A COMPLETE IDENTITY: THE IMAGE OF THE HERO IN THE WORK OF G. A. HENTY (1832–1902) AND GEORGE MACDONALD (1824–1905) RACHEL E. JOHNSON A thesis submitted in part fulfilment of the University’s requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy JULY 2008 Coventry University in association with The University of Worcester “I declare that the work in this thesis is my own, except where otherwise stated. It has not been previously submitted to any other university, in total or in part, for the award of a degree.” ii Abstract This study is an examination of the hero image in the work of G.A. Henty (1832-1902) and George MacDonald (1824-1905) and a reassessment of the hitherto oppositional critiques of their writing. The argument driving the reassessment is that their writing is not oppositional but is complementary and that the ideology embedded in their work is communicated through the character of the hero through genre and through their interpretation of their historical period. The central hypothesis is that the reflexive characteristics of the hero image demonstrate a complete identity commensurate with the hero figure of the Victorian ideal. This hypothesis is demonstrated through the analysis of chosen texts from the work of Henty and MacDonald categorised by critics as written for children and by the application of ethical, genre and new historic theory. The relationship between the expansion of the British Empire and youthful heroism is established through investigation of the Victorian political, social and religious milieu, the construct of the child and the construct of the hero. The connection between the exotic geographical space of empire and the unknown psychological space is conducted through examination of the representation of the ‘other' in the work of Henty and MacDonald. The study demonstrates that Henty’s work is more complex than the stereotypically linear, masculine, imperialistic critique of his stories as historical realism allows and that MacDonald’s work displays more evidence of historical embedding and ideological interpellation than the critical focus on his work as fantasy and fairy tale considers. The contribution of this study to existing research on Henty and MacDonald is firstly by an examination of the ideology embedded in the construct of the hero figure as this construct impacted Victorian culture and secondly by reassessing the existing criticism of their work. Greater understanding of the effect of this heroic ideal on nineteenth century society leads to a greater understanding of the implications for subsequent cultures including that of the twenty first century. This aspect is examined in relation to the current reprinting programmes for Henty and MacDonald and is proposed as a subject for continued research. iii Acknowledgements I would like to make not only an acknowledgement but a dedication of this study to my father, Rev. A.B.E. Brown, whose longstanding interest in G. A. Henty has met my interest in George MacDonald in this study. His knowledge of Henty and his enthusiasm for the work has been unwavering. Terry, my husband, has selflessly allowed the study to absorb most of my time outside of work for the last five years which surely qualifies him as the compassionate fairy tale hero. My thanks for his support are infinite. Central to the completion of the study has been the presence of Professor Jean Webb, my Director of Studies. Her confidence in my work, her expert, experienced direction and her everlasting supply of hot chocolate has been a constant encouragement. Thanks Jean. In addition I would like to thank my external supervisors Professor Maria Nikolajeva and Professor Rod McGillis who returned my work promptly and with copious helpful comments and suggestions. My thanks also to other members of the supervisory panel and to members of the Henty Society particularly Ann King and Dennis Butts who were always prepared to share their knowledge with me. I would also like to thank Anne Hannaford (Director of Information and Learning Services at The University of Worcester) Sarah Kennedy and Ann Craig (my line managers), whose interest always amazed me, and other colleagues and friends; notably Catherine and Su who procured inter-library loans with marvellous rapidity, and John and Andy who cheerfully retrieved volumes from the store without complaint. Lastly, thanks to Nat and Mary-Ann, my son and daughter-in-law who were always prepared to discuss ideas or help with computer difficulties despite their own workloads. iv Contents Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv List of illustrations viii Note on Referencing System viii Introduction 1 Chapter 1 Methodology and Theoretical Perspectives 3 Ethical Criticism 3 Genre Theory 4 Historicism and New Historicism 6 Choice of Primary Texts 8 G. A. Henty 8 George MacDonald 11 Chapter 2 Historical Context 