Sci. Journal of Oct. 6Uni. (SJO6U), ISSN: 2314-8640: Vol. 1(1): 148-165, 2014 sjou.journals.ekb.eg

A Quest for Reviving the Past: Lines in English and Terminology

Gehan M. Anwar

Department of English, October 6 University

Received: 12-01-2014 Accepted: 10-02-2014 Published: 01-03-2014 *Corresponding author: E. mail: [email protected]

Abstract By the late 1200s, medieval Europeans began to stir out of their long Dark-Age-sleep to become captivated by the scientific contributions of the Islamic civilization, the vital raw material on which the Western Renaissance built its structure. Arabic, the 'lingua franca' of the Medieval time, was the medium through which versions of Greek scientific and philosophical knowledge were recovered, translated, supplemented and transmitted to the Western World. was the biggest beneficiary of this knowledge as one of the first that was given interest in writings. Some hundred years later, Latin Europe benefited from these . Once the Spanish city of Toledo was conquered by the , the Greco-Arab manuscripts were translated into Latin, the language of the learned in medieval Europe. As a result, a new method of translation was adopted, and Arabic medical terms found their way into western medicine, and chemistry. This paper places emphasis on discussing the gradual emergence of Arabic influence in both language and translation within medieval Europe and Middle English. The Arabic role in the multilingual context and the process of the dissemination of Arab sciences in several centres in Europe are discussed. In addition, it presents a brief overview of how such contribution has left traces in modern and today‘s medical English and the medical terms commonly derived from Arabic roots. Finally, this study is not to claim that Arabic is superior to other languages, but to focus on the role of the Arabic Language and translation in the Medieval Western medicine.

Key Words: Middle Ages, Arabic, translation, medical terms, Muslim Physicians and translators.

Introduction A millennium before English was termed as the eleventh century, Arabic was the scientific, the international language of in the latter half progressive language of mankind"(1). of the 20th century, the Arabic language had In his bestselling novel The Walking Drum, a contributed to the language of science and unified historical fiction set in the 12th century Europe and scholars across the from Asia, the American author Louis L'Amour (1984), Samarkand to Cordoba. Unlike Western notable for his extensive research, describes the "scholars" who have shown a prejudiced attitude, century following the death of the Prophet Muslim scholars' contributions to Europe and their Mohammed in 632 A.D. In the space of one remarkable scientific achievements are hundred years, the Arabs had carried the sword of acknowledged by some famous historians. The from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, most prolific science historian, George Sarton holding at one time most of Spain, part of (1975) admits in his encyclopedic treasure, southern France, the isle of Sicily, all of North Introduction to the , that "From Africa and Egypt, all of Arabia, the Holy Land, the second half of the eighth to the end of the Armenia, Persia, Afghanistan, and almost a third of India. The empire of the Arabs was larger than

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that of Alexander the Great or of Rome. Under the business in Arabic. The need for a wider scientific flush of greatness for more than five hundred knowledge led to the translation of theological, years the Arabs carried the torch of civilization philosophical, astronomic, mathematic, (2). The Arabic rule expansion, together with the agricultural and, above all, medical texts from commercial and scientific exchanges, led to the Greek, Latin, ancient Egyptian, Chinese (6) origin of the work of translation. The introduction Syriac (a pre-Islamic language of ancient Syria), and use of paper into the Middle East greatly Persian and Indian into Arabic. facilitated the spread of this important Notwithstanding the real translations activity of phenomenon. In this Islamic Empire, science, ancient works into Arabic was conducted and particularly medicine, was deeply linked to the reached its climax in the period of the Abbasid translation phenomenon. Medical translation was dynasty. A privileged and vibrant school for one of the oldest domains of translation as the translation was founded in , the Abbasid sufferings of the body and soul have always given capital and the largest city in the world, namely great interest. According to the medical historians Bayt al-Hikmah "" during the Emilie Savage-Smith and Peter Pormann, in their reign of Caliph Al-Ma‘mun (813-833 A.D). Other book Medieval Islamic Medicine (2007), this regular schools of translations were also Golden Islamic period ―was the highpoint for established. The activity of translators (in Arabic Islamic medicine; it was a time of defining the language terjuman, from which derives the term an interpreter and guide) was so : ترجمان limits and goals of medicine, of writing medical dragoman text books and specialized works, of establishing prospering that a tax on their works was imposed. hospitals where doctors advanced their medical During the Abbasid dynasty, almost all the works science‖ (3). of prominent ancient Greek and Roman The Prophetic dictate to ―seek knowledge as far as physicians were rendered into the Arabic China‖ made knowledge greatly praised by language, mainly by Syriac Christian scholars (7) Muslim researchers who collected and preserved who were fluent both in Greek and in Arabic. As the works of Greek writers, after the demise of the scholars perfected Arabic terminology, works like Western Roman Empire in 476 A.D. They had no Ptolemy's Almagest and Dioscorides' De Materia hesitation in seeking knowledge from anywhere. Medica, and the theories of the Greek physicians Previous to the wider development of the Arabic (8) (460-370 B.C) and (130- language the great body of Arabic tradition was 200 C.E) were translated, developed and used handed down by ―reciters‖ and it was in order to numerous times by all the doctors and scholars of preserve this tradition that the cultured ‗Abbasid the Muslim world. Caliphs of Baghdad encouraged the use of Arabic script, and also the translation into Arabic of all 2. The Process of Translation in the Middle the Greek, Syrian and Indian writings that could Ages: possibly be obtained by conquest, barter, or The main issue in translating a specialized text is purchase (4). that of translation competence. A professional The 7th and 8th centuries encouraged the translator draws on all kinds of knowledge of the translation and study of scholastic works from a domain and subject of the text, and is required to wide range of cultures and Arab traditions within master the source and the target text languages. an Islamic framework. ―It is owing to the According to Ryonhee Kim (2006), a professional [Andalusian] Umayyad Caliphs that the sciences translator exerts great efforts, as exhibited by a were preserved from extinction in Europe‖ (5). variety of strategies and complex cognitive The patronage of caliphs and rich men of science processes, to find the most appropriate translation and culture was very important in the history of equivalents (9). Given the fact that most translation and its promotion. That is why, at the translation work involves more or less specialized beginning of the Umayyad dynasty (661-750), the texts, it is likely that extra-linguistic knowledge, first caliph, Mu‗awiyah Ibn Abi Sufyan decided to rather than linguistic competence itself, plays a move the capital of the dynasty from Kufah to major role in the success of translation. For Damascus. In terms of cultural exchange and example, a professional in the field of science can transmission, the new capital was regarded as a perform a better scientific translation than a landmark for new discoveries in medical science. translator who lacks scientific knowledge, the Its libraries in Damascus were filled with Greek major factor influencing the product (10). scientific texts. The caliph 'Abd al-Malik (reigned The earliest Arab-Muslim efforts were devoted to AD 685-706) decreed that government translating the medical wisdom of Greek institutions, schools and courts must conduct their manuscripts. One of the most prominent

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translators of the 9th century was Abu Zayd How was translation made and terminology Hunayn al-`Ibadi (808-873), later known created? in the West as Joannitius Onan. Hunayn was a In fact, ―Technical terms apparently offered great Nestorian physician who had a skilled philological difficulty to the Western translators; when these method of reconstruction of original Greek texts were encountered they were transliterated in an and had wide knowledge of Greek. He was also Arabic or Hebrew form‖ (14). However, there known of his accuracy and productivity of Islamic were many Greek technical terms which did not medicine. He translated the first Galenic work at have synonyms in the Arabic language. Hunayn the age of 17. Through his contributions, Galen was the first translator to introduce a new method became well known in the Islamic world. Hunayn of translation. This method represents his great was also the author of numerous original works, innovation, substituting merely literal mainly on medical, philosophical, geophysical, transcription (closed copy method), with the meteor-ological, zoological, linguistic and (semantic copy method) of creating, for the first religious themes. One of his most important works time, new Arabic terms in order to obtain the was Kitab al Masa’il (Introduction to the Healing same meaning of the terms used in Greek Arts). Perhaps Hunayn became famous in manuscripts, a method that, according to S. Johna Medieval Europe for his greatest achievements in (2002), satisfies the demand of modern the field of opthalmology; his studies represented philology(15). Due to Hunyan‘s scientific method in fact the starting point for Arabic ophtalmology of translation, the Arabic medical lexicon was (11). improved and recorded in his important Risalah Hunayn, with the help of his son Ishaq ibn (Message) written to Ali ibn Yahya in 865. Due to Hunayn and his nephew Hubaysh bin al-Hasan, a lack of appropriate terms, some specialized both skilled in medicine, translated the works of terms were borrowed in this process, while other Hippocrates, Dioscorides and Galen‘s Arabic scientific terms were introduced into the commentary works which were available before vocabulary of Europe and are still in use. The and after his death (Meyerhof, 1926, 685-724) Greek word parabola was initially Arabicized into the Syriac and Arabic languages. Their efforts phonetically as barabula, then subsequently were fully devoted to the preservation and refined to qat' za'id, which literally means "thick transmission of a great part of the whole body of section". Diabetes was first rendered as diyabita scientific knowledge to future generations. ―An then transformed to da as-sukkar ("sugar extraordinary case may arise when the original sickness"). Greek text is lost and only its Arabic translation is Furthermore, Hunayn criticized the method by available. This is the case of a Commentarium of which Latin translations were produced by Galen on the Hippocratic De aere aquis et locis: previous translators at Toledo, i.e., a word for the treatise has recently been found in a word translation of the Arabic script (16). These manuscript at the National Library, Cairo, and is Toledan Latin translations were not accurately translated by the translators of the school of translated: Hunayn ibn Ishâq‖ (12). Hunayn collected as The main body of the Latin translations was many ancient manuscripts as possible from Syria, indifferently executed owing to the method Palestine and Egypt, comparing Syriac adopted; the Latin equivalent was placed over the translations with the original Greek texts to have a Arabic, and where the translator was at a loss for valid basic text for his translations. The Complete the correct Latin interpretation, the Arabic was dictionary of scientific biography (2008) also cites transcribed bodily, with the result that such terms Hunayn's description when he faced a lot of as alcohol, , and zero have (17). difficulties in his dogged search for the medical Hunayn's new method of translation was manuscripts needed for translation, such as that of acknowledged by many scholars, especially after Galen‘s De demonstration: comparing it with that of the earlier translators. I sought for [the manuscript] earnestly and The former was superior, especially in translating travelled in search of it in the lands of practical works of medicine, alchemy, and Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine and Egypt, until I astrology since it was not a literal or word for reached Alexandria, but I was not able to find word translation but a whole text translation, anything, except about half of it at Damascus (13). especially in revising a perplexed text. In Rosenthal‘s (1975) words: Here the translator considers a whole sentence, ascertains its full meaning and then expresses it in Arabic with a sentence identical in meaning,

