Regional Geology Reviews

Series Editors Roland Oberhänsli, Potsdam, Brandenburg, Germany Maarten J. de Wit, AEON-ESSRI, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa François M. Roure, Rueil-Malmaison, France The Geology of series seeks to systematically present the geology of each country, region and continent on Earth. Each book aims to provide the reader with the state-of-the-art understanding of a regions geology with subsequent updated editions appearing every 5 to 10 years and accompanied by an online “must read” reference list, which will be updated each year. The books should form the basis of understanding that students, researchers and professional geologists require when beginning investigations in a particular area and are encouraged to include as much information as possible such as: Maps and Cross-sections, Past and current models, Geophysical investigations, Geochemical Datasets, Economic Geology, Geotourism (Geoparks etc), Geo-environmental/ecological concerns, etc.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8643 Zakaria Hamimi • Ahmed El-Barkooky • Jesús Martínez Frías • Harald Fritz • Yasser Abd El-Rahman Editors

The Geology of

123 Editors Zakaria Hamimi Ahmed El-Barkooky Department of Geology Department of Geology Benha University University Benha, Egypt Giza, Egypt

Jesús Martínez Frías Harald Fritz Institutes of Geosciences Department of Geology and Environment Ciudad University Earth Science Madrid, Spain University of Graz Vienna, Austria Yasser Abd El-Rahman Department of Geology Giza, Egypt

ISSN 2364-6438 ISSN 2364-6446 (electronic) Regional Geology Reviews ISBN 978-3-030-15264-2 ISBN 978-3-030-15265-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15265-9

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Book Cover Photo: Gravity-controlled east-vergent recumbent fold in the area north of Nuweiba’ City, western side of Gulf of Aqaba, Sinai (Photo by: Prof. M.A. Abd El-Wahed, Tanta University, Egypt)

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Preface

Why This Book?

The passion to understand the Geology of Egypt could be traced back to 1150 BC. In this year, the oldest geological map in the world was prepared to illustrate the geology of the Hammamat-Fawakhir area in the central part of the Eastern Desert of Egypt. This beautifully colored papyrus map, which is preserved in the Egyptian Museum in Turin (Italy), describes the distribution of sedimentary and igneous, mostly granitic, rocks in black and red colors, respectively. The map shows also the siltstone and sandstone (Bekhen stone) quarry and the -bearing quartz veins and the settlements that are related to the gold exploitation from the igneous rocks at Bir Umm Fawakhir area. In 1990 (A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam), Rushdi Said invited 40 scholars to participate in assembling the large amount of information that was accumulated since his earlier book on the Geology of Egypt, which was published by Elsevier in 1962. From 1990 to 2019, huge amount of data stemmed from advances in many techniques have been accumulated on diverse disciplines related to the geological evolution of Egypt. Thus, various ideas have been changed and many new models have been raised regarding our understanding of the geology of Egypt. In such circumstances, a new updated book on the Geology of Egypt becomes a must to integrate these new enormous data and to exhibit the revised thoughts and new models related to the geological evolution of Egypt. This is exactly the aim of our resurgent “Geology of Egypt” book, which presents the essence of data accumulated for almost 30 years since 1990 and their interpretation from the perspectives of the invited authors.

Content

This volume contains 18 chapters written by the following 58 contributors (arranged in alphabetical order): Abd El-Aziz Khairy Abd El-Aal, Abdel-Rahman Fowler, Adel R. Moustafa, Adel Surour, Ahmed El-Kammar, Ahmed Hassan Ahmed, Ahmed Madani, Ahmed N. El-Barkooky, Amr Abdelnasser, Baher El Kalioubi, Basem Zoheir, Bassem Abdellatif, Fathy Abdalla, Fekri A. Hassan, Hassan Khozyem, Hassan M. Helmy, John Dolson, K. R. McClay, Kamal Ali, Kamal Sakr, Karim Abdelmalik, L. Folco, M. Ligi, Marwah M. Kamal El-Din, Mohamed A. Hamdan, Mohamed Abd El-Wahed, Mohamed Ahmed, Mohamed El-Ahmadi Ibrahim, Mohamed El-Alfy, Mohamed El-Rawy, Mohamed El-Sharkawi, Mohamed Z. El-Bialy, Mona H. Darwish, Mortada El Aref, Nader A. Edress, Nagy Shawky Botros, Robert J. Stern, Samar Nour-El-Deen, Samir Khalil, Sultan Awad Sultan Araffa, W. Bosworth, W. U. Reimold, Wael Hagag, Wagieh E. El-Saadawi, Yasser Abdelrahman, Zainab M. El-Noamani, Zakaria Hamimi. We would like first to thank all of them for their valuable and impressive contributions to the Geology of Egypt. Chapter 1 “History of the Geological Research in Egypt” comprises six separate sections. In the first section, Mohamed El-Sharkawi highlighted the stages of the geological research in

v vi Preface

Egypt before the establishment of the Egyptian Geological Survey and Stages after. Hume’s book and Said’s ‘62 & ‘90 Books are dealt with in this part. In the second section, Nagy Shawky Botros shed much light on the History of geological mapping in Egypt since the Turin papyrus map that was drawn during the reign of Ramses IV (1156–1150 BC) and reveals the Bekhen stone quarries and the Fawakhir gold mines in the Wadi Hammamat in the Eastern Desert of Egypt. He addresses three episodes of mapping. In the third section, Ahmed A. Madani provides a noteworthy idea about the geological remote sensing publications in Egypt throughout some statistics on Satellite Sensors and techniques. In fourth section, Mohamed Ahmed and Bassam Abdellatif dealt with monitoring spatiotemporal variabilities in Egypt’s groundwater resources using GRACE data. In fifth section, Yasser M. Abd El-Rahman gave a comprehensive idea about geochronological measurements of the Egyptian basement complex and associated mineralization. In the last section, Sultan Awad Sultan Araffa briefly described several airborne survey data which are mainly magnetic, electromagnetic and in several sur- veys, total count (TC) radiation for Thorium, Uranium, and Potassium elements data. These airborne surveys were carried out for some authorities and institutions in Egypt, such as the Egyptian Geological Survey and Authority (EGSMA), the Nuclear Materials Cor- poration (NMC), the Desert Research Institute (DRI), and the Egyptian General Corporation (EGPC). Chapter 2 “Precambrian Basement Complex of Egypt, by Mohammed Z. El-Bialy” reviews different aspects of the Precambrian basement complex of Egypt based on the author’s*quarter-century research experience in the petrology and geochemistry of the dif- ferent basement rocks both in Sinai and the Eastern Desert of Egypt. This chapter presents integrated digest of the up-to-date published information, data, and ideas on the various Precambrian basement rock units. Apart from the introduction section, this chapter discusses three main topics, namely, nature and evolution of the basement crust, review of the Egyptian basement classifications and the Precambrian basement succession. The last topic is the most voluminous and covers the major part of the chapter. This foremost section provides a comprehensive preview on these basement rock units in a geochronological order starting from the oldest Archean–Mesoproterozoic “Metacratonic Gneisses of Uweinat-Kamil inlier”. With the exception of the Neoproterozoic “Alaskan-type mafic-ultramafic complexes” and “Katherina Volcanics” rock units, introduced herein for the first time, the rest of rock units dealt with have been formerly identified, although under different names, in earlier classifications. Chapter 3 “Structural and Tectonic Framework of Neoproterozoic Basement of Egypt: From Gneiss Domes to Transpression Belts, by: Abdel-Rahman Fowler and Zakaria Hamimi” addresses the Neoproterozoic tectonic evolution of the Egyptian Eastern Desert basement which is documented, predominantly through its history of structural events, and to a lesser degree, important magmatic and sedimentation events. Main outline of this chapter includes (1) introductory statement, (2) regional context of the Egyptian Eastern Desert in the Arabian– Nubian Shield and East African Orogen, (3) major tectonic events from oldest to youngest, and the evidence for the latest Mesoproterozoic rifting of Rodinia in Sinai, and features of the oldest gneissic complexes (Feiran-Solaf and Sa’al complexes), (4) aspects of the intra-oceanic subduction stage and consequent arc–arc and arc–continent collisions, and suturing of ter- ranes, (5) the orogenic extension stage, including appraisal of the evidence and scale of extension, its possible tectonic origins (rifting, tectonic escape and extrusion, orogenic col- lapse, mantle delamination, etc.), and its role in the exhumation of distinctive gneissic dome structure, best represented by the Meatiq complex, and (6) post-extension compressional events, primarily as recorded in the deformation of the extension-stage Hammamat molasse basins Chapter 4 “Crustal Evolution of the Egyptian Precambrian Rocks, by: Robert J. Stern and Kamal Ali” summarizes what is known about the exposed continental crust of Egypt which is exposed in 10% of the country. Basement exposures are in three main areas: the southern Sinai, the Eastern Desert, and discontinuous exposures in the Western Desert, just north of the Preface vii

