ChurchChurch HistoryHistory ChurchChurch HistoryHistory

IntroductionIntroduction toto ChurchChurch HistoryHistory st rd TheThe AncientAncient ChurchChurch AD 11st-3-3rd centuriescenturies th th TheThe RiseRise ofof ChristendomChristendom AD 44th-5-5th centuriescenturies th th TheThe EarlyEarly MiddleMiddle AgesAges AD 66th-10-10th centuriescenturies th th TheThe AgeAge ofof CrusadesCrusades AD 1111th-13-13th centuriescenturies th th TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance AD 1414th-15-15th centuriescenturies Welcome to the Renaissance (i.e.; the “Rebirth”) TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance AnAn artisticartistic andand intellectualintellectual explosionexplosion began...began... TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance FunkyFunky littlelittle teachingteaching moment—moment— Okay,Okay, there'sthere's somesome debatedebate aboutabout thisthis See,See, anan ItalianItalian artistartist namednamed GiorgioGiorgio VasariVasari firstfirst usedused thethe termterm toto talktalk aboutabout howhow ItalianItalian artistsartists werewere bringingbringing aboutabout aa newnew RinascimentoRinascimento byby abandoningabandoning thethe medievalmedieval andand GothicGothic stylesstyles andand drawingdrawing fromfrom thethe classicalclassical GreeksGreeks andand RomansRomans toto developdevelop aa new,new, “reborn”“reborn” classicismclassicism TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance FunkyFunky littlelittle teachingteaching moment—moment— Okay,Okay, there'sthere's somesome debatedebate aboutabout thisthis See,See, anan ItalianItalian artistartist namednamed GiorgioGiorgio VasariVasari firstfirst usedused thethe termterm toto talktalk aboutabout howhow ItalianItalian artistsartists werewere bringingbringing aboutabout aa newnew RinascimentoRinascimento byby abandoningabandoning thethe medievalmedieval andand GothicGothic stylesstyles andand drawingdrawing fromfrom thethe classicalclassical GreeksGreeks andand RomansRomans toto developdevelop aa new,new, “reborn”“reborn” classicismclassicism foregoingforegoing thethe medievalmedieval andand GothicGothic stylizationsstylizations toto favorfavor aa moremore classicalclassical versionversion ofof realismrealism TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance FunkyFunky littlelittle teachingteaching moment—moment— Okay,Okay, there'sthere's somesome debatedebate aboutabout thisthis See,See, anan ItalianItalian artistartist namednamed GiorgioGiorgio VasariVasari firstfirst usedused thethe termterm toto talktalk aboutabout howhow ItalianItalian artistsartists werewere bringingbringing aboutabout aa newnew RinascimentoRinascimento So,So, muchmuch likelike thethe “Dark“Dark Ages”Ages” werewere originallyoriginally termedtermed “dark”“dark” becausebecause theythey weren'tweren't focusedfocused onon thethe radianceradiance ofof classicalclassical Rome,Rome, thethe “Renaissance”“Renaissance” waswas aa “rebirth”“rebirth” becausebecause itit returnedreturned toto thethe radianceradiance ofof classicalclassical Rome...Rome...... which...which waswas partpart ofof whywhy KingKing LouisLouis XIVXIV likedliked toto bebe calledcalled “The“The SunSun King,”King,” modellingmodelling himselfhimself afterafter thethe RomanRoman god,god, ApolloApollo TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance FunkyFunky littlelittle teachingteaching moment—moment— Okay,Okay, there'sthere's somesome debatedebate aboutabout thisthis ButBut thethe reasonreason thatthat wewe tendtend toto useuse thethe FrenchFrench term,term, “Renaissance,”“Renaissance,” toto describedescribe thisthis periodperiod todaytoday isis becausebecause thethe termterm waswas coinedcoined byby aa FrenchmanFrenchman inin 1855—Jules1855—Jules MicheletMichelet ButBut MicheletMichelet wasn'twasn't interestedinterested inin classicalclassical artart soso muchmuch asas inin aa “rebirth”“rebirth” ofof classicalclassical GreekGreek democracy,democracy, sincesince hehe waswas anan advocateadvocate ofof thethe FrenchFrench democraticdemocratic movementmovement ofof hishis ageage He saw the Middle Ages as a time of feudalism and warlords, and the 14th century onward as a time of capitalism and new rights for the rising middle class of the nations—a “Renaissance” Interestingly, philosophers like Karl Marx argued that the world had gone downhill since the 14th century, for much the same reasons that Michelet thought things had improved And later artists like Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso felt that the Renaissance's artistic emphasis on realism and fixed viewpoints actually limitedlimited artistic creativity So there's been a lot of politicization of the label,label, “Renaissance,”“Renaissance,” overover thethe yearsyears TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance FunkyFunky littlelittle teachingteaching moment—moment— Okay,Okay, there'sthere's somesome debatedebate aboutabout thisthis StillStill otherother historianshistorians argueargue thatthat therethere isn'tisn't reallyreally aa “bright“bright line”line” ofof change,change, suchsuch asas VasariVasari andand MicheletMichelet describeddescribed ThereThere hadhad alreadyalready beenbeen “renaissances”“renaissances” underunder kingskings suchsuch asas CharlemagneCharlemagne (who'd instituted economic, political, and educational reforms under his rule...... remember the introduction of the combination of “majuscule” and “miniscule” scripts to make