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without concern for the correspondence of question and answer form for catechetical individual words. This method is superior, and purpose. So it is that Galen‘s teachings determine hence there is no need to improve [Hunyan‘s] Arabic medicine in all essential points: from works. … [Hunyan‘s] Arabic translations required Galen comes the teaching about the humours, the no corrections at all (18). physiology of metabolism, the theories of three This perfection was attained perhaps because digestions and of the movement of the blood. Hunayn mastered four languages: Arabic, Syriac, From Galen comes the conception of the four Greek and Persian. His method was widely effective grades of medicine, from Galen comes followed by later translators. the teleological thinking that seeks to recognize and explain each organ and each natural process 3. Transmission to the West: in terms of its purpose (22). Most of the classical works have been saved by However, what is most striking is that Muslim the act of translation. Galen's writings, for physicians could contradict, unlike Europeans, example, were unknown in the West until Galen's seeming infallibleness. As Ehsan Masood Europeans began to rediscover Greek scientific (2009) points out in Science and Islam, a major texts in the 11th and the 13th centuries due to the Arab-Muslim physician, al-Razi (23)Rhazes in discovery of Arab repositories of learning in Spain Latin(850-925 A.D), for example, disputed and elsewhere during the Crusades (19). Galen's theory of humors, and proved by Translation was also the vehicle used for the experiment that , or phlebotomy, transfer of Arabic knowledge and science Arabic actually worked as the most common treatment texts into Latin and then into English. Indeed, until the 19th C. for patients, including George Muslim scholars did much more than merely Washington, and is still used by some cultures collect and refine the Greek manuscripts, they today (24). Writing in his book Doubts about preserved, divulgated, and refashioned the Galen, al-Razi rejects several claims made by the classical works. They introduced new theories Greek physician: "It grieves me to oppose and upon which the European Renaissance has criticise the man, Galen, from whose sea occurred. In the same , Eugene Myers (1964), of knowledge I have drawn much indeed … in Arabic thought and the Western world, says: Although this reverence and appreciation will and "the Arab intervention literally saved Greek should not prevent me knowledge from being destroyed, added to that from doubting, as I did, knowledge, and handed it on a silver platter to what is erroneous in his Western Christendom" (20). theories." (25). Thus, "It will suffice here to evoke a few glorious Al-Razi names without contemporary equivalents in the West", as Sarton (1975) referred to, such as Al- By Ismaiel Diab

Kindi (801-873), Al-Razi (865-925), Al-Farabi (870-950), Ibn Sina (980-1037), Al-Ghazali (1058-1111), Ibn Rushd (1126-1198), and etc. The Al Razi wrote as many as 184 papers and articles list includes "(a) magnificent array of names on medical subjects, and 237 books on various which it would not be difficult to extend. If subjects—including alchemy, , anyone tells you that the Middle Ages were physiology, and —many were lost. scientifically sterile, just quote these men to him, He was attributed to be the first to use animal gut all of whom flourished within a short period, 750 for sutures and alcohol for hemostasis (26) as an to 1100 A.D." (21). Here it would be better to antiseptic. He was also the first to describe refer to some brilliant examples of Muslim pupillary reflexes and to differentiate between the Physicians whose achievements revolutionized the symptoms of smallpox and measles—two diseases way medicine was practised in a time when the that were once a single disease. In his treatise world and Europe in particular, had hardly any Kitab al-Tajarib (Book of Experience) he probed knowledge or experience of this important some 900 cases of various maladies, the discovery science. of allergic asthma, the discovery of as the No doubt that Galen's doctrine appears to have body's defence mechanism, and the use of influenced the Islamic medicine, as explained by as a treatment for depression. Al Razi also Manfred Ullmann (1978), in his Islamic theorized about the connection of the soul and medicine: state of mind to the physical health of the body, Galen‘s original works were circulated in suggesting that someone with mental and numerous copies, commented on, and made into emotional disturbances would be more vulnerable

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to and chronic ailments. In addition, he It could be argued that Ibn Sina was the first to believed that the wrinkles of a pregnant woman introduce a variety of treatments for illnesses could foretell the number of her children. unknown to Greeks. He was the first scientist to Needless to say that Al Razi‘s writings are describe in detail the different parts of the eye due valuable and influenti al for both Islamic and to his concern with eye diseases, a big problem in European students in their training to become the Arab world due to the environment. Ibn Sina physicians. His medical insights in Al-Hawi fi at- discussed the structure of the body as ―a branch of Tibb, at-Tibb ar-Ruhani (Psychic Therapy) and at- knowledge which deals with the states of health Tibb al-Mansuri were translated into Latin several and disease in the human body, with the purpose centuries after his death. Sarton (1951), in The of employing suitable means for preserving or incubation of Western culture in the middle east, restoring health‖ (32). Moreover, he discussed calls the Arab-Islamic impact on Europe, surgery as an independent branch of medicine, particularly that of al-Razi as a: elaborated on the science of anatomy, explained miracle of Arabic science, using the word miracle the first set of modern methods in the study of as a symbol of our inability to explain , described the effects of achievements which were almost incredible. on the body, and documented what is There is nothing like it in the whole history of the today called ―psychotherapy‖ that the West did world…Some historians have tried to belittle not develop until the 19th and 20th centuries with those immense achievements by claiming that Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung. there was nothing original in them and that the The technical medical terminology which Ibn Sina Arabs were nothing but imitators. Such a introduced is still used by physicians in the judgment is all wrong…The achievements of the Islamic countries and in the Western world as Arabic-speaking people between the ninth and well. The word ‗medicine‘ itself is originated ماان س ناا ن ‘twelfth centuries are so great as to baffle our from the Arabic words ‗madet cinna understanding (28). (http://ejabat.google.com/). Ibn Sina's works were Ibn Sina (29) (980-1037AD), known in the West translated in Islamic Spain by Avendeuth, a as , the Prince of Medicine, is another Jewish Italian scholar, and example of a Muslim physician whose Michael Scot. They continued to be translated contributions in the field of medicine set the through the sixteenth century influencing such foundation of the modern medicine, despite the western philosophers as the Augustinian fact that his main interest was the entire range of Gundisalvo, Albertus Magnus, William of human knowledge. An old saying says ―The one Auvergne, Alexander of Hales, Roger Bacon and who wants to be a good physician, must be an Duns Scotus. He left an indelible mark on the Avicennist‖. He wrote as many as 450 papers and history of science, medicine and books in a dozen of fields; however, his magnum (33). opus, , translated into Ibn al-Nafis th Latin in the 12 century, remained the standard By Ismaiel Diab medical authority not only in the Islamic world where it was used as a major reference until the th 19 century, but also in the Western world where Another eminent Muslim it was used for more than 500 years (30) until the surgeon from the great Arab discovery of germ theory. It is still being referred Andalusian civilization, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi to today as an immense encyclopedia of medicine (930-1013 A.D) ― known to the west by for its compilation of Greco-Islamic medical ‗Abulcasis‘ embraced surgery as a worthy art and knowledge and Ibn Sina‘s own discoveries that emphasized anatomy as a fundamental were extraordinarily advanced for his time: prerequisite to surgery, in contradiction to the Besides bringing together existing knowledge, the tendency of Arabic and Western medicine to Canon contained many of ibn-Sina‘s own insights. assign both surgery and anatomy to a lower He recognised, for instance, that tuberculosis is position. He wrote a 30-chapter medical contagious; that diseases can spread through soil encyclopaedia Kitab at-Tasrif (The Book of and water; and that a person‘s emotions can affect Concessions) in which he described hemophilia the state of their physical health. He also realised for the first time in medical history, and which that nerves transmit pain and signals for muscle was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona a contraction. The Canon also contained a century and a half after his death. The book for description of 760 drugs, and so became an five centuries was the leading textbook on surgery important medical manual too (31). in Europe and continued to resonate into the 21st