border with Sudan. The overwhelming majority of basement rock exposures are of Neopro- terozoic age, between *850 Ma and 570 Ma in age. Significant similarities as well as dif- ferences are shown between three main subdivisions of the Eastern Desert: the Northern Eastern Desert, the Central Eastern Desert, and the South Eastern Desert. These three regions of Neoproterozoic crust also share similarities and differences with Neoproterozoic exposures in southern Sinai. A small proportion of exposed Egyptian crust is pre-Neoproterozoic in age. The oldest rocks, of Archean (3.3–25 Ga) and Paleoproterozoic (*2.1–1.9 Ga) age, are found in far southwestern Egypt. The next oldest rocks, a small exposure of Late Mesoproterozoic age (*1.1 Ga), are found in Sinai. We know almost nothing about crust buried beneath Phanerozoic sediments in the Western Desert and northern Sinai. The chapter summarizes what we know and also discusses work that needs to be done. Chapter 5 “Suture(s) and Major Shear Zones in the Neoproterozoic Basement of Egypt, by: Zakaria Hamimi and Mohamed A. Abd El-Wahed” reviews major shear zones traversing the Egyptian–Nubian Shield, such as Hamisana, Hodein-Kharite, Nugrus, Atallah Mubarak- Barramiya, and Abu Dabbab Shear Zones. It addresses also the Allaqi–Heiani Suture which is regarded as the western segment of the enormous arc–arc Allaqi–Heiani-Oneib-Sol Hamid-Yanbu Suture Zone. The authors classified megashears encountered in the Egyp- tian–Nubian Shield into two main groups; syn-accretion and post-accretion shear zones; the first group resulted from the collision between E- and W- Gondwanalands. The predominantly Neoproterozoic basement complex outcropping in the Egyptian–Nubian Shield is traversed by map-scale semi-ductile–semi-brittle shear zones of variable orientations, dimensions, and ages. These shear zones are consistent and in complete harmony with those encountered elsewhere in the entire Arabian–Nubian Shield in terms of their extensions, widths, and degree and sense of shearing. Chapter 6 “The Metamorphism and Deformation of the Basement Complex in Egypt, by: Baher El Kalioubi, Abdel-Rahman Fowler and Karim Abdelmalik” is the product of integrated efforts of these three scholars in their individual areas of specialization and experience, namely, metamorphic petrology, structural geology and remote sensing, and geological mapping. This voluminous chapter discusses, in somewhat depth, the metamorphic and structural evolution of the Precambrian basement complex in Egypt. Emphasis is given to providing comprehensive quintessential case examples for gneissic complexes, ophiolite sequences, syn-kinematic granitoids, and shear zones. One of the great assets of this chapter is the concentrated information it presents from the wealth of recent published data on the geochronology of various basement rock units in Egypt. Chapter 7 “Mesozoic-Cenozoic Deformation History of Egypt, by Adel R. Moustafa” discusses the Mesozoic–Cenozoic deformation history of Egypt based on the author’s *35 years’ experience of detailed surface structural mapping of different areas in northern Egypt as well as subsurface structural knowledge based on his work with different oil companies. The chapter also derives information from the wealth of published data on the Phanerozoic structures of Egypt. Four main phases of deformation discussed in this chapter have been attributed to the movements between the African Plate and the surrounding plates. These phases are Tethyan (NE-SW to ENE-WSW) rifting, Cretaceous–Early Tertiary (NW–SE to WNW–ESE) rifting, Late Cretaceous–Tertiary inversion of the Tethyan basins, and continued compressional deformation of other areas till present day. A fourth phase of Neogene–Recent deformation in the Gulf of Suez–Gulf of Aqaba–Red Sea area is referred to in this chapter but detailed in a separate chapter (Moustafa and Khalil, Chap. 8). Chapter 8 “Structural Setting and Tectonic Evolution of the Gulf of Suez, NW Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba Rift Systems, by Adel R. Moustafa and Samir M. Khalil” deals with the extensional deformation of the Gulf of Suez–Red Sea area that started in Late Oligocene and continues to the present time in the Red Sea. The structures of the Gulf of Aqaba area and its western onshore area as part of the Dead Sea Transform are also discussed in this chapter. The authors’ long experience in field structural mapping of the exposed parts of the Gulf of Suez and Red Sea rifts represents the backbone of this chapter. The geometry of rift structures is viii Preface well explained based on subsurface structural data from hydrocarbon exploration in the Gulf of Suez rift. The chapter includes description of the pre-rift structures of the area, the tectonostratigraphy of the Gulf of Suez/Red Sea area, the geometry of the faults (their orientations, dip angles, pattern, etc.), the geometry of the accommodation zones between the different half grabens, the stages of rift evolution, and neotectonic activity. Chapter 9 “Geology of Egypt: The Northern Red Sea by: W. Bosworth, S. M. Khalil, M. Ligi, D. F. Stockli and K. R. McClay” discusses the onshore and offshore margin of the Egyptian northern Red Sea. Authors Bosworth, Khalil, Ligi, Stockli, and McClay integrate results from fieldwork, petrological, geochemical and geochronometric studies, natural seismicity, industry reflection seismic surveys, and exploratory drilling to produce a synthetic view of the evolution of this young continental rift. The onset of rifting is represented by local, structurally controlled deposits of red beds, probably of latest Oligocene age. The first well-dated syn-rift event is the eruption of a regional dike swarm and local basalt flows centered at 23 Ma. This volcanism is synchronous with similar eruptions that extend through to Yemen and the Afar. Early Miocene extension resulted in the formation of a complex, discontinuous fault pattern, high rates offault block rotation, and initiation of uplift of the Red Sea Hills rift shoulder. Through time the intra-rift fault networks coalesced into through-going structures and fault movement became progressively more focused along the rapidly extending rift axis. This reconfiguration of the rift structure resulted in more laterally continuous depositional facies, the preponderance of moderate-to-deep marine deposits, and eventually the formation of an axial trough with localized oceanic-style volcanism. Throughout the rifting process, gabbroic rocks were intruded into the sub-Red Sea crust at progressively shallower depths. These gabbros are now exposed at Zabargad and the Brothers Islands and have been penetrated in an offshore exploratory well. Initiation of the Gulf of Aqaba–Dead Sea transform margin in the Middle Miocene resulted in a change from NE– SW rift-orthogonal to NNE–SSW highly oblique Red Sea extension and abandonment of most opening of the Gulf of Suez. Despite the development of hyper-extended continental crust and the local presence of volcanism at axial deeps, laterally integrated seafloor spreading has not yet manifest itself in the northern Red Sea. Chapter 10 “ Seismicity, Seismotectonics and Neotectonics in Egypt” addresses four main topics: (1) historical earthquakes and seismotectonic zones in Egypt, by: Abd El-Aziz Khairy Abd El-Aal, (2) application of EMR Data in detecting seismotectonic zones in Egypt, by: Wael Hagag, (3) role of GPS measurements in seismological study in Egypt, by: Kamal Sakr, and (4) application of InSAR data in ground deformation monitoring, by: Mohamed Saleh. Chapter 11 “Impact Craters and Meteorites: The Egyptian Record, by: L. Folco1, W. U. Reimold and A. El-Barkooky” offers a detailed account of the present Egyptian impact record and of the Egyptian meteorite collection. The authors provide an overview of the impact cratering process, with basic information for understanding its importance as a geo- logical process and for identifying new impact structures and their ejecta. This is followed by a review of current knowledge on the 45-m-diameter Kamil Crater—the only confirmed impact structure in Egypt, and by a discussion of the nonimpact origin of several crater-like circular structures superficially resembling impact craters in the Western Desert of Egypt, as well as of the proposed impact origin of Libyan Desert Glass and Dakhleh Glass. Folco et al. sub- sequently provide a general introduction to meteorites that highlights their fundamental role in our understanding of the origin and evolution of the solar system. They then provide an overview of the Egyptian meteorite collection, which comprises 78 meteorites including the *10 kg rare Martian meteorite fall of 1911—Nakhla, and discuss the potential of Egyptian deserts for systematic searches for meteorites. An account of the role of meteoritic iron in the Egyptian archeo-anthropological record and its bearing on the history of human civilization is also provided. The chapter ends with a discussion of future perspectives for meteoritics and planetary science in Egypt. Chapter 12 “Quaternary of Egypt, by: Mohamed A. Hamdan and Fekri A. Hassan” introduces an up-to-date synthesis of recent research on high-resolution and well-dated paleo-environmental archives. This chapter provides proxy data to understand the emerging Preface ix