13 The General Historical Context: an Overview 14 The Growth of Industrial Society 14 Doubt and the Need for a Hero Figure 15 English Imperialist Expansion: Reliance on Youth 17 Global Opportunities Open to the Young 19 ‘An Age of Contradiction’: the Self-Made Hero 23 Concepts Emanating from the period 1880–1900 Which Influenced Domestic and Foreign Policy and Impacted upon the Work of Henty and MacDonald 26 G.A. Henty 1832 -1850: Influences that Shaped his Thinking 32 G.A. Henty 1850 – 1880: War Correspondent, Novelist and Writer for Boys 35 G.A. Henty 1880 – 1900: The Stories, Content and Character 38 George MacDonald 1824 -1860: Intellectual Development 40 v George MacDonald 1860 – 1900: the Magic Mirror 47 Chapter 3 Genre, Form and Ideology 53 The Real and the Imagined in the Work of G.A. Henty 57 The Imagined and the Real in the Work of George MacDonald 72 The Place of the Hero in Relation to the Investigation of Genre and Form 91 Chapter 4 Child and Hero: The Construct of the Child 1850 – 1900 93 Introduction 93 The Innocent Child: a Link to the Youthful Hero 96 Innate Wickedness: Gendered Expectations and the Need for Education 101 ‘The Little Savage’: Boys and Primitivism, the Need for Civilization 103 The Childlike: Innocence and Experience 106 The Childlike ‘Other’: Ruled and Ruler 111 The Child as Victim: Hero as Protector 119 The Redemptive Child: the Hero who Saves 122 Chapter 5 The Construct of the Hero 1850 – 1900 127 The Hero Figure as Exemplar in G.A. Henty and George MacDonald 131 Influences on the 19th Century Construct of the Hero 138 The Classical Hero 139 The Active Hero 143 The Adventure Hero 153 The Flawed Hero 155 The Gendered Hero 159 The Fairy Tale Hero 173 vi Chapter 6 The Ideology of the Hero and Representation of ‘the Other’ 176 The Importance of Being English 176 Henty, Imperialistic Representation and Heroic Characteristics 186 The Occupied 192 The Colonised 194 MacDonald and Imperialistic Representation 200 ‘Us’ turning into the ‘Other’ 204 The ‘Other’ as ‘Us’ 209 Chapter 7 Conclusion 212 References 219 vii Illustrations Lina guards the crown 69 Sam Dickson finds little Willie Gale 114 George MacDonald’s bookplate 140 ‘I wish I had been a boy instead of a girl,’ 162 Charlie encounters Ben Soloman in the wood 190 G. A. Henty and George MacDonald 218 Note on Referencing System The referencing system used is MLA as standardised in Endnote Bibliographic Software. Thus if an author is named before a quotation, he or she is not included in the reference to page number. If a quoted author has written more than one work, the title of the work referred to is included in the reference. The date of a work is not included in the in-text reference. Full bibliographical details appear in the references at the end of the study. Single quotation marks are used in quotations of less than two lines. Double quotation marks are only used where they appear in the text quoted to indicate direct speech. viii Introduction As an investigation into the construct of the hero in the work of G. A. Henty (1832 – 1902) and George MacDonald (1824 – 1905), this study raises questions about the accepted critical position which views the work of these writers as oppositional. Henty and MacDonald were nineteenth century authors who wrote for both children and adults. It is as writers for children that they are examined in this study. I aim to investigate the construct of the hero in their work within the context of the social, political and religious conditions of the second half of the nineteenth century (1850 – 1900) and thereby to re-evaluate the currently oppositional critical view. I start from a position of accepting the stated objective of both Henty and MacDonald that their intention is to educate the reader. Henty began the majority of his stories for boys with a short preface in which he stated his intention ‘to mix instruction with amusement,’ specifying which part of the story was ‘historical fact’ and which part fiction (Young Buglers Preface). As stated by his son Greville, George MacDonald’s ‘message was all in his books’ (George MacDonald and His Wife 2), but his ‘message’ is neither so clearly defined nor so explicit as is Henty’s. MacDonald’s essay on the Fantastic Imagination (G. MacDonald, "The Fantastic Imagination") and his recorded response to a direct question as to the meaning of his work, You may make of it what you like. If you see anything in it, take it and I am glad you have it; but I wrote it for the tale (G. MacDonald, George MacDonald and His Wife 318), suggest a less didactic intention. However, his emphasis on the spiritual development of his protagonists indicates an implicit moral intent. The particularity of the writing of these authors lies in the construction of an essential hero, whose attributes, if combined, exemplify both the physical and the spiritual ideal in one identity.