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century for its description and illustration of about scholars began a dogged search for Arabic texts. 200 medical and surgical instruments that are still The translators of Muslim Spain who devoted in use―including scalpels, cauterizing tools, themselves to the pursuit of Arabic learning and obstetrical forceps, surgical retractor, surgical ―who worked at Toledo after its capture by the needle, specula, and the use of catgut for internal Christians, and its raising to the dignity of the suturing, feeding tubes and cupping capital of the Kingdom of Leon and Castile, glasses―many of which were devised by Zahrawi completed the translation of Arabic Medicine to himself. Surgeons worldwide today practise the medical system of Europe‖ (38). The process several surgical procedures and dental operations of the dissemination of Arab sciences assumed a that Zahrawi innovated a millennium ago. He large scale in several centres in southern France. advocated the re-implantation of the fallen tooth Knowledge of medicine was diffused mostly in and the use of dental prosthesis carved from the Britain through various translations. The Christian bone of the cow. In addition, Zahrawi appears to Scholars who had studied in the institutions of be the first surgeon in history to use cotton in Muslim Spain translated several important works surgical dressings. of Arab writers. Toledo, Salerno, Sicily, and The brilliant Muslim physician, Ibn al-Nafis Naples were developing centres of civilization and Dimashqui (34) (1213-1288 A.D) also predated intellectual activity where the translations of the 17th century English physician William Arabic treasures were made from Arabic into Harvey in the discovery of pulmonary blood Latin then into other European languages, resulted circulation (35) in the 13th century. Challenging in a transmission of Arabic learning, or as Galen's ideas about the movement of blood in the described by Durant (1950), "The stream whereby heart, he described with illustrations how the the riches of Islamic thought were poured into the blood purified by the lungs moves through the Christian West" (39) that provided a firm ground pulmonary transit. However, as a part of his work for a real renaissance. Until the Ottoman remained unknown to Europe for a long time, occupation of Byzance in the 15th c., Arab science Galen's ideas continued to be followed for the and medicine were taught at the universities and next three hundred years. medical schools of Europe in the peculiar Arab Muslim-Christian Interaction method of instruction known as . The activities of the medical European translators Arabic texts have served as standard books and by the 9th or 10th century included (a) have remained the reference for the whole world retranslations of the works of Hippocrates and till the beginning of the 18th century A.D. Galen from Arabic into Latin; (b) translations of Alhazen's Kitab al-Manazir (Book on Optics) and commentaries of Arab authors on the ancient al-Khwarizmi's Book on Indian Calculation are Greek works; and (c) translations of original great books lost in their Arabic editions and observations, books and letters of Arab scientists. translated into Latin. Between 1000-1800 AD, Latin was the teaching Among the prominent "scholar-translators" who medium at the great European universities, and it worked at Toledo were Spaniards, Gascons, absorbed Greek and Arabic medical terminology Frenchmen, Italians, Englishmen and Germans. by transliteration or overlay with Latin prefixes Europe is chiefly indebted for its knowledge of and suffixes (36). Unlike Latin, however, Arabic Arabic medicine to Constantine the African, gave ordinary Muslims access to scholarly Gerard of Cremona, Adelard of Bath, Robert of knowledge. ―In the early part of the Scholastic Chester, Michael Scot, and others. The medical Period, the difficulty of the Arabic language was a writer and translator Constantine the African barrier to the direct transmission of Arabian (1020-87), an African monk who had acted as Medicine to the Latin West‖ (37). Spain was the secretary to Robert Guiscard, translated several cradle of the rebirth of Europe where the Arabic works including the theoretical part written knowledge of Arabic was as important a part of by Haly Abbas (Ali Ibn Abbas d. 994), al-Kitab education as was Latin before. It served as the key al-Maliki (The Royal Book). His native language link with the Arabic learning of the Muslim world. was Arabic from which he drew medical sources. The Moors who invaded Spain in 718 A.D. He landed in southern Italy around 1060 from brought with them a treasure trove of medical and Qayrawan, Tunisia, and transcribed numerous scientific knowledge, gleaned from translations Arabic books, including 's made at Baghdad‘s House of Wisdom. versions of discourses by Galen and , and After Toledo‘s fall into Christian hands in 1085 Ibn Ishaq's manual on . A.D, and after the return of Crusaders from the Constantine's translations were rapidly adopted by Middle East in the 12th and 13th centuries, western doctors at Salerno's medical school, and

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eventually diffused throughout France, England Latin were not confined to Greek works but they and Germany. also included the original works of Arab scholars. As to this source of transmission, Gerard of In 1143, Robert Chester, along with Hermann, the Cremona from Italy was the most prolific of Dalmatian, completed the first translation of the Toledan translators and one of the greatest Holy Quran, and in 1145, he made the first exponents of Arabian learning. He had left Italy translation of Al-Khwarizmi‘s algebra. Michael chiefly in quest of Ptolemy's Almagest, which Scot (d. 1236) who was the court astrologer of existed only in Arabic and Syriac. Uncovering an Frederick II (d.1250) of Sicily translated among Arabic transcription at Toledo, he stayed there 30 other works Al-Hai'a (Bitruji's Astronomy), years, making Latin translations of Ptolemy, and Aristotle's De Coelo et-Mundo, Ibn Rushd's translated more than ninety Arabic works commentary, and many Arabic works on zoology. including the Canon of Ibn Sina, al-Tasrif of Al- His translations of Ibn Rushd's works greatly Zahrawi, al-Mansuri of Al-Razi, the Astronomy of influenced the later European philosophers. Ibn al-Haitham, and Al-Khwarizmi‘s theses of Gradually, Arabic ideas about medicine were Algebra and others. transferred to Europe via medical schools in Adelard of Bath (c.1080 – c. 1150) was the places like Salerno and Sicily where the best of greatest translator of England who brought a large both east and west mixed and the people lived number of books from Cordova and popularized peacefully. Campbell (2002) describes the School Arabic learning in France and England. "[T]rained of Salerno as follows: by Arab scientists," he asserts while addressing During the eleventh and twelfth centuries Salerno his nephew, "For I was taught by my Arab masters upheld the medical traditions of the West, and to be led only by reason, whereas you were taught constituting as it did the direct bridge between to follow the halter of the captured image of Ancient and Modern Medicine, as apart from the authority" (40). He translated into Latin the more circuitous route through Byzantium, astronomical tables of Majriti (1126 A.D), of Al- Baghdad, and Cordova. Salerno was able for a Khwarizmi, of Abu Ma'sher Jafar, and many other time to withstand the growing influence of Arabic astronomical and mathematical treatises. "Soon teaching which, however, gradually became many scholars were in search of Arabic treatises dominant at this ―mother of European Universities to translate, and ‗Arabum Studia‘ became a (43). Sicily stands next to Spain in providing an legitimate pursuit in twelfth century England‖ ideal Italian centre for the dissemination of Arabic (41). A world-renowned School of Translators culture. Arabic learning was transmitted to Europe was established by Archbishop Raimundus I from Spain and Southern Italian centers, (1125-1152 A.D.) at Toledo with the stated especially Sicily. Southern Italy which was ruled purpose of uncovering the treasures of ancient by the Norman Kings of Sicily considerably science brought to Spain by the Arabs. Raimundus assisted in diffusing the Arab culture not only to surrounded himself with a core of the best Italy, but also to central Europe. It served as an medical, philosophical and legal minds in Europe, intermediary between the Muslim and Christian including many outstanding Arabs and Jews then cultures. When contacts between the two cultures living in Spain. Under his guidance there arose a occurred, Arabic learning reached unprecedented regular translation department in which scholars levels described by Hearnshaw (1967) in the made translations of valuable Arabic works. The following: ―The Semitic language of the Saracens translation process of medical, scientific and left the same impression on the island as did their philosophical treatises included the Jews who art and architecture, so that between the tenth and knew both Hebrew and Arabic. The procedures twelfth centuries Sicily is a source of both Greek depended first on oral translation from these and Arabic learning for Western Europe‖ (44). languages into Spanish Romance, the precursor of The Christian rulers, contrary to their what later became Castilian Spanish. The counterparts in Spain, were tolerant towards Romance version was then translated into Latin by Muslims and patronized Muslim culture. The a Christian, to be disseminated throughout work started by Raimundus at Toledo was taken Europe. up and improved upon by King Alfonso the Wise These "scholars from Europe were desperate to (1252-1284), who surrounded himself with the make all known scientific and technical books best minds of his time. Alfonso established available in translation...and they produced Latin schools at Toledo for the translation of Arabic translations of not only of Greek works but also of works. Toledo became the focus of Muslim original works by Arab scholars..." (42). This science, as King Alfonso commissioned the first means that their translations from Arabic into renditions of Arabic texts into Castilian Spanish