picture of the impact of climate change on sediments, paleo environments, and landscapes in Egypt as a whole. Chapter 13 “Fossil Flora of Egypt, by: Wagieh E. El-Saadawi, Samar Nour-El-Deen, Zainab M. El-Noamani, Mona H. Darwish and Marwah M. Kamal El-Din” summarizes the results of two centuries of laborious investigations. Emphasis was placed on fossil remains as elements of the biota in the geologic history of Egypt and as indicators of paleoclimate, paleoenvironment, and their significance with respect to biostratigraphy and dating. The paleoflora of Egypt is very rich and diverse consisted of a mixture of the major plant groups extended from the Devonian to the Quaternary. The discovered fossil plant remains include algae, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms, and palynomorphs of all groups. Very little is known about fossil fungi. Fossil evidence of bacteria and bryophytes (except their spores) is generally lacking. Paleoclimate inferences of different geologic epochs are given based on the studied fossil plants. The provided illustrations of micro- and macrofossils and the map of the main fossiliferous sites add to the interest and value of the chapter. Chapter 14 “Mineral Resources in Egypt (I): Metallic Ores” highlights nine metallic ore deposits: (1) iron ores of Egypt, by: Mortada El Aref, (2) Egyptian BIF: Glaciogenic versus Hydrothermal Origin?, by: Yasser Abd El-Rahman, (3) Orogenic Gold in the Eastern Desert, Egypt, by: Basem Zoheir, (4) Titanium-rich deposits (Titaniferous Deposits and black sand), by: Adel Surour, (5) Sulfide and Precious Metal Deposits in Egypt, by Hassan M. Helmy, (6) Industrial Metal Oxides (Sn, W, Ta, Nb, and Mo), by: Amr Abdelnasser, (7) Chromite Deposits in Egypt, by: Ahmed Hassan Ahmed, (8) Low Grade Uranium Occurrences in the Basement Rocks of Egypt, by: Mohamed El-Ahmadi Ibrahim, and (9) Egyptian Manganese Deposits, by: Mortada El Aref. Chapter 15 “Mineral Resources in Egypt (II): Non-metallic Ore Deposits” reviews four main items: (1) phosphate deposits in Egypt, by: Ahmed El-Kammar, (2) white sand (glass sand or silica sand), by: Adel Surour, (3) argillic deposits, by: Mohamed El-Sharkawi, and (4) review on some evaporate deposits in Egypt, by: Hassan Khozyem. Egypt produces phosphate ore on a commercial scale since about a century where its share in 2015 is 2.5% of the total world production. Applying new mining methods especially in the Red Sea and Abu Tartur, exploration, and beneficiation of the medium and low-grade ore may drive the present 5.5 m tons annual production of Egypt to a prosperous frontier. Phosphate deposits in Egypt belong to the Late Cretaceous–Paleogene time interval where stratigraphic boundaries are strongly time-transgressive. They belong to the Late Cretaceous Tethyan phosphogenic Province that has regional extension in the Middle East and North Africa. They distributed in the Egyptian territories among seven main domains, some of them are not yet exploited. The main apatite variety in the marine sedimentary phosphorites including those of Egypt is the

carbonate fluorapatite “francolite” that contains 3 to 5% F, with F/P2O5 ratio of about 0.12 in average. The francolite lattice has 9.335 ± 0.028 Å and 6.899 ± 0,018 Å for ao and co dimensions, respectively, whereas the lattice volume is 520 ± 4 Å3. The calculated

