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Proquest Dissertations UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY Native Students' Identity in Higher Education: Merging, Emerging or Struggling? by Barbara Gay Barnes A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY INTERDISCIPLINARY GRADUATE PROGRAM CALGARY, ALBERTA NOVEMBER 2009 © Barbara Gay Barnes 2009 Library and Archives Bibliotheque et 1*1 Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Vote reference ISBN: 978-0-494-64105-7 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-64105-7 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par Nnternet, preter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le loan, distribute and sell theses monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non­ support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privee, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de thesis. cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. 1*1 Canada Abstract This study explored identity as it pertained to Aboriginal students in post- secondary education. Sixty Aboriginal students were interviewed from six universities in Western Canada. Five Aboriginal women and five Aboriginal men from each university, who were in their third or fourth year of undergraduate studies participated in this study. Three research questions were the focus of this study. Do conventional definitions of identity offer an adequate basis for analyzing how Aboriginal students define their own identity as an Aboriginal person? The second question sought an answer to whether identity development theories offer an adequate base for analyzing how Aboriginal students define their own identity? Devon Mihesuah's Native Identity Development Model was the main theory used in this study. The last research question asked was: what role do Aboriginal students see post-secondary education playing in the formation and confirmation of their identity. Symbolic Interactionism and identity development theories were the theoretical frameworks from which this study was viewed. The findings showed that conventional definitions of identity do indeed adequately reflect Aboriginal identity. As well, Mihesuah's identity development theory does provide a base for analyzing Aboriginal identity development. Twelve additional points were suggested to Mihesuah's theory making it relate to Canadian Aboriginal people. The students' experience in post-secondary education was a very meaningful ii experience. They were able to explore, understand and accept themselves as an Aboriginal individual. What all this means is that Aboriginal students explore, develop and come to understand their identity throughout their life, post-secondary education allowed the students to grow stronger and solidify their identity. They neither were drawn away from their Aboriginal self, nor cut ties with their Aboriginal communities in order to be successful at university as some researchers' have suggested. Identity is an important aspect in ones' life and has been worth exploring and comes closer to answering the question "Who am I?" iii Acknowledgements First of all I would like to thank all the Aboriginal students who participated in this study. Without your 'voice' this research would not have been written. I would like to acknowledge my appreciation to my supervisor Dr. Cora Voyageur for her tremendous guidance and mentorship. I fully respect and value our working together. I also would like to thank the other members of my committee who offered support, Dr. Donald Smith, Dr. Lorraine Radkte, and Dr. Jim Field. Huge thanks goes to my Department, Interdisciplinary Graduate Program, especially Pauline Fisk, for keeping me on track and for keeping paperwork organized. I would like to show my gratitude to Dr. Tamara Seiler for her support and showing interest in my progression through the Ph.D. program. Thanks. I would like to thank my very good friends Renee, Jean-Paul, Valerie, Bruce, Gail Pauline and Wayne. I would like to acknowledge my co-workers who listened to my many efforts writing. Thanks go to: Lisa, Karrie, Angie, Dave, Gerry, Raheleh, Shannon, Jeff, Mike, Shandra, and Jenn. Last but not least I would like to recognize my family members for their encouraging words and support. iv Dedication I dedicate this study to those individuals who dared to ask themselves the question 'Who am I?' and to those who are in process of searching for their identity. I also would like to dedicate this study to the memories of my mother Marion and two brothers Paul and Thorn, as well as, to my remaining brothers Jim and Ken, and to my sisters Carol, Deb and Pat. v Table of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements iv Dedication v Table of Contents vi List of Tables ix List of Figures x 1.0 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION. 1 1.1. Introduction and Overview 1 1.2. Context for the Study 4 1.3. The Research Objectives 16 1.3.1. The Main Research Questions 17 1.4. The Importance of this Study 18 1.5. Dissertation Overview 19 2.0 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 22 2.1 Introduction 22 2.2 Definitions of Identity 24 2.2.1. Aboriginal Identity 35 2.3. History of Native Education 44 2.3.1. Education in the Indian Act 54 2.3.2. Current Aboriginal Education 65 2.4. Conclusion 68 3.0 CHAPTER THREE: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 70 3.1 Introduction 70 3.2. History of Symbolic Interactionism 70 3.3. Furthering Symbolic Interactionism 73 3.4. Identity Development Theories 75 3.4.1. Introduction 75 3.4.2. History of Identity Development Theories 76 3.4.2.1. Marginal Man 77 3.4.2.2. Erikson's Theory of Identity Development 80 3.4.2.3. Marcia's Theory of Identity Development 81 3.4.2.4. Cross's Theory of African Identity Development 82 3.4.2.5. Parham's Nigrescence Model of Identity Development... 85 3.4.2.6. Atkinson etal's Minority Identity Development 88 3.4.2.7. Poston's Bi-Racial Identity Development 89 3.4.2.8. Smith's Ethnic Identity Development 91 3.4.2.9. Mihesuah's Native Identity Model 93 vi 4.0. CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY 100 4.1. Research Objectives and Contribution 100 4.2. Study Design 100 4.3. Research Ethics 102 4.4. Description of Methodology 102 4.5. Research Protocols and Techniques 103 4.5.1. Invitation to be Interviewed 103 4.5.2. Development of Questionnaire 104 4.5.3. Conducting the Interviews 104 4.5.3.1. Telephone Interviews 104 4.5.3.2. Face-to-Face Interviews 104 4.5.3.3. Management of Interview Data 105 4.6. Operationalization 105 4.7. Limitations of Study 107 5.0. CHAPTER DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION RESULTS 109 5.1. Introduction 109 6.0. CHAPTER SIX-RESULTS: IDENTITY 130 6.1. Introduction 130 6.2. Identity 130 6.2.1. Symbolic Interactionism 135 6.2.1.1. Herbert Blumer's First Premise 136 6.2.1.1.1. Earliest Memories of Self. 137 6.2.1.1.2. Awareness of Racial Differences 137 6.2.1.1.3. Racism 140 6.2.1.1.4. Uncertainty about Identity 142 6.2.1.1.5. Adoption 143 6.2.1.1.6. Poverty 144 6.2.1.1.7. Knowing Aboriginal Self. 145 6.2.1.1.8. Seeing Direction for the Future 149 6.2.1.1.9. Questions about Place 151 6.2.1.2.0. Traditional Teaching 154 6.2.1.2.1. Clues to Identity 156 6.2.1.2.2. Things that remind them they are Aboriginal 162 6.2.1.2.3. Peers 162 6.2.1.2.4. Humour 163 6.2.1.2.5. Language 165 6.2.1.2.6. Analysis of Blumer's First Premise 166 6.2.1.2. Herbert Blumer's Second Premise 169 6.2.1.2.1. Experiences of Pride in Aboriginal Heritage 170 6.2.1.2.2. Experiences of Feeling Shame about their Aboriginal Heritage 172 6.2.1.2.3. Analysis of Blumer's Second Premise 175 6.2.1.3. Herbert Blumer's Third Premise 176 vii 6.2.1.3.1. Forget Who You Are 176 6.2.1.3.2. Do Not Know Self. 179 6.2.1.3.3. Do Not Like Self. 182 6.2.1.3.4. Lost 185 6.2.1.3.5. See Self Differently 190 6.2.1.3.6. Analysis of Blumer' Premises 193 6.3. Identity Development Theories 195 6.3.1. Pre-Encounter Stage 195 6.3.2.
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