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instead of Latin. King Alfonso discarded Palermo, direct heir to the civilization of Saracen Romance in favor of Castilian Spanish and (47) Sicily (48). supervised most of the translations from Arabic Therefore, the Sicilian Jews played a vital role in that were crafted during his reign. In addition to the dissemination of Arabic learning in Europe. writing outstanding treatises on medicine, Some of the most noteworthy figures are Farragut mathematics, history, law and navigation, King of Sirgent, Mese of Palermo and Farag Ben Alfonso created the job of ‗editor‘ and continually Salem. The first two translated the astronomical exercised it to ensure that his translators used and medical works of Arabs into Latin. Farag Ben "straight" Spanish, not Romance. Salem translated in 1279 the well-known medical With the rise of Norman power, the Royal Courts work of Al-Razi Al-Hawi. Translating Arabic of Christian Kings played a vital rule in works continued unabated till the middle of the disseminating the Arabic language and science in 17th century A.D. Andrea Alphago of Baluno of Europe. They often included Arab men of Italy (1520 A.D.) translated the biographical learning, doctors, and counselors. Arabic was dictionary of Ibn Kifti as well as some of the widely spoken in those courts; "Arabic was not important works of Galen, Ibn Sina and Ibn only one of the four official languages but the Rushd. monarch's native language." (45) The Roman The period of translation was followed by a period Emperor Roger II (d.1154) and his successor, the when Arabian knowledge and sources were great Italian born and Arabic-speaking Emperor systematized and assimilated, preparing the Frederick II, are repeatedly referred to as the ground for the creative works which brought promoters of Muslim learning and arts in Sicily, about the renaissance and paved the way for the Italy and thus Europe. Both were accused of being intellectual growth of Europe. Among the more Muslim than Christian as they maintained a foremost systematizers were Albertus Magnus prosperous communication with Muslim scientists (1193-1290 A.D.), Roger Bacon (1214-94 A.D.), from their court in Palermo, Sicily, and even Alexander of Halle (1245 A.D.), Robert during his occupation of Jerusalem (46), and Grosseteste (1255 A.D.), St. Thomas Acquinas financed translations of Arabic works. In addition, (1225-75 A.D.), Arnold of Villanova (1255- an enlightened policy of Arab-Christian 1320A.D.), and Peter of Abano (1250-1320 A.D.). cooperation had begun by Roger II. In spite of "The impulse of this intellectual activity", writes strong opposition from the orthodox quarters, Campbell (2002), "was derived in the main from Frederick II continued to be the greatest patron of the Arabic writers among whom the most Muslim culture in Europe. He established the prominent Avicenna, Avezoar, and University of Naples in 1224, chiefly to assimilate Albucasis.… Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon, and science. Under his rule, who were eminent types of Arabo-Scholastics Salerno became an important college in which a medical profession of the thirteenth century, large quantity of Arabic manuscripts were derived the basis of their learning from Arabian collected and essentially taught. There was always sources " (49). some interchange between the Muslim and William of Normandy (1066-1135) was Christian worlds during the supremacy of Muslim accompanied by a large number of Jews who were civilization as well as its decline. forced to leave Spain and were transferred to England for setting up the first English School of Muslim-Jewish Interaction: Science at Oxford, in which Arabic sciences were Sicily continued to be a great centre of Muslim freely propagated and taught. Roger Bacon (1214- civilization, and played a vital part in the 94 A.D.) ―learned Arabic and Arabic science‖ by awakening of Europe and in bringing many Jewish teachers at the Oxford School. He was elements of Muslim culture to distant Britain. known in Europe as the father of the European Charles Haskins points out to the role of Sicily: renaissance and the experimental method. Both historically and geographically Sicily was However, in The making of humanity, Robert the natural meeting point of Greek, Arabic, and Briffault (1919) clearly admits: Latin civilisation, and a natural avenue for the Neither Roger Bacon nor his later namesake has transmission of eastern art and learning to the any title to be credited with having introduced the West… The distinctive element in southern experimental method. Roger Bacon was no more learning lay, however, not on the Latin side, but in than one of the apostles of Muslim science and its immediate contact with Greek and Arabic method to Christian Europe; and he never wearied scholarship, and the chief meeting-point of these of declaring that the knowledge of Arabic and various currents of culture was the royal court at

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Arabian science was for his contemporaries the non-English-speaking countries at present have only way to true knowledge (50). the choice to directly import these English terms The influence of Ibn al-Haitham (Alhazen) on and translate them into their own language. Roger Bacon is clearly visible in his works. As a However, numerous English medical terms reward for his love of Arabic science, Roger continued to be made up of roots and affixes Bacon was accused of sorcery and thrown into drawn and developed from medieval Greek or prison. He died shortly after his release from a 10 Latin elements and sources forming new scientific years imprisonment. terminologies of quickly developing sciences, Convivencia is a Spanish term that means ‗co- such as chemistry, biology, and medicine. A great existence‘ of Jews, Muslims and Christians in amount of English scientific words are of Latin Medieval Spain. The Jewish-Arab cultural and Greek origin. Words such as nucleus, convivencia culminated in the time of vertebrate, mammal, fungus, syringe and thorax, (Moses ibn Maimon, 1135-1204) entered into English directly from Latin. (51) in the mass exodus of Jews who fled It should also be noted that during the persecution by the orthodox Muslim Almohad Renaissance, when Greek was no longer widely dynasty (1130-1269) in Cordova. They dispersed understood, both Greek and Arabic works were to European centers of learning, among them translated into Latin, and the era of medical Latin Salerno and Montpellier, to which they brought began. Latin was used principally by academics Arabic science and medicine (52). Although he and clergy, fencing science in as the preserve of was a proponent of the ancient Galenic doctrine of educated elite. Classic Latin continued to be the the four humors, Maimonides was the most language of the Christian church, and it ruled the famous Jewish physician in Arabic medicine, world of literature well into the 17th century. culminating in his works of practical therapeutics. Because of the increasing need to communicate He translated the voluminous Canon of Avicenna with physicians without university training, into Hebrew, but his collection of the aphorisms students and patients, Latin as the language of of Hippocrates and Galen was written in Arabic. medicine had practically come to an end by 1800, Translations of the writings of Maimonides into and was almost entirely replaced by local Hebrew and Latin were widely read throughout languages–all of which, however, retained the Christian Europe. Græco-Latin terminological core (53). The medical vocabulary expanded but basically did 4. Arabic Medical Terminology in Modern and not change. Medical scientists continued to Today’s English develop new concepts that had to be named, and During the last two centuries, medicine has many new terms have been appearing. undergone great specialization and differentiation A more indirect form of influence is the use of into individual branches that have had to create certain Arabic words which entered the scholastic their own terminologies. Due to economic vocabulary and later came into normal use in globalization, easy access through mass media, other modern languages. The influence of Arabic and medical development, English in the 20th has been most profound and pervasive not only in century has started to influence the language those countries dominated by Islam or Islamic systems of other nations. This brings efforts power, but also in Spanish, Catalan and towards an international standardization and Portuguese, due to centuries of being part of the unification of national medical terminologies. Arab Empire during the Middle Ages. Mohammad Today, all the most influential medical journals Taki Mehdi (1989), in his book Islam and are written in English, and English has become the intolerance, explains how Arabic words exist in language of choice at international conferences. the European language: This era of medical English resembles the In fact, the profound impact of the Arabs and their Medieval era of medical Arabic when a single civilization on Western civilization can be found language was used for international in the many Arabic words that became part of the communication. everyday language in the West. While it is Although a few medical terms come from the obvious that the influence of Arabic is much oldest period of English language (Anglo-Saxon), greater on Spanish and Portuguese, both of which today‘s medical English uses more and more of its contain many thousands of Arabic words, than on own language material often, partly or wholly, any other European language, at least some 4% of composed of words borrowed from ordinary the English language came from Arabic (54). English, e.g. bypass operation, clearance, base It seems that the Arabic influence on the Spanish excess, screening and scanning. Doctors from language and the influx from North Africa to