empirical formulae are Ca9.22 (Sr,La,..)0.63(OH)0.15P5.12(C,S,..)0.88(F1.46O22.71)OH0.83 and Ca9.21(Sr,La,..)0.75(OH)0.04P5.05(C,S,..)0.95(F1.52O22.72)OH0.76 for the weathered and non-weathered francolite, respectively. In average, the abundance of the heavy metals in the Egyptian phosphorites follow the order: Zn > V > Co > Cu > Pb > Mo > Cd > Sn. However, the phosphorites of the Red Sea region accumulate higher quotient of the heavy metals compared with those of the Valley and Abu Tartur. The later occurrence is a better accumulator of the terrestrial elements such as Th, Sc, Zr, Hf, Nb, Ta, and LREE. Consid- eration should be given to the peculiarities of the single beds in each geographic occurrence. The phosphorites that deposited at the beginning of the Late Cretaceous transgression event occur at the base of the Duwi Formation, or even intercalated within the uppermost Quseir (Variegated Shale) Formation. These beds represent the shallowest basin forming the southern limits of the Tethyan phosphogenic belt and can be encountered in Hammadat south Quseir, south Edfu (e.g., in Fawaza and Silwa villages), and the lower bed of Abu Tartur plateau. All x Preface these phosphate beds are remarkably rich in REE+Y (>1000 ppm). The radioactivity of phosphate is essentially related to U-decay series and not Th-decay series. Chapter 16 “The Petroleum Geology of Egypt and History of Exploration, by: John Dol- son” approaches understanding the petroleum systems of Egypt from the eyes of the pioneering explorers who have developed Egypt’s hydrocarbon resources. In the words of Wallace Pratt, and early founder of AAPG, “Where oil is first found, is in the minds of men (and women)”. Although oil was known to Egyptians for thousands of years through seeps along the Sinai margin of the Gulf of Suez, real growth in reserves did not occur until the late 1950s and 1960s. Today, Egypt’s petroleum resource continues to expand dramatically, with new giant trends discovered in deep waters offshore and to the east in the Levant Basin. Our current understanding of the basins and petroleum systems of Egypt continues to evolve. Big advances in finding rates and plays can occur from only three types of innovations. The first is the concepts themselves, pursued through creative and rigorous analysis of data and tech- niques available at any given time. While some people look back on historical explorers as ‘old school’, they fail to recognize that the technologies used for breakthrough exploration in those early periods were ‘cutting edge’ for the geoscientists of their time. Second, new technology, such as 3D seismic, horizontal drilling, or workstation integration tools provide additional ways to find new resources. But without proper fiscal terms and government reg- ulations, great concepts and technology often sit idle for decades before being applied. This chapter illustrates the evolution of thought, technology, fiscal terms, and other innovations that has led to giant resources continuing to be found today in basins with stacked pays from Precambrian through Pliocene strata. Chapter 17 “Other Fuel Resources” summarizes (1) the oil shale, by: Ahmed El-Kammar, and (2) coal, by: Nader A. A. Edress. The first section draws the attention to the critical importance of the indigenous oil shale resources in Egypt as a genuine replacement for the continuously depleting conventional resources. It is important to endorse environmentally friendly development and utilization of oil shale as a part of our energy security strategy. Detailed exploration of predictable prolific oil shale resources in Egypt is mandatory. The dry basis Fischer assay data suggest that the oil shale in Quseir-Safaga produces oil yield which ranges between 35 and 120 liters per ton. This oil shale has an immature nature, mostly of marine liptinite composition and shall be potential upon retorting. Because of the anoxic conditions of deposition it is markedly enriched in the multivalent redox-sensitive elements such as Cd, Mo, V, Zn, and U. Some of these metals are extractable on a commercial scale. The factor analysis of large volume of data (54 variable of 423 metric core samples containing more than 4% TOC) suggests four controlling factors, namely, marine, terrestrial, anoxic, and oxic influence during sedimentation. Acids generated from the breakdown of organic matter and sulfides enhance weathering even by dew, but mostly during the pluvial periods. Oil shale, in particular, is readily vulnerable to chemical weathering. The total mass loss of black shales upon chemical weathering under arid environments is estimated to be about 45%, on average. Oil shale spent shale (ash) is a by-product of retorting and it may cause a serious environ- mental hazard if not properly utilized. It is mainly applied as road mortar and to improve the stabilization of constructions. It is also used as additives for the Portland cement industry. The modern application of spent shale includes the production of heavy metals, polymers, and remediation of polluted and acid soil. Chapter 18 “Water Resources in Egypt” includes two sections: (1) surface water resources in Egypt, by: Mustafa El-Rawy and Fathy Abdalla and (2) groundwater resources in Egypt, by: Mohamed El Alfy and Fathy Abdalla. From the late Eocene up to the late Middle Pleistocene, Egypt was a wet country due to the rainfall and rivers running through it. Recently, Egypt is experiencing a severe water shortage that is expected to worsen because of the increasing demand for water for domestic, agricultural, and industrial use. Water resources in Egypt include the river Nile, in addition to the renewable and nonrenewable groundwater, domestic wastewater, desalinated water, rainfall, and flash floods. The river Nile, which originates outside the country, is considered to be the lifeblood of Egypt contributing Preface xi

about 97% of the renewable water resources with 55.5 BCM/y. The main groundwater resources in Egypt are the Nile Valley and Nile Delta and Nubian Sandstone aquifers in the Western Desert and . Various minor aquifers are available locally in the coastal areas, and the eastern and western Nile Delta; however, new strategies for the development of these water resources must be implemented.

Benha, Egypt Zakaria Hamimi Giza, Egypt Ahmed El-Barkooky Madrid, Spain Jesús Martínez Frías Vienna, Austria Harald Fritz Giza, Egypt Yasser Abd El-Rahman Acknowledgements

The editors gratefully acknowledge the following reviewers (arranged in alphabetical order) for their great help, constructive criticism, and valuable comments: Abdalla Bamousa, Abdel-Rahman Fowler, Abbra Mogessie, Ahmed El Kammar, Alvaro P. Crósta, Baher El Kalioubi, Broder Merkel, Dave Blanchard, Dubravko Lučić, George A. Brook, Harald Fritz, Hassan Helmy, Hassan Harraz, Jean-Paul Liégeois, Jeremy Boak, Joe Versfelt, John Dolson, Karl Föllmi, László Kocsis, Mark Jessell, Mohamed Abd El-Wahed, Mohamed El Sharkawy, Mohamed Z. El-Bialy, Mohamed A. Rashed, Mortada El Aref, Moustafa El-Rawy, Mustapha Meghraoui, Peter Johnson, Pierre Rochette, Rakesh C. Mehrotra, Roger Flower, Said Maouche, Said Matbouly, Samir AbdelMoaty, Sebastian Lüning, Stanislav Opluštil, Steven R Manch- ester, Thierry Adatte, Timothy Jull, Thomas Grischek, Vasit Sagan, W. Bosworth, Walid Salama, Yasser Abdelrahman, Yehia Dawood, Younes Hamed, and Zakaria Hamimi.

xiii Contents

1 History of the Geological Research in Egypt ...... 1 Mohamed El-Sharkawi, Nagy Shawky Botros, Ahmed A. Madani, Mohamed Ahmed, Bassam Abdellatif, Yasser M. Abd El-Rahman, and Sultan Awad Sultan Araffa 1.1 Stages Before the Geological Survey and Stages After ...... 2 1.1.1 Hume’s Book ...... 3 1.1.2 Said’s ‘62 & ‘90 Books ...... 5 1.2 History of Geological Mapping in Egypt ...... 6 1.2.1 Introduction ...... 6 1.2.2 First Episode of Mapping ...... 7 1.2.3 Second Episode of Mapping ...... 7 1.2.4 Third Episode of Mapping ...... 9 1.3 Geological Remote Sensing Publications in Egypt: Some Statistics on Satellite Sensors and Techniques ...... 12 1.3.1 Introduction ...... 12 1.3.2 A Review on Geological Remote Sensing Publications in Egypt (from 1998 till 2017): Statistical Approach ...... 13 1.3.3 Concluding Remarks ...... 18 1.4 Monitoring Spatiotemporal Variabilities in Egypt’s Groundwater Resources Using GRACE Data ...... 18 1.4.1 Introduction ...... 19 1.4.2 Data and Methods ...... 19 1.4.3 Results and Discussion ...... 21 1.4.4 Summary and Conclusions ...... 22 1.5 Geochronological Measurements ...... 23 1.6 Airborne Geophysical Mapping ...... 25 1.6.1 Period from 1962–1978 ...... 25 1.6.2 Period from 1980–1984 ...... 29 References ...... 29

