Botanic Gardens 22. Paragraph based partially on Lim and Lu p. 843, p.844, (Singapore: Singapore Botanic Gardens). p.845, and p.846.

7. Taylor, p.130. 23. PUB. 2014. Active Beautiful Clean Waters Design Guidelines (Singapore: Public Utilities Board), p.88 8. As described on a field trip to the herbarium of the Singapore Botanic Gardens on Feb 11, 2017 24. PUB, n.d. Alexandra Canal.

9. Interview with Dr. Tan Wee Kiat, CEO, Gardens by the Bay, 25. Based on an interview with Mr. Tobias Baur, Managing Singapore on 15 February 2017. Director, Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl Singapore on 10 February 2017. 10. www.gardensbythebay.com.sg and Spens, Michael. 2007. “Deep Explorations into Site/Non-site: The Work of 26. Lim and Lu, p. 859. Gustafson Porter.” Architectural Design, 77:2, p.66-75. 27. Boon Siong, Neo; June Gwee and Cindy Mak. 2012. “Case 11. “Gardens by the Bay”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Study 1: Growing a City in a Garden” in June Gwee. ed. Case Gardens_by_the_Bay and Reddy, Mohan. 2013. “Bay South Studies in Public Governance: Building Institutions in Singapore Garden”. ICC Plan Review Service, August 18. (New York: Routledge), pp.11-63, and Boon Siong, Neo. 2009. A City in a Garden – Developing Gardens (Singapore: 12. Tan Wee Kiat, interview, 15 February 2017. Centre for Governance and Leadership, Civil Service College), p.25. 13. “Plans for the next century”. Straits Times. April 27, 1987, p.2 and Justin Zhuang. 2016. “Marina Bay”. Singapore Infopedia. 28. Boon Siong, p.21. (Singapore: National Library Board). 29. Based on an interview with Mr. Tan See Nin, Senior 14. Paragraph based in part on Barnard, T.P., 2014 Director, URA, on 16 August, 2017.

15. National Parks. 2017. Parks and Nature Reserves (Singapore: 30. Tan, power point presentation. NParks). 31. Tan, power point presentation. 16. Based on a field trip to the Eco-Link on Feb 10, 2017 32. Sodhi, Navjot S.; Lian Koh; Barry W. Brook and Peter K.

112 40. 39. 38. 37. 36. 35. 34. 33.

from the copyright holder. copyright the from directly permission obtain to need will you use, permitted the exceeds or regulation statutory by permitted not is use intended your and license Commons Creative chapter’s the in included not is material If material. the to line acredit in otherwise indicated unless license, Commons Creative chapter’s the in included are chapter this in material party third other or images The made. were changes if indicate and license Commons Creative the to alink provide source, the and author(s) original the to credit appropriate give you as long as format, or medium any in reproduction and distribution adaptation, sharing, creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, (http:// License International 4.0 Attribution Commons Creative the of terms the under licensed is chapter This Access Open University Press).Harvard 1986, O. Wilson. Edward WOHA: Architecture Breathing Peter. 2012. Schmal, Cachola and Michaela Busenkell, interview. Chiew, and Er York: New Newsletter). (Rochester, 2017. International. Technologies Greenliving For example, 2017. February 10 on NEA CEO, Deputy Chiew, Chee Dr. Leong and Er, NParks CEO, Mr. Kenneth with interview an on Based Planning enhance carbon sequestration? vegetation 2016. “Does T. Molina. Luisa and Norford Leslie Roth; Matthais Erik; Velasco, on partially based Paragraph 422. p. Singapore” in deforestation follow extinctions “Catastrophic Ng.2003. L. K. Peter and Sodhi W.; S. Navjot Barry Brook, on partially based Paragraph p.568. Sodhi, disaster. impending an Biodiversity: Asian “Southeast 2004. Ng. L. Green Living Roofs, Green Living Walls, Vertical Farms Walls, Living Vertical Green Roofs, Living Green , vol 148,, vol p.99, p.110, p.111 p.105. and Trends in Biology and Evolution and Trends Biology in Biophilia (Munich: Prestel). (Munich: Landscape andUrban Landscape (Cambridge, Mass: Mass: (Cambridge, Nature , vol 19,, vol p.645. 12, no , vol 424, p.420 and and p.420 424, , vol , 113

CHAPTER 5 GARDENS, PARKS AND GREEN RESERVES