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Europe have been far too insignificant throughout derivatives, such as "algebraic", "alcoholic", history, particularly after the independence of "alcoholism", and "decipher". ―Without al-gebra Algeria, to justify the entrance of Arabic words there would not be physics, without al-gorithms into the mainstream English, French and other there wouldn‘t be computers, and without al- European languages. Indeed, ―a high level of kaline there wouldn‘t be chemistry‖ (58). specialized lexicon in English justifies the interest In the golden age of Islam, the Arab Caliphs in searching for the specialized terminology which established medical schools, learning centers, illustrates the use of the terms most of the medical hospitals, libraries, banks, palaces and community would have been familiar with‖ (55). mosques. The early Muslim concept of the For hundreds of years, there was also verbal hospital devoted to the promotion of health and transmission of the knowledge that increased the the cure of diseases became the prototype for the terms‘ exchange in different cultures, as explained development of the modern hospital. The word by Hajar Albinali (2007): hospital is Arabic in origin, Hawzit Al-baittar, al-baittar is a pharmacist who sells―حوزة لبيطاو It is a fact that all human cultures exchange not only knowledge but also terminology through and treats people. Later on, al-Baittar time. Some ancient verbal migration cannot be meant to be the person who treats animals, from The hospitals were .‘لبيطاوة traced by dictionary writers because they may which comes ‗Baittara have happened before the invention of writing or kept clean and well designed "of a cruciform require knowledge of ancient writings. The Arabs shape and divided into wards in which patients took numerous words from other nations and were separated depending on the type of illness incorporated them in their language over the time. they were suffering from. The mentally ill were Many nations incorporated Arabic words in their kept apart from those with physical symptoms and language also (56). men were housed separately from women" (59). Therefore, the sources of the English terminology They served as schools of medicine in which are more varied, and the lexical inventory includes medical knowledge was taught, and an impressive adoptions from a number of foreign languages method of rules and regulations for standards of (57) other than Latin and Greek. Assuming the practice was developed. In the late eighth century, key role of Latin in the formation of English Harun Al Rashid established the first medical language, other etymological sources, in Baghdad along with the first saydalia or such as Arabic, gained importance as a result of pharmacy. Al Razi applied his evolving idea of translating various classical Greek texts into sanitation and infection to find the best location to Arabic. In the importation process, many Arabic- build a new hospital. He derived terms were borrowed with phonological hanged pieces of raw meat in deformation; some were copied or translated various parts of the city of incorrectly by various writers, some of whom did Baghdad to see comparative not learn the Arabic language well. This produces rates of decay. Where a piece a huge Arabic word stock which is still being of meat lasted longest, there used. he chose to set the hospital as Arabic terms received specific attention in many he knew it would be the writings; dictionary writers admit some terms that healthiest location. Ibn al-Baytar have become part of scientific vocabulary, and By Ismaiel Diab some studies admit another. However, writers ignore hundreds of terms intentionally or By the year 1000, while Baghdad alone had five unintentionally, relating them either to old Latin public hospitals, there were none in all of Europe. or Greek roots. The main purpose is to convey a Hospitals were also founded in Cairo, Damascus, nice alternative to help medical students Aleppo, North Africa, and Al Andalus―in which understand the origin of the words they will use or free treatment, surgery, outpatient clinics, mental come across everyday in their profession. The wards, and even nursing homes were provided. Al Arabic influence on English terminology can be Mansuri in Cairo, one of the greatest public traced in many scientific or mathematical terms hospitals, was charged with offering treatment to that come from Arabic. In etymological lexicons, anyone, rich or poor; when patients were sent one finds entries begin with "al" ("algorithm", home they received a sum of money to ease their "alchemy", "algebra", "alcohol" and ―alkali‖), and return to working society. The influence of other words, like ―nitrate,‖ "cypher" and "zenith", contacts through the Crusades is evident in the which got into English through Latin and French. hospitals which began to make their appearance in These words are often productive sources of Europe, on the patterns of those established by the

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Orders of the Holy Land. Europe established its origin. In both Arabic and English, some anatomic first hospital in Paris ‗Les Quinze-vingt‘ by Louis terms have similar meaning and origin. The eye‘s IX–who was inspired by the Arabs – only after his pupil means a ―little girl or boy‖ in English, and in return from the crusade 1254-1260. Arabic Insan al ain, i.e., the ―human of the eye‖. Arab pharmacology, as a new and effective The term has similar meaning in both languages remedy other than the religious or magical remedy as stated in the Online Etymology Dictionary: of medieval Europe, survived in the West until the Pupil, ―center of the eye,‖ (in L. form from 1398), early part of the nineteenth century (60). Excellent from O.Fr. pupille, from L. pupilla, originally efforts, unequivalent in Europe, were developed ―little girl-doll,‖ dim. of pupa ―girl, doll‖ Gk. is by an admirable group of Arab botanists and said also to have used the same word, kore (lit. pharmacists, such as the Andalusian Arab Ibn al- ―girl‖), to mean both ―doll‖ and ―pupil of the eye‖ Baytar (1197–1248), (61) who collected and (64). described plants and added hundreds of medicines Both the Arabs and the Greeks took the term from to those recorded by the Greeks. Privately owned the old Egyptians who called it ―the girl of the pharmacies in the world where drugs, herbs, and eye‖. Out of medieval Latin translations of Arabic spices were sold, started to appear throughout the writings, Benvenutus of Jerusalem, an oculist Muslim world (62). They were overseen by during the time of the crusades, had been in government inspectors to ensure that remedies contact with Arabic terminology. In his Treatise were unexpired, pure, measured and verified; i.e., on the use of the eyes, two terms referring to eye the quality assurance system in its modern sense diseases appear to come from Arabic: amesarca was implemented. (the Arabic name for ) and iherafrumaxyn Because scholars from the Islamic world made "scab in the eye" (65). original contributions to , some Arabic terms found their way into western In the field of Anatomy, there are medicine. Their important role in developing anatomic terms that Arabic speaking modern pharmacy and chemistry is memorialized physicians added such as: Saphenous in the significant number of current terms derived ―clear or manifest,‖ from Arabic al-safin from Arabic. Landau (1958) regards that ―hidden‖, because the vein available for European dispensaries relied heavily on recipes prepared by Arab pharmaceutists and took to the blood draws in only a small part of its West some of the Arabic medical terms such as course, or ―wanderer,‖ because the syrup sharab and julep gulab (63). In fact, the saphenous vein is a long vein. Nucha’ is word ―chemistry‖, according to Webster, comes another anatomical term, originally from the Arabic word alchemy or al- Arabic, and was adopted into Latin from Keem'ya'. Alcohol, another word derived from ‖,nape of the neck― ,نخ ع ‘Arabic, was widely used by the medical Arabic ‗nukhā profession as a cleansing agent. marrow, spinal cord and changed in Many of the chemical terms used in English today French to nuque. ‗Nuchal‘ is related to come from the greatest Medieval Arab chemist ―the back of the neck‖, from Arabic (721-815), whose name was Nakhal; i.e., palm tree, Latinized as "Geber" in the West. More than 2,000 works are attributed to Jabir whose writings because the anatomical influenced the course of modern European structures of the muscles, chemistry. Drug, aldehydes, alkali, antimony, arteries and arising alembic, realgar, and sal-amoniac are words from the neck vertebra which he discovered. The Englishman Robert of look like the branches of a Chester translated his Book of the composition of Jabir Ibn Hayyan palm tree. The researcher alchemy (1144) into Latin. Gerard of Cremona by Ismail Diab also made another translation of his important Hajar Albinali (2007) work Book of the Seventy. believes that it is assumed for a long time The Arabs were the pioneers in the field of that the anatomic term ‗Aorta‘ is derived ophthalmology, particularly in cataract couching. from the name of a desert tree, called Ophthalmology was practised in Baghdad where the ophthalmologists showed a high degree of ‗orta‘. She does insist that the term professionalism. It must be remembered that the ‗Aorta‘ is Arabic or at least not Greek in medical terms as retina and cataract are of Arabic origin although it was not made up by an

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Arab physician and was taken from the List of some Arabic medical terms commonly Greek. She illustrates that this tree was used in the English language: (68) well known to the Arabs over thousands Adult: a person who is fully grown or developed.

عضل )نضج وبرزت عضالته( of years and still is. Its Alcohol: a purified material, or "quintessence", name―orta―sounds like Aorta. All the which was typically arrived at by distillation الكحول .branches rise from one stick and look like methods arterial branches. The fruits are red in اإلمبيقق )أداة كيميائيقق ) .Alembic: distillation container color like arterial blood, the roots look للتقطري like arteries. If the root is injured, red Alchemy: a pseudoscientific forerunner of liquid comes out of it. It is very likely that الكيماء .chemistry in medieval times the ancient Arabs or other ancient people العصارة .Alizarin: an orange-red dye in this area, who hunted animals hiding Alkali: any of various water-soluble compounds under the orta tree, saw the similarities capable of turning litmus blue and reacting with مقادة للوةق - between the tree and the aorta inside the an acid to form a salt and water. alkaline للوي animal‘s chest that they have killed (66).The Arabs made up another Arabic Amalgam: an alloy of mercury with another metal term for the ‗Aorta‘ which is ‗Abhar‘, a used by dentists to fill cavities in teeth, from .al-malgham اململغم term used for the middle feathers of a Arabic bird‘s wing (67) that pass across the chest Aniline: oily poisonous liquid amine obtained to the rear and visible even when the from nitrobenzene and used to make dyes, plastics أَنِيلِّني .wing is closed. Both aorta and abhar were and medicines used in the old Arabic medical literature. Antimony: a metallic element having four allotropic forms; used in alloys and in medicine. أَنتِيمون Aorta: main artery through which blood is carried from the left ventricle of the heart to branch األورطي - األهبر .arteries Asthma: an illness that causes difficulties in أزم الربو .breathing Attar: from Arabic ‘ittr aroma, 'perfume, essence' عطر.obtained from flowers Benzoin: fragrant aromatic gum resin used بنزةون .especially in treating skin irritation Orta root (Photo courtesy: Bezoar: a small stony concretion which may form