2 Precambrian Basement Complex of Egypt ...... 37 Mohammed Z. El-Bialy 2.1 Introduction ...... 38 2.2 Nature and Evolution of the Basement Crust ...... 39 2.3 Review of the Egyptian Basement Classifications ...... 40 2.3.1 Classification of Hume (1934) ...... 40 2.3.2 Classification of Schürmann (1953, 1966) ...... 40 2.3.3 Classification of El Ramly and Akaad (1960) ...... 41 2.3.4 Classification of El Shazly (1964) ...... 41 2.3.5 Classification of Akaad and Noweir (1969, 1980) ...... 42 2.3.6 El Ramly’s (1972) Classification ...... 42 2.3.7 The Classification of Ries et al. (1983) ...... 42

xv xvi Contents

2.3.8 Classification of Bentor (1985) ...... 42 2.3.9 The Classification of El Gaby et al. (1988, 1990) ...... 43 2.3.10 The Classification of Ragab and El Alfy (1996) ...... 43 2.4 The Precambrian Basement Succession ...... 44 2.4.1 Metacratonic Gniesses of Uweinat-Kamil Inlier ...... 44 2.4.2 Infrastructural Gneissic Complexes ...... 47 2.4.3 Ophiolite Sequences ...... 49 2.4.4 Arc Metavolcanics ...... 54 2.4.5 Metasediments ...... 56 2.4.6 Alaskan-Type Mafic-Ultramafic Complexes ...... 60 2.4.7 Metagabbro-Diorite Complex ...... 60 2.4.8 Egyptian Granitoids ...... 61 2.4.9 Dokhan Volcanics ...... 64 2.4.10 Hammamat Group ...... 66 2.4.11 Post Hammamat Felsites ...... 68 2.4.12 Postcollisional Layered and Gabbro Intrusions ...... 68 2.4.13 Katherina A-Type Volcanics ...... 70 References ...... 72 3 Structural and Tectonic Framework of Neoproterozoic Basement of Egypt: From Gneiss Domes to Transpression Belts ...... 81 Abdel-Rahman Fowler and Zakaria Hamimi 3.1 Introduction ...... 82 3.2 Egyptian Precambrian Basement in the Context of NE African Geology ...... 84 3.2.1 The East African Orogen (EAO) ...... 86 3.2.2 The Arabian-Nubian Shield (ANS) ...... 87 3.3 Earliest Neoproterozoic Deformation Events ...... 89 3.3.1 Feiran-Solaf Metamorphic Complex ...... 89 3.3.2 Sa’al-Zaghra Metamorphic Complex ...... 89 3.4 Arc Accretion Stage ...... 90 3.4.1 Arc-Arc Sutures: Timing and Kinematics of the Arc Collisions ...... 90 3.4.2 Tectonic Environment of the Ophiolitic Material ...... 94 3.4.3 Mechanisms of Emplacement of the Ophiolitic Mélange ...... 94 3.4.4 Calc-Alkaline ‘Subduction’-Related (‘Older’) Granitoids of the Arc and Arc-Collision Stage ...... 94 3.4.5 Further Models for the Arc-Collision Stage of the ANS ...... 95 3.5 Orogenic Extension Stage ...... 100 3.5.1 Early Recognition and Interpretation of Extensional Tectonism in the NED ...... 100 3.5.2 Tectonic Extension in the Areas South of the NED ...... 100 3.5.3 Geological Features that Have Been Attributed to the Tectonic Extension Stage ...... 102 3.5.4 Proposed Mechanisms of the  600 Ma Extension Tectonic Event ...... 107 3.6 Post-extensional Compressional Deformation Events ...... 109 3.6.1 E-W to NE-SW Trending Folds and Thrusts (Post-Hammamat NW-SE Compression Event) ...... 110 3.6.2 NW-SE Trending Folds and Thrusts (NE-SW Compression Event) ...... 112 3.6.3 NW-SE Sinistral Najd Faulting and E-W Transpression ...... 112 3.6.4 N-S Shortening Zones ...... 115 Contents xvii

3.7 Commentary on Major Points Covered in This Chapter ...... 118 References ...... 119

4 Crustal Evolution of the Egyptian Precambrian Rocks ...... 131 Robert J. Stern and Kamal Ali 4.1 Introduction ...... 132 4.2 Sinai ...... 134 4.3 Eastern Desert ...... 136 4.3.1 The North Eastern Desert ...... 136 4.3.2 The Central Eastern Desert ...... 138 4.3.3 The South Eastern Desert ...... 142 4.4 Aswan and the Southwestern Desert ...... 145 4.5 Buried Crust of the Western Desert ...... 146 4.6 Conclusions ...... 147 References ...... 148 5 Suture(s) and Major Shear Zones in the Neoproterozoic Basement of Egypt ...... 153 Zakaria Hamimi and Mohamed A. Abd El-Wahed 5.1 Introduction ...... 154 5.2 Arc-Arc Sutures ...... 155 5.2.1 Allaqi-Heiani Suture ...... 156 5.2.2 South Hafafit Suture (?) ...... 158 5.3 Shear Zones in the Egyptian Nubian Shield ...... 159 5.3.1 Syn-accretion Shear Zones ...... 159 5.3.2 Post-accretion Shear Zones ...... 160 5.3.3 Shear Zone-Related Gneiss Domes ...... 171 5.4 Shear Zone-Related Mineralizations ...... 178 5.5 Discussion ...... 182 References ...... 184 6 The Metamorphism and Deformation of the Basement Complex in Egypt ...... 191 Baher El Kalioubi, Abdel-Rahman Fowler, and Karim Abdelmalik 6.1 Introduction ...... 193 6.2 The Precambrian Basement Rocks of Egypt ...... 194 6.2.1 Tier 1 and Tier 2 Crustal Levels ...... 194 6.2.2 Opposing Interpretations of Tier 1 and Tier 2 ...... 195 6.2.3 The ANS and the Mozambique Belt ...... 196 6.3 Gneissic Complexes of the Eastern and Western Deserts and Sinai ...... 196 6.3.1 Gabal Meatiq Complex ...... 196 6.3.2 Gabal El-Sibai Complex ...... 199 6.3.3 El-Shalul Complex ...... 201 6.3.4 Wadi Um Had Complex ...... 201 6.3.5 Ras Barud Complex ...... 202 6.3.6 Migif-Hafafit Complex ...... 202 6.3.7 Wadi El-Hudi Complex ...... 204 6.3.8 Wadi Haimur–Abu Swayel Complex ...... 204 6.3.9 Wadi Beitan Complex ...... 205 6.3.10 Wadi Kharit and Wadi Khuda Complexes ...... 206 6.3.11 Western Desert Complexes ...... 206 6.3.12 Gneisses Belts in Southern Sinai...... 207 xviii Contents

6.4 The Question of Pre-Pan-African Crustal Beneath the Eastern Desert and Sinai ...... 212 6.4.1 Radiometric Dating (Rb-Sr, U-Pb, Pb-Pb, Sm-Nd) ...... 213 6.4.2 Pb Isotope Studies ...... 214 6.4.3 Initial Sr Isotope Ratios ...... 214

6.4.4 Initial ɛNd Values and Nd sDM Model Ages ...... 215 6.4.5 Tectonic Significance of the “Gneissic Complexes” ...... 215 6.5 Ophiolite Sequences and Ophiolitic Melange ...... 216 6.5.1 Complete Ophiolite Sequences in the EED ...... 217 6.5.2 Serpentinites, Ophiolitic Mélange and Talc-Carbonate Rocks ... 218 6.6 Metasediments ...... 221 6.6.1 Mature Quartzites and Metacarbonates ...... 221 6.6.2 Immature Metagreywackes and Metamudstones ...... 222 6.6.3 Banded Iron Formations ...... 223 6.7 Metavolcanics and Metapyroclastics ...... 224 6.7.1 Older Metavolcanics ...... 225 6.7.2 Younger Metavolcanics ...... 225 6.8 Metamorphosed Plutonic Association ...... 227 6.8.1 Metagabbro-Diorite Complex ...... 227 6.8.2 Older or Synkinematic Granitoids ...... 228 6.9 Shear Zones ...... 231 6.9.1 Nugrus Shear Zone ...... 231 6.9.2 Sha’it Shear Zone ...... 233 6.9.3 Eastern Desert Shear Zone ...... 233 6.10 Hammamat Sequences ...... 235 6.10.1 Features of the Hammamat Basins ...... 235 6.10.2 Metamorphic Aspects of the Hammamat Basins ...... 236 References ...... 238

7 Mesozoic-Cenozoic Deformation History of Egypt ...... 253 Adel R. Moustafa 7.1 Introduction ...... 253 7.2 Phases of Deformation ...... 254 7.2.1 Early Mesozoic Tethyan Rifting ...... 256 7.2.2 Cretaceous Rifting ...... 258 7.2.3 Late Cretaceous to Recent Tethyan Convergence ...... 260 7.3 Tectonic Evolution ...... 287 References ...... 290 8 Structural Setting and Tectonic Evolution of the Gulf of Suez, NW Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba Rift Systems ...... 295 Adel R. Moustafa and Samir M. Khalil 8.1 Introduction ...... 296 8.2 Plate Tectonic Setting ...... 296 8.3 Bathymetry of the Gulf of Suez, Northen Red Sea, and Gulf of Aqaba ...... 298 8.4 Tectonostratigraphy of the Gulf of Suez and Northern Red Sea ...... 299 8.4.1 Pre-rift Sequences ...... 301 8.4.2 Syn-rift Sequences ...... 302 8.4.3 Post-rift Sequence of the Suez Rift ...... 306 8.5 Structural Geometry of the Gulf of Suez and Northwestern Red Sea ..... 306 8.5.1 Pre-rift Structures of the Gulf of Suez and Northwestern Red Sea ...... 312 Contents xix

8.5.2 Rift Geometry ...... 314 8.6 Impact of Tectonics on Sedimentation in the Gulf of Suez and Northwestern Red Sea ...... 326 8.6.1 Wedge-Shaped Syn-rift Units ...... 327 8.6.2 Erosion of Updip Areas of Tilted Fault Blocks ...... 327 8.6.3 Syn-rift Carbonate Build-Ups ...... 328 8.6.4 Structural Control on Deposition of Syn-rift Coarse Clastics ... 330 8.7 Gulf of Aqaba ...... 330 8.8 Tectonic Evolution of the Gulf of Suez—NW Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba Area ...... 332 References ...... 337

9 Geology of Egypt: The Northern Red Sea ...... 343 W. Bosworth, S. M. Khalil, M. Ligi, D. F. Stockli, and K. R. McClay 9.1 Introduction ...... 344 9.2 Geophysics of the Northern Red Sea and Environs ...... 346 9.2.1 Seismicity ...... 346 9.2.2 Crustal Structure and Depth to Moho ...... 351 9.2.3 Present-Day Plate Motions ...... 352 9.3 Petrology and Geochemistry of Red Sea Magmatism ...... 352 9.4 Stratigraphy ...... 354 9.4.1 Basement Complex ...... 354 9.4.2 Pre-rift Strata ...... 355 9.4.3 Syn-rift Strata ...... 355 9.5 Structure ...... 361 9.5.1 Onshore Fault Geometry ...... 361 9.5.2 Offshore Fault Geometry ...... 364 9.6 Bedrock Exhumation and Thermal History ...... 364 9.7 Synthesis and Discussion ...... 367 References ...... 369

10 Seismicity, Seismotectonics and Neotectonics in Egypt ...... 375 Abd El-Aziz Khairy Abd El-Aal, Wael Hagag, Kamal Sakr, and Mohamed Saleh 10.1 Historical Earthquakes and Seismotectonic Zones in Egypt ...... 376 10.1.1 Introduction ...... 376 10.1.2 Historical Seismicity ...... 376 10.1.3 Instrumental Seismicity ...... 382 10.2 Application of EMR Data in Detecting Seismotectonic Zones in Egypt ...... 388 10.2.1 Introduction ...... 388 10.2.2 Methodology ...... 388 10.2.3 Investigation of Some Seismotectonic Source Zones in Egypt Applying EMR-Technique ...... 389 10.2.4 Conclusions and Evaluation of the Applied Technique ...... 395 10.3 Role of GPS Measurements in Seismological Study in Egypt ...... 397 10.3.1 Introduction ...... 397 10.3.2 Distribution of Geodetic Networks in Egypt ...... 397 10.4 Application Of InSAR Data in Ground Deformation Monitoring in Egypt ...... 404 10.4.1 Introduction ...... 404 10.4.2 InSAR ...... 405 10.4.3 Application of SAR Data in Egypt ...... 406 References ...... 411 xx Contents

11 Impact Craters and Meteorites: The Egyptian Record ...... 415 L. Folco, W. U. Reimold, and A. El-Barkooky 11.1 Introduction ...... 416 11.2 Impact Cratering: An Overview ...... 416 11.3 The Impact Record of Egypt ...... 420 11.3.1 Kamil Crater: The Only Confirmed Impact Crater in Egypt .... 420 11.3.2 Proposed and Discarded Impact-Crater Candidates ...... 424 11.3.3 Libyan Desert Glass ...... 425 11.3.4 Dakhleh Glass ...... 432 11.4 Meteorites: An Overview ...... 433 11.5 The Meteorite Record of Egypt ...... 434 11.6 Meteorites in the Archeological Record of Ancient Egypt ...... 437 11.7 Outlook ...... 439 References ...... 441

12 Quaternary of Egypt ...... 445 Mohamed A. Hamdan and Fekri A. Hassan 12.1 Introduction ...... 445 12.2 Nile Sediments in the Nile Valley, Nile Delta and Faiyum ...... 447 12.2.1 The Nile Valley ...... 447 12.2.2 Dry Event (Collapse of Old Kingdom) ...... 454 12.2.3 Nile Delta ...... 456 12.2.4 Significant Geological Features in the Nile Delta ...... 457 12.2.5 Faiyum ...... 459 12.3 Quaternary Sediments and Landforms Related to Humid Climate ...... 461 12.3.1 Lacustrine (Playa) Sediments ...... 462 12.3.2 Alluvial Deposits ...... 467 12.3.3 Solution and Karstic Features (Tufa and Spleothem Deposits) ...... 470 12.3.4 Quaternary Marine Sediments ...... 476 12.4 Quaternary Sediments and Landforms Related to Arid Climate ...... 478 12.4.1 Aeolian Deposits ...... 478 12.4.2 Wind Erosive Landforms (Yardangs) ...... 479 12.4.3 Evaporite Deposits ...... 480 12.4.4 Quaternary Paleoclimate, Paleoenvironmental and Archeology of Egypt ...... 482 References ...... 486