Mr. Abdul Rahman Alsirhan, Kuwait). in the stomachs of certain animals, especially ruminants, and which was once used as an antidote for various ailments. From French بازهر'bezoard, based on Arabic bāzahr 'antidote Borax, borate, boron: an ore of boron consisting of hydrated sodium borate; used as a flux or cleansing agent. From Persian burah and Arabic بورق būraq متعلق بقالتيوة .Buccal: relating to the mouth cavity الفمي )من الفعل بََ ( Caliber: the diameter of a body of circular section, such as a tube, blood vessel, or fibre. لالب .'Orta tree in the desert From Arabic qālib 'mould

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Camphor: a resin obtained from the camphor Curcuma: a tropical Asian herbs that yield spices, dyes, and medicinal products. From Arabic كافور tree. From Arabic kāfūr كركم .'Canon: a general law, rule, principle, or criterion kurkum 'saffron by which something is judged. From the Arabic Cut: an act of cutting or incision. From Arabic لطع .’qat لانون kānon ضرب .Caraway (seed): the seeds of a plant of the Drub: hit or beat (someone) repeatedly parsley family, used for flavouring and as a source دون - أسفل .Down: in a lower position of oil. From Arabic al-karāwiyā Edema, oedema: a condition characterized by an كراوةا Cataract: a medical condition in which the lens excess of watery fluid collecting in the cavities or of the eye becomes progressively opaque, تأدم / وذم .tissues of the body obsecuring sight. Elastic: cord, tape, or fabric, woven with strips of إعتام عدس العني Channel: a tubular passage or duct for liquid. rubber, which returns to its original length or shape after being stretched. Derived from Arabic لناة Kanah شرةط مرن .Check: 'examine to determine the accuracy of'. plastic Originally used in English in the game of chess, it Elixir: a particular type of medicinal solution. was introduced to Europe by Arabs, who اإلكسري . From Arabic al-'iksīr pronounced the last h in shāh hard as Gauze: (medicine) raw silk, thin, loosely woven الشقا do, giving rise to the 12th century French form cloth used for dressings and bandages. From eschac and then eschec, which the English is Arabic Qazz . Perhaps from Gaza, the name of a لققز .derived from; the initial e is dropped in English The interjection checkmate comes from the Arabic town in Palestine. and Persian shah mat, meaning ‗the king is Ghoul: someone who robs bodies from graves and غُول .defeated‘. (Masood, 2009, p. 13). Moreover, the sells them for anatomical dissection from which the modern Glucoma: a disease in which pressure inside the , صق Arabic word sakk الغلوق، أم الغلوق .word cheque has been derived, is considered. eye causes gradual loss of vision Chronic: (of an illness) continuing for a long Gypsum: a soft white or colorless mineral consisting of hydrated calcium sulphate used to لروين )مزمن( .time Civet: refers to a musky perfume taken from a make cements and plasters (especially plaster of ِ .(Paris جْبس gland in the animal. From Arabic zabād, denoting Hakim: a Muslim physician or 'wise man. From زبد .the perfume حكيم Colon: Anatomy: the main part of the large Arabic Hakīm intestine, which passes from the caecum to the Hashish: purified resinous extract of the hemp rectum and absorbs water and electrolytes from leaves; used as a hallucinogen. From Arabic حشيش .food which has remained undigested. From Arabic Hashish ,Hospital: The word hospital is Arabic in origin (لولون) kolon al-baittar is a ― حققوزة البيطققار ,Cornea: the transparent layer forming the front of Hawzit Al-baittar .pharmacist who sells medicines and treats people لرني .the eye Cotton: soft silky fibers from cotton plants in Later on, al-Baittar meant to be the person who .‘البيطرة treats animals, from which comes ‗Baittara القطن .their raw state. From Arabic qutun هبط .Cough: a sudden noisy expulsion of air from the Hypo: under, below normal lungs that clears the air passages. From Arabic Julep: a sweet flavoured drink made from a sugar syrup, sometimes containing alcohol or كح koha Crimson: a rich deep red colour inclining to . Via Arabic from Persian gulāb "rose جالب .purple. Based on Arabic qirmizī, from qirmiz water" or mint julep Kohl: a black cosmetic powder used by women to لرمزي .related to kermes). Compare with carmine) Crown: : the part of a tooth above the darken the edges of their eyelids as eye make-up gum that is covered with enamel. From Arabic especially in Eastern countries. From Arabic kuhl. كحل that refers to a circular ornamental لققرون Koron headdress worn by a monarch as a symbol of Lime: white substance obtained by burning authority, usually made of or decorated with limestone, used for making cement, etc. Rounded precious metals and jewels.

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citrus fruit like a lemon but greener, smaller, and Retina: a layer at the back of the eyeball that contains cells sensitive to light, which trigger ليمون حامض – جري .more acid Lute: a liquid clay or cement used to seal a joint, nerve impulses that pass via the optic nerve to the ردةن )شبكي ( .coat a crucible, or protect a graft. From Arabic al- brain, where a visual image is formed Saphenous: relating to or denoting either of the العود .ūd‘ Mascara: a cosmetic for darkening and two large superficial veins of the lower limb of thickening the eyelashes. From Arabic maskhara man. Saphenous ―clear or manifest,‖ from Arabic buffoon, jester". Literally 'mask' is used in al-sāfīn. ِ . The saphenous veins were among" ال صقاف ُن مسقررة the more commonly used veins in medieval مسكرة .theatrical entertainment Mask: a protective covering worn over the face bloodletting. The word is first seen in Ibn Sina's made of fibre or gauze and fitting over the nose The Canon of Medicine. and mouth to protect against air pollutants, or Sash: wrap of muslin (gauze). From Arabic shāsh شاش made of sterile gauze and worn to prevent infection of the wearer or (in surgery) of the Save: keep safe or rescue from ruin, destruction, سع أو أسع patient. Influenced by Arabic maskhara 'buffoon'. or harm. From Arabic sa’f Senile: a person showing the weaknesses or لناع سين )شيروخي( .Massage: the rubbing and kneading of muscles diseases of old age and joints of the body with the hands, especially Shake: tremble. From Arabic Sakka إرجتق )صق أو to relieve tension or reduce pain, usually for اصط ( medicinal or relaxation purposes. The practice of massage was common in the Middle East for Shrub: a drink made of sweetened fruit juice and centuries before it became common in the West in spirits, typically rum or brandy. From Arabic the mid 19th century. Perhaps from Arabic massa shurb, sharāb, from shariba 'to drink'; compare .to touch. with sherbet and syrup ,مس Sirup ∕ Syrup: a thick sweet sticky liquid. From َ Mattress: the soft part of a bed that you lie on. Arabic Sharab 'beverage'; compare with مرتبق شقققراب From Arabic matrah 'carpet or cushion', from .sherbet and shrub مطقر taraha 'to throw.' Soda, Sodium: carbonated water drunk alone or Mummy: a body for an animal or a human being mixed with alcoholic drinks or fruit juice; sodium embalmed for burial, especially in ancient Egypt. carbonate, especially as a natural mineral or as an mūmiyā industrial chemical. It is most often said to be مومياء سقوةدة suwayd, or سقوةد ,suwwāda سقوادة Musk: a a strong-smelling reddish-brown from Arabic substance which is secreted by the male musk suwayda, 'saltwort' a plant growing in salty deer for scent-marking and is an important environments whose ashes yielded sodium ingredient in perfumery. From the Arabic word carbonate. صودا .misk Sphenoid, sphenoid bone: a compound bone مس Natron: a mineral salt found in dried lake beds, which forms the base of the cranium, behind the consisting of hydrated sodium carbonate. natrūn إسقفيين، العمقم .eye and below the front part of the brain الن طرون اإلسفيين )الوتدي( .Nucha: Anatomy: relating to the nape of the neck Symptoms: indications of a certain disease. مسقات خناع .'From Arabic nukha’ 'spinal marrow )أعراض( املرض ِ .Numb: to lose sensation ََن َل Ora Serrata: the part of the eye that marks the Talc: a fine grained mineral having a soft soapy junction between the retina and the ciliary feel and consisting of hydrated magnesium silicate; used in a variety of products including body. .talcum powder. Talq or talc عروة مسررة طل – بودرة تل Pancreas: a large gland located behind the Waist: the narrowing of the body between the ribs stomach secreting insulin. .and hips بنكرةاس وسط اجلسم )اخلصر( Realgar: a soft reddish mineral consisting of arsenic sulphide, formerly used as a pigment and Zero: no quantity or number; nought; the figure 0; صفر .'in fireworks. From Arabic rahj al-ġār 'arsenic', from Arabic ṣifr 'cipher رهج الغار '.literally 'dust of the cave َ

161 A Quest for Reviving the Past: Arabic Lines in English Translation and Terminology

Conclusion: from In conclusion, it is important to point out that this http://www.hmc.org.qa/heartviews/vol8no3/Histor paper has discussed the Arabic impact on the west y_med1.htm. in the Islamic civilization. A significant presence Arabic Medicine in the Past. of languages other than Latin or Greek in medical http://www.lsg.sch.ae/departments/history/arabic_ English included the Arabic language medicine _web/index.htm. Web. 13 August, 2011. consolidated as the language of the philosophic, Borchardt, J.K. (2002). Arabic pharmacy during medical and, generally, of the scientific thought. the Age of caliphs. Drug News And Perspectives. After seven centuries of Arabic dominance on July. 15(6): 383-388 scientific discourse, it began to be eclipsed in the Briffault, Robert. (1919). The making of 15th century by the Turks as Ottoman rule humanity, London: G. Allen & Unwin ltd. expanded. Over time, a multitude of medical Retrieved September 23, 2011, from terms derived from Arabic origin were imported, http://www.archive.org/details/makingofhumanity expanding the English language vocabulary 00brifrich beyond medicine. Campbell, Donald. (2002). Trübner's Oriental Later on, the translations into Latin introduced the Series: Arabian Medicine and its Influence on the Muslim science into the European culture and Middle Ages. Vol. I, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, education, especially into Italy and France. Trubner and Co., (Reprint of the Lontdon, 1926 Translations in the Arab world were done by edition). scientists or specialists, most of them were in fact Durant, Will. (1950). The Story of Civilization: physicians who developed and refined the medical The Age of Faith, Vol.4. New York: Simon & ancient writings and also extended their analytical Schuster. approach. Thanks to the works of Arab translators, Gimpel, Jean. (1976). The Medieval machine: The a great part of the existing whole body of industrial revolution of the middle ages, New scientific knowledge was preserved, analyzed, York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. enriched, transferred and finally bequeathed to the Hamarneh, Sami K. The life sciences, in Hayes, future generations. Arab Scientists were often The genius of Arab civilization. very prolific in their writings because many of Haskins, Charles. H. (1915). The Normans in them were supported by the royalty or patronage. European History, New York: Houghton Mifflin They were often commissioned to do research or Company. Retrieved from translate for the king and much of their work was http://books.google.com.eg/books?id=1TYNAAA sponsored. AIAAJ&q. This paper‘s aim was not to relive the past glory Hayes, John R. (ed.). (1992). The Genius of Arab of Arab achievements in our imagination, but to Civilization: Source of Renaissance, 3rd ed., New revive it with an eye to figure out how to retrieve York: New York University Press. it in an effort to motivate the readers to excel not Hearnshaw, F.J.C. (1967).Medieval contributions only in medicine, but in all branches of science. to modern civilization: A series of lectures delivered at King's College, University of London. References London: Dawsons of Pall Mall. (first printed in Abdul Aziz (1975). Arabic Roots for 1921 by G. G. Harrap & Company, Ltd.: London). Johna, S. (2002). Hunayn ibn-Ishaq: A Forgotten لألصووا لببة ووف باتووة ل وو ophthalmological terms .Cairo: Al-Fotooh Printing. Legend. The American Surgeon, 68(5), 497-499 .لببطزن Abdul Karim, Hussaini. English words of Arabic Kim, Ryonhee. (2006). Use of Extralinguistic origin. Mind Our English. Retrieved July 20, Knowledge in Translation in Meta: journal des 2011, from traducteurs/ Meta: Translators’ Journal, 51 (2), http://thestar.com.my/english/story.asp?file=/2010 pp. 284-303. Retrieved February 14, 2013 from /10/15/lifefocus/7002907&sec=lifefocus. http://www.erudit.org/revue/meta/2006/v/n2/0132 Aminrazavi,Mehdi.(2008).IbnSina. Encyclopaedia 57ar.html of the history of science, technology, and medicine Kashmiri,A.Refaat(2006).Arabic Roots in Medical .لبجووو ا لببة طووول صوووف لباطووواة لبايطووول in non-western cultures, Selin, Helaine (ed.). 2nd Terminology ed. Berlin, Heidelberg and New York: Springer, Islamic Printing & Publication House. pp. 434-435. L‘Amour, Louis, (1984).The Walking Drum, Albinali, Hajar. (2007). The origin of aorta Arabic Batam Books, NY, NY. versus Greek. Heart Views, 8(3), pp. 114-6. Landau, Rom. (1958).Arab contribution to Retrieved July 15, 2011, civilization,San Francisco:TheAmerican Academy of Asian Studies.

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LR., Angeletti. (1990). Transmission of classical http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2- medical texts through languages of the Middle- 2830904897.html#hiien4 East. Med Secol, 2(3), 293-329. Retrieved July Ullmann, Manfred. (1978).Islamic Medicine, 20, 2011 from Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11640111 Wilson, Jessica (2001).Arabic in Middle English. Lyons, Albert S. (n.d.). Medicine under Islam: Retrieved August 16, 2011, from Arabic medicine. Retrieved December 12, 2010, http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~cpercy/courses/63 from 61Wilson.htm. http://www.healthguidance.org/entry/6344/1/Medi cine-under-Islam-Arabic-Medicine.html. Notes Masood, Ehsan. (2009). Science and Islam: A 1. In the vocabulary of this paper, the researcher History. London: Icon Books. has practically included some medical terms McMorrow, Leon. (1998). Breaking the Gereco- found in the dictionaries available in the well Roman mold in medical writing: The many known internet resources and sites, notes and languages of 20th century medicine. In Fischbach, readings; and not restricted to the English Henry (ed.) Translation and Medicine, Volume X, language. Amsterdam: Benjamins, pp 13-28. 2. George Sarton. Introduction to the History of Menocal, Maria Rosa. (1985). Pride and prejudice Science, Vol. I, New York: R. E.Krieger, 1975, in Medieval studies: European and Oriental. p.17. Hispanic Review 53:61–78. 3. Louis L‘Amour. (1984). The Walking Drum, Meyerhof, Max. (1926). New light on Hunayn Batam Books, NY, NY, pp. 171-172. ibn Ishaq and his period. ISIS 8, 685-724. 4. Emilie Savage-Smith and Peter Pormann. Myers, Eugene A. (1964). Arabic Thought and the (2007). Medieval Islamic Medicine, Edinburgh: Western World , New York: Frederick Ungar Edinburgh University Press, pp. pp. xiv, 223. Publishing Company. 5. Donald Campbell. (2002). Trübner's Oriental Norri, Juhani. (2004). Entrances and exits in Series: Arabian Medicine and its Influence on the English medical vocabulary, 1400-1550. Medical Middle Ages. Vol. I, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, and scientific writing in late Medieval English. Trubner and Co., (Reprint of the Lontdon, 1926 Eds. Päivi Pahta and Irma Taavitsainen, edition), p. 38. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 100- 6. Ibid., p.42. 143. 7. J.K Borchardt. (2002). Arabic pharmacy during Ramos, Maria J. E. (2008). A study of medical the Age of caliphs. Drug News And Perspectives. terms in benvenutus grassus. Miscelánea: a July. 15(6): 383-388. journal of English and American studies, 37, pp. 8. Since the Greek science was limited principally 39-5. Retrieved from to the eastern Mediterranean in the fifth century, http://www.miscelaneajournal.net/images/stories/a Syria was far advanced in medicine after Greek rticulos/vol37/39.pdf. language became the medium of instruction there. Rosenthal, Franze. (1975). The Classical Heritage 9. Hippocrates, called the father of medicine and in Islam, London: Routledge. the pioneer for writing the first known Sarton, George. Introduction to the History of independent manuals on medicine, was highly Science, Vol. I, New York: R. E.Krieger, 1975. recognized by Muslims that his 52 classical The incubation of Western culture in the middle books, Hippocratic Corpus, were translated into east. Library of Congress Lecture (March 1950), Arabic. He was the first who turned away from Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing the traditional treatment of the sick by means of Office. drugs and surgery to the preventive treatment of Siddiqui, M.(1959). Studies in Arabic and Persian health. Medical Literature, Calcutta: Calcutta University. 10. Ryonhee Kim. (2006). Use of Extralinguistic Sindi, Abdullah M. Arab Civilization and its Knowledge in Translation in Meta: journal des impact on the West. (n.d.) Retrieved August 16, traducteurs/ Meta: Translators’ Journal, 51 (2), 2011, from pp. 284-303. Retrieved February 14, 2013 from http://radioislam.org/sindi/arab.htm#13. http://www.erudit.org/revue/meta/2006/v/n2/0132 Stiefel, Tina. (1985). The intellectual revolution in 57ar.html twelfth century, New York: St. Martin's Press. 11. Ibid, p. 285. The Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 12. S. Johna. (2002). Hunayn ibn-Ishaq: A (2008). Retrieved from Forgotten Legend. The American Surgeon, 68(5), 497-499.