13 Fossil Flora of Egypt ...... 495 Wagieh E. El-Saadawi, Samar Nour-El-Deen, Zainab M. El-Noamani, Mona H. Darwish, and Marwah M. Kamal El-Din 13.1 Introduction ...... 496 13.2 Paleozoic Era ...... 502 13.2.1 Devonian Strata ...... 502 13.2.2 Devonian-Carboniferous Strata ...... 502 13.2.3 Lower Carboniferous Strata ...... 502 13.2.4 Lower-Upper Carboniferous Strata ...... 504 13.2.5 Upper Carboniferous Strata ...... 504 13.2.6 Permian Strata ...... 504 13.3 Mesozoic Era ...... 505 13.3.1 Triassic Strata ...... 505 13.3.2 Jurassic Strata ...... 505 13.3.3 Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous Strata ...... 506 Contents xxi

13.3.4 Lower Cretaceous Strata ...... 506 13.3.5 Middle to Upper Cretaceous Strata ...... 506 13.3.6 Upper Cretaceous Strata ...... 507 13.3.7 Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene Strata ...... 511 13.4 Cenozoic Era ...... 511 13.4.1 Paleocene Strata ...... 511 13.4.2 Eocene Strata ...... 511 13.4.3 Oligocene Strata ...... 512 13.4.4 Miocene Strata ...... 514 13.4.5 Quaternary Strata ...... 515 References ...... 516

14 Mineral Resources in Egypt (I): Metallic Ores ...... 521 Mortada El Aref, Yasser Abd El-Rahman, Basem Zoheir, Adel Surour, Hassan M. Helmy, Amr Abdelnasser, Ahmed Hassan Ahmed, and Mohamed El-Ahmadi Ibrahim 14.1 Iron Ores of Egypt ...... 522 14.1.1 Pre-cambrian Banded Iron Formation (BIF) ...... 522 14.1.2 Mesozoic-Tertiary Oolitic-Oncolitic Ironstones ...... 524 14.1.3 El Bahariya Middle Eocene Iron Ore ...... 525 14.1.4 Pre-rift (Oligocene?) Um Ghrifat Iron Laterite, Red Sea Coastal Zone ...... 528 14.1.5 General Recommendation ...... 528 14.2 Egyptian BIF: Glaciogenic Versus Hydrothermal Origin? ...... 528 14.3 Orogenic Gold in the Eastern Desert, Egypt ...... 532 14.3.1 Introduction ...... 532 14.3.2 Typography, Setting and Main Characteristics ...... 532 14.3.3 Ore Fluids and Stable Isotope Characteristics ...... 533 14.3.4 Genetic Aspects ...... 536 14.4 Titanium-Rich Deposits ...... 538 14.4.1 Titaniferous Iron Ore Deposits ...... 538 14.4.2 Black Sands ...... 540 14.5 Sulfide and Precious Metal Deposits in Egypt ...... 543 14.5.1 Cu–Ni–PGE Sulfide Mineralizations ...... 543 14.5.2 Skarn-Type Zn–Pb–Ag Mineralizations ...... 547 14.5.3 Porphyry-Type Cu–Au Mineralizations ...... 547 14.6 Industrial Metal Oxides (Sn, W, Ta, Nb, and Mo) ...... 550 14.6.1 General Statement ...... 550 14.6.2 Tin (Sn)–Tungsten (W) Deposits ...... 550 14.6.3 Niobium (Nb)–Tantalum (Ta) Mineralization ...... 554 14.6.4 Molybdenum (Mo) Mineralization ...... 555 14.7 Chromite Deposits in Egypt ...... 556 14.7.1 Introduction ...... 556 14.7.2 Distribution of Chromitite Deposits and Host Rocks ...... 556 14.7.3 Petrography and Geochemistry of Chromitites and Ultramafic Host Rocks ...... 559 14.7.4 PGE and PGM in Egyptian Chromitites ...... 559 14.7.5 Genetic Implications ...... 564 14.8 Low Grade Uranium Occurrences in the Basement Rocks of Egypt ..... 564 14.8.1 Metamorphosed Sandstone-Type U Deposit ...... 565 14.8.2 Abu Rusheid High P-T Mylonite ...... 566 14.8.3 Mafic Lamprophyre Dikes ...... 567 14.8.4 Um Samra-Um Bakra Vein-Type ...... 567 xxii Contents

14.8.5 El-Sela Vein-Type ...... 568 14.8.6 El Erediya Vein-Type ...... 570 14.9 Egyptian Manganese Deposits ...... 570 14.9.1 Sinai Mn Ore Deposits (Um Bogma Region and Sharm El Sheikh) ...... 570 14.9.2 Eastern Desert ...... 573 14.9.3 Western Desert (El Bahariya Mn–Rich Iron Ore) ...... 577 14.9.4 General Recommendations ...... 577 References ...... 579

15 Mineral Resources in Egypt (II): Non-metallic Ore Deposits ...... 589 Ahmed El-Kammar, Adel Surour, Mohamed El-Sharkawi, and Hassan Khozyem 15.1 Phosphate Deposits of Egypt: Composition, Origin, and Utilization ..... 590 15.1.1 Introduction ...... 590 15.1.2 Geologic Setting and Distribution ...... 590 15.1.3 Mineral Composition ...... 593 15.1.4 Geochemical Composition ...... 593 15.1.5 Rare Earth Elements (REE) ...... 595 15.1.6 Natural Radioactivity ...... 598 15.1.7 Phosphogenesis ...... 600 15.1.8 Utilization and Its Challenges ...... 601 15.1.9 Environmental Hazards ...... 602 15.2 White Sand (Glass Sand or Silica Sand) ...... 603 15.2.1 Definitions and Historical Background ...... 603 15.2.2 Formation, Mineralogy, Distribution and Testing Techniques ...... 603 15.2.3 Extraction, Beneficiation and Modern Applications in Egypt ...... 607 15.3 Argillic Deposits ...... 608 15.3.1 Kaolin ...... 609 15.3.2 Bentonite...... 611 15.3.3 Ball Clay ...... 614 15.3.4 Brick Clay...... 614 15.3.5 Fire Clay ...... 614 15.4 Review on Some Evaporite Deposits in Egypt ...... 614 15.4.1 Introduction ...... 614 15.4.2 Evaporite Deposits in Egypt ...... 616 15.4.3 Genetic Classification of Evaporite Deposits ...... 616 15.4.4 Natural Salt Deposits ...... 625 15.4.5 Economic Value of Evaporite in Egypt ...... 625 References ...... 629

16 The Petroleum Geology of Egypt and History of Exploration ...... 635 John Dolson 16.1 Introduction ...... 636 16.2 Overview of Field Sizes and Fluids ...... 638 16.3 Stratigraphic Organization of the Petroleum System ...... 641 16.4 Exploration History ...... 643 16.5 Nile Delta Pressures and Hydrodynamics ...... 650 16.6 Gulf of Suez Potential ...... 651 16.7 Future Growth and Yet-to-Find ...... 653 References ...... 655 Contents xxiii

17 Other Fuel Resources ...... 659 Ahmed El-Kammar and Nader A. A. Edress 17.1 Oil Shale of Egypt: The Overlooked Future Energy Resources ...... 659 17.1.1 Introduction ...... 659 17.1.2 Global Distribution of Oil Shale ...... 660 17.1.3 Oil Shale in the Arab World...... 661 17.1.4 Oil Shale in Egypt ...... 661 17.1.5 Geologic Setting and Genesis ...... 663 17.1.6 Organic Composition ...... 663 17.1.7 Biomarkers and Maturity Indicators ...... 664 17.1.8 Inorganic Composition ...... 665 17.1.9 Effect of Weathering ...... 670 17.1.10 Utilization ...... 670 17.2 Coal Resources in Sinai, Egypt ...... 672 17.2.1 Maghara Coal Seams ...... 672 17.2.2 Thora Coal Seam ...... 680 References ...... 685