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13. Angeletti LR. (1990). Transmission of 27. M.Siddiqui. (1959). Studies in Arabic and classical medical texts through languages of the Persian Medical Literature, Calcutta: Calcutta Middle-East. Med Secol, 2(3), 293-329. Retrieved University, p. XX. July 20, 2011 from 28. George Sarton. (1951). The incubation of http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11640111. Western culture in the middle east. Library of 14. The Complete Dictionary of Scientific Congress Lecture, p. 27, 29, 35. Biography. (2008). Retrieved June 3, 2011, from 29. Abu Ali Al Hussain Ibn Abdullah Ibn Sina, http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2- born in Persia, He was a boy prodigy who was 2830904897.html#hiien4 reputed to have memorized the Qur'an and much 15. Donald Campbell. (2002). Trübner's Oriental Arabic poetry by the age of ten. He had become a Serie, p. 141 physician by the age of 16. At the age of 17, Ibn 16. S. Johna (2002). Hunayn ibn-Ishaq: A Sina succeeded in curing the King of Bukhara of Forgotten Legend. The American Surgeon, 68(5), an illness which all other doctors had said was 497-499. incurable. As a reward, Ibn Sina was given access 17. Donald Campbell. (2002). Trübner's Oriental to the King's library. (Ehsan Masood, Science and Serie, p. 139. Islam, p.103). In this library, he read many books 18. Ibid, p. xii by ancient authors, such as Aristotle whose 19. Franze Rosenthal. (1975). The Classical intrigued him that he claimed to have Heritage in Islam, London: Routledge, pp.17-18. read it 40 times. His principal teachers were the 20. Leon McMorrow. (1998). Breaking the Nestorians at Baghdad. He became a teacher and a Gereco-Roman mold in medical writing: The doctor in Cordoba in Muslim Spain. many languages of 20th century medicine. In 30. John R. Hayes. (ed.). (1992). The Genius of Fischbach, Henry (ed.) Translation and Medicine, Arab Civilization: Source of Renaissance, 3rd ed., Volume X, Amsterdam: Benjamins, pp 13-28. New York: New York University Press, p.226. 21. Eugene Myers A. (1964). Arabic Thought and 31. Ehsan Masood. (2009). Science and Islam: A the Western World, New York: Frederick Ungar History, 2009, p. 105. Publishing Company, p. 67. 32. Sami K. Hamarneh. (1992). The life sciences, 22. George Sarton. Introduction to the History of in John R. Hayes. (ed.). (1992). The Genius of Science, Vol. I, New York: R. E.Krieger, 1975, p. Arab Civilization, p. 196-197. 17. 33. Aminrazavi, Mehdi. (2008). Ibn Sina. 23. Ullmann, Manfred. (1978). Islamic Medicine, Encyclopaedia of the history of science, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, pp.10 – technology, and medicine in non-western cultures, 11. Selin, Helaine (ed.). 2nd ed. Berlin, Heidelberg and 24. Muhammad Abu Bakr Zakariya Al-Razi, born New York: Springer, pp. 434-35. in Persia, (850- 925), started his professional life 34. Born in Damascus, in 1236 Ibn an-Nafis as an alchemist, but eventually turned to medicine moved to Egypt and worked in Al-Mansuriya at the age of 30, perhaps to find cures for the Hospital where he became the sultan's personal injuries he suffered during alchemical physician. He composed very important books, experiments, especially eye ailments. Al Razi was such as Al-Shamil fi al-Tibb (The Comprehensive trained in Baghdad and worked as a teacher in the Book on the Art of Medicine), a book on hospitals there. He earned the title of "Arab ophthalmology, Mujaz al-Qanun (The Summary Galen" and "most brilliant genius of the Middle of Law), and a number of commentaries on Ages" for achievements in medicine, but also Hippocrates, Ibn Sina and Hunayn Ibn Ishaq. called the founder of philosophy of nature in 35. Sami Hamarneh K. (1992). The life sciences, Islam. Al Razi was extremely generous and in John R. Hayes (ed.), The genius of Arab always willing to treat and help the poor and to civilization, pp.180-82. seek to identify cheaper alternative treatments for 36. Leon McMorrow. (1998). Breaking the those who could not afford expensive drugs. Gereco-Roman mold in medical writing, pp 13-28. Despite the large fees and honors he received, his 37. Donald Campbell. (2002). Trübner's Oriental generosity to the less fortunate left him poor and Serie, p. 136. blind. 38. Ibid, p. 118. 25. Ehsan Masood. (2009). Science and Islam: A 39. Will Durant. (1950). The Story of Civilization: History. London: Icon Books, p.100. The Age of Faith, Vol.4. New York: Simon & 26. Qtd. in Ehsan Masood. (2009). Science and Schuster, p. 91. Islam, p.100.

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40.Tina Stiefel. (1985). The intellectual revolution 54. Qtd. in Sindi, n.d., http://radioislam.org. in twelfth century, New York: St. Martin's Press, 55. Maria J. E. Ramos. (2008). A study of medical pp. 71, 80. terms in benvenutus grassus. Miscelánea: a 41. Jessica Wilson . (2001). Arabic in Middle journal of English and American studies, 37, pp. English. Retrieved August 16, 2011, from 39-45. Retrieved May 3, 2012, from: http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~cpercy/courses/63 http://www.miscelaneajournal.net/images/stories/a 61Wilson.htm.2001, rticulos/vol37/39.pdf . 42. Jean Gimpel. (1976). The Medieval machine: 56. Hajar Albinali. (2007). The origin of aorta The industrial revolution of the middle ages, New Arabic versus Greek. Heart Views, 8(3), pp. 114, York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, pp. 175,178. Retrieved July 15, 2011, from 43. Donald Campbell. (2002). Trübner's Oriental http://www.hmc.org.qa/heartviews/vol8no3/Histor Serie, p. 125. y_med1.htm. 44. F.J.C. Hearnshaw. (1967). Medieval 57. Juhani Norri. (2004). Entrances and exits in contributions to modern civilization: A series of English medical vocabulary, 1400-1550. Medical lectures delivered at King's College, University of and scientific writing in late Medieval English. London. London: Dawsons of Pall Mall. (first Eds. Päivi Pahta and Irma Taavitsainen, printed in 1921 by G. G. Harrap & Company, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 100- Ltd.: London), p.121. 143. 45. Maria Rosa Menocal. (1985). Pride and 58. Hussaini Abdul Karim. (n.d.). English words prejudice in Medieval studies: European and of Arabic origin. Mind Our English. Retrieved Oriental. Hispanic Review 53:61–78. July 20, 2011, from 46. The direct contact of the Christian crusaders http://thestar.com.my/english/story.asp?file=/2010 with the Muslims in Palestine also contributed to /10/15/lifefocus/7002907&sec=lifefocus. the spread of advanced Arab knowledge generally 59. Ehsan Masood. (2009). Science and Islam: A in the west of Europe. They were ―undoubtedly History, 2009, p. 88. influenced by [their] medical and philosophical 60. Rom Landau. (1958). Arab contribution to doctrines" (Campbell, 2002, p.109). civilization, San Francisco: The American 47. The term 'Saracen' was used to describe a Academy of Asian Studies, p. 49. Muslem in the era of the Crusades. 61. He authored the most elaborate Arabic 48. Charles. H. Haskins. (1915). The Normans in encyclopedia, The Compendium of Simple Drugs European History, New York: Houghton Mifflin and Food, in which he listed 1,400 drugs derived Company. Retrieved from from different plants, herbs, animals, or minerals http://books.google.com.eg/books?id=1TYNAAA from the different parts of the Muslim world. AIAAJ&q, pp.235,238. 62. Sami Hamarneh K. (1992). "The life 49. Donald Campbell. (2002). Trübner's Oriental sciences," in John R. Hayes (ed.), The genius of Serie, p. 143. Arab civilization, pp.180-82., p. 213 50. Briffault, Robert. (1919). The making of 63. Rom Landau. (1958). Arab contribution to humanity, London: G. Allen & Unwin ltd, pp. civilization, p.44.1 http://www.etymonline.com 200-201. Retrieved September 23, 2011, from 64. Maria J. E. Ramos. (2008). A study of medical http://www.archive.org/details/makingofhumanity terms, p. 46. 00brifrich, 65. Hajar Albinali. (2007). The origin of aorta 51. Born in Cordova, Maimonides fled in 1160 Arabic versus Greek. Heart Views, 8(3), pp. 114- with other Jews to Fez in Morocco and later 66.Retrieved July 15, 2011,from migrated to Palestine. He finally went to Cairo, http://www.hmc.org.qa/heartviews/vol8no3/Histor where he entered medicine as a career for y_med1.htm. Another meaning for 'abhar' is ―in financial needs, and where he acquired a the middle‖. reputation so high that he eventually became a 67. Some of the mentioned meanings or physician to the sultan Salah Addin. definitions are taken from the following sources: 52. Albert S. Lyons. (n.d.). Medicine under Islam: http://www.almaany.com/home, and Arabic medicine. Retrieved December 12, 2010, http://oxforddictionaries.com/. As well as from: from The Oxford dictionary, The In-dictionary. http://www.healthguidance.org/entry/6344/1/Medi 68. Refaat Kashmiri. (2006). Arabic roots of .الجذور العرب ة في المصطلحنت الطب ةcine-under-Islam-Arabic-Medicine.html. medical terms 53. Leon McMorrow. (1998). Breaking the Gereco-Roman mold in medical writing, pp 13-28.

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