18 Water Resources in Egypt ...... 687 Mustafa El-Rawy, Fathy Abdalla, and Mohamed El Alfy 18.1 Surface Water Resources in Egypt ...... 688 18.1.1 Introduction ...... 688 18.1.2 Nile Basin Countries and Climate ...... 688 18.1.3 Main International Agreements of the Water of the River Nile ...... 690 18.1.4 Lake Nasser and Aswan High Dam ...... 692 18.1.5 The River Nile and Its Branches ...... 693 18.1.6 Nile-Groundwater Interaction ...... 696 18.1.7 Major Water Users in Egypt ...... 697 18.1.8 Nile Water Quality...... 697 18.1.9 Conclusions ...... 698 18.2 Groundwater Resources in Egypt ...... 698 18.2.1 Introduction ...... 698 18.2.2 Climate ...... 699 18.2.3 Groundwater Resources ...... 699 18.2.4 Conclusions ...... 708 References ...... 708 About the Editors

Zakaria Hamimi is a structural geologist who spent majority of his academic career at Benha University (Egypt) along with some years at Sana’a University (Yemen) and King Abdulaziz University (Saudi Arabia). He has graduated (1984) from Assiut University (distinction with honor degree), and holds the M.Sc. (1988) from Zagazig University (Egypt) and the Ph.D. in Structural Geology and Tectonics (1992) from Cairo University. His research interests focus on Structural Geology, Microstructures, and Tectonics. He has worked in many field-related sub-disciplines of Earth Sciences including geologic mapping, microstructural analysis, strain analysis, paleostress reconstruction, active tectonics, tectonic geomorphology, crustal defor- mation, and image processing. He used all these fields to study key areas in the Arabian– Nubian Shield, and to decipher their deformation history. Zakaria Hamimi is the President, and one of the founding team, of the Arabian Geosciences Union since 2012. He has received the medal of the Egyptian Geological Society of Egypt in 2015, and also the medal of the Arab Mining and Petroleum Association in 2016. He has co-published 50 research articles in national and international indexed and refereed journals and authored several books. In 2016, Zakaria Hamimi (1) joined the AJGS as Associate Editor responsible for evaluating sub- missions in the fields of Structural Geology, Microstructures, and Tectonics, (2) selected as a Member of the Egyptian Universities Promotion Committee, the Supreme Council for Universities (SCU, Egypt), (3) nominated as a Secretary of the National Committee for Geological Sciences, Academy of Scientific Research and Technology, and (4) designated as the IUGS-Representative for Egypt. November 2017, he attended the Gondwana 16 Inter- national Conference held at Bangkok, Thailand, as the Representative of the National Com- mittee for Geological Sciences, Academy of Scientific Research and Technology, Egypt.

Ahmed El-Barkooky is a Professor of applied sedimentary geology at Cairo University in Egypt, where he graduated with B.Sc. (Hons.) degree in geology in 1980. He obtained his M.Sc. and Ph.D. as well from the same university. He has been teaching several courses and supervising many M.Sc. and Ph.D. research programs at the Geology Department, Faculty of Science in Cairo University. In the meantime, he has been engaged in the petroleum industry as a geological advisor. He enjoys more than 35 years of experience in both academia and industry. He has led and been involved in several exploration projects and special studies regarding basin architecture and tectonostratigraphic controls of petroleum systems. His research arena involves various depositional environments (rift basins, fluvial facies, shallow and deep marine clastics), basin analysis, sequence stratigraphy, and tectonic control on sedimentation and stratigraphy. He conducts geological field seminars for both students of geology and professional geoscientists. Dr. El-Barkooky obtained broad regional experience in the geology of Egypt, North Africa, and Middle East through several consultation and research projects.

xxv xxvi About the Editors

Jesús Martínez Frías born in Madrid, on October 3, 1960, is a Spanish geologist graduated at the Complutense University of Madrid in 1982, where he also obtained his Ph.D. degree in 1986. He has developed several stays of research in UK (University of Leeds), (University of Toronto), Germany (University of Heidelberg), and the USA (University of California). He is Scientific Researcher at the Geosciences Institute, IGEO (CSIC-UCM), Head of the Research Group of Meteorites and Planetary Geosciences, and Founder and Director of the Spanish Planetology and Astrobiology Network. He is also Honorific Professor of the Department of BioEngineering and AeroSpace Engineering of the Carlos III University (Madrid). He has participated in more than 40 projects and scientific campaigns (e.g., Antarctica, , Iceland, Costa Rica). In 2002, he participated in the NASA flight to study the Leonid Meteor Shower. He is co-I in NASA-MSL (rover Curiosity), ESA-ExoMars, and NASA-Mars2020 and in 2016 and 2017 he was an instructor of ESA astronauts in the PANGAEA program (Lanzarote and Chinijo Islands UNESCO Global Geopark). He has published 8 books and more than 200 articles (Science, Nature, Geology, etc). He was Former Member of the UN ECOSOC Committee on Natural Resources, Ex-ViceChair of the UNCSTD, and Ex-Chair of IUGS-COGE. He is Co-founder and President of the International Association for Geoethics (IAGETH), Committee Member of the IAU Astrobiology Com- mission, and Senior Advisory Board Member of the Arabian Geoscience Union (ArabGU). He is Editor-in-Chief of the journal Geosciences (MDPI) and Co-editor of the Springer Book Series: “Geoheritage, Geoparks and Geotourism” and “GeoGuides”. He has received several awards and recognitions (i.e., NASA, ESA, GSAf (Goodwill Ambassador for Africa), Ara- bGU, Spanish Association of Scientists).

Harald Fritz Born 1956, started his scientific career at Department Earth Sciences, University of Graz, Austria where he is based since about 40 years. In his early times, he conducted projects on Variscan Europe and the evolution of the Alpine–Carpathian Belt. Somewhat accidentaly, he was invited for some weeks of teaching and fieldwork in Egypt which was starting point of 30 years of research on East African mobile belts. Since the early 90s of the last century, he conducted continuous projects on mountain building processes in East Africa with focus on Egypt, Kenya, and Tanzania. Rooted in Alpine tectonics he also led projects in the Alpine Himalayan Belt and the European Alps. His expertise is mountain building processes, in general, with focus on tectonics, structural geology, and isotope geol- ogy. Harald Fritz is married; father of three children and grandfather of growing amount of grandchildren. Teaching, administrative, and editorial work at University of Graz is contin- uously increasing but he kept curious and is open to new challenges in Earth Science.

Yasser Abd El-Rahman is Associate Professor at Cairo University. He earned his Ph.D. Degree from University of Windsor in 2009 and was appointed as a Lecturer in the Geology Department of Cairo University. He worked for 2 years in the Institut für Mineralogie, TU Freiberg as an Alexander von Humboldt postdoc fellow. Then he worked for 1 year in the Institute of Geology and Geophysics of the Chinese Academy of Science supported by the CAS President’s International Fellowship Initiative (PIFI). He served also as an Assistant Minister in the Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources Egypt.