things easier to read and increase literacy?) TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance FunkyFunky littlelittle teachingteaching moment—moment— Okay,Okay, there'sthere's somesome debatedebate aboutabout thisthis StillStill otherother historianshistorians argueargue thatthat therethere isn'tisn't reallyreally aa “bright“bright line”line” ofof change,change, suchsuch asas VasariVasari andand MicheletMichelet describeddescribed ThereThere hadhad alreadyalready beenbeen “renaissances”“renaissances” underunder kingskings suchsuch asas CharlemagneCharlemagne andand ÆlfredÆlfred (who'd defended England against the Norse invaders,invaders, codifiedcodified lawslaws andand educatededucated hishis judgesjudges basedbased onon Scripture,Scripture, andand createdcreated thethe modern concept of the public school system...... to the point where the literacy rate in medieval England was better than it currently is in the United States...) TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance FunkyFunky littlelittle teachingteaching moment—moment— Okay,Okay, there'sthere's somesome debatedebate aboutabout thisthis StillStill otherother historianshistorians argueargue thatthat therethere isn'tisn't reallyreally aa “bright“bright line”line” ofof change,change, suchsuch asas VasariVasari andand MicheletMichelet describeddescribed ThereThere hadhad alreadyalready beenbeen “renaissances”“renaissances” underunder kingskings suchsuch asas CharlemagneCharlemagne andand ÆlfredÆlfred andand OttoOtto (who'd exemplified the courtly hero when he'd saved Princess Adelaide from King Berengar...... but also stood against corrupt John XII and not only reformed the Church, but also became a patron of the arts and a founder of schools across Europe, once he became Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire...) TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance FunkyFunky littlelittle teachingteaching moment—moment— Okay,Okay, there'sthere's somesome debatedebate aboutabout thisthis StillStill otherother historianshistorians argueargue thatthat therethere isn'tisn't reallyreally aa “bright“bright line”line” ofof change,change, suchsuch asas VasariVasari andand MicheletMichelet describeddescribed ThereThere hadhad alreadyalready beenbeen “renaissances”“renaissances” underunder kingskings suchsuch asas CharlemagneCharlemagne andand ÆlfredÆlfred andand Otto,Otto, leadingleading toto thethe establishmentestablishment ofof thethe Church-sponsoredChurch-sponsored universityuniversity,, wherewhere eveneven thethe commonestcommonest ofof commoncommon peoplepeople couldcould gogo freefree ofof chargecharge toto learnlearn theology,theology, languages,languages, history,history, andand everythingeverything neededneeded toto becomebecome clergyclergy (out of which came such luminaries as Abélard and Roger Bacon and ) TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance FunkyFunky littlelittle teachingteaching moment—moment— Okay,Okay, there'sthere's somesome debatedebate aboutabout thisthis StillStill otherother historianshistorians argueargue thatthat therethere isn'tisn't reallyreally aa “bright“bright line”line” ofof change,change, suchsuch asas VasariVasari andand MicheletMichelet describeddescribed Besides,Besides, somesome ofof thethe worstworst “medieval”“medieval” horrorshorrors (bubonic(bubonic plague,plague, civilcivil wars,wars, corruptcorrupt royalroyal andand papalpapal scandals,scandals, thethe Inquisition,Inquisition, etc.)etc.) werewere stillstill aroundaround inin thethe RenaissanceRenaissance InIn fact,fact, allall ofof thesethese thingsthings gotgot worseworse duringduring thethe Renaissance,Renaissance, notnot betterbetter (in fact, Pope Julius II actually physically ledled troopstroops intointo battlebattle againstagainst hishis politicalpolitical enemies) TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance FunkyFunky littlelittle teachingteaching moment—moment— Okay,Okay, there'sthere's somesome debatedebate aboutabout thisthis StillStill otherother historianshistorians argueargue thatthat therethere isn'tisn't reallyreally aa “bright“bright line”line” ofof change,change, suchsuch asas VasariVasari andand MicheletMichelet describeddescribed Besides,Besides, somesome ofof thethe worstworst “medieval”“medieval” horrorshorrors (bubonic(bubonic plague,plague, civilcivil wars,wars, corruptcorrupt royalroyal andand papalpapal scandals,scandals, thethe Inquisition,Inquisition, etc.)etc.) werewere stillstill aroundaround inin thethe RenaissanceRenaissance SoSo insteadinstead ofof seeingseeing aa glorious,glorious, classicalclassical age,age, followedfollowed byby aa “dark”“dark” age,age, followedfollowed byby aa “Renaissance,”“Renaissance,” perhapsperhaps wewe shouldshould simplysimply viewview historyhistory asas aa progressionprogression ofof change...change...... which...which pickedpicked upup steamsteam aroundaround thisthis timetime ThisThis “neo-classical“neo-classical period”period” (which(which isis aa termterm unfortunatelyunfortunately copyrightedcopyrighted byby anotheranother periodperiod inin history),history), re-emphasizingre-emphasizing classicalclassical RomanRoman andand GreekGreek artart andand philosophyphilosophy waswas aa cruciallycrucially importantimportant periodperiod ofof change,change, formingforming thethe foundationfoundation ofof everythingeverything thatthat camecame afterwardsafterwards ——especiallyespecially forfor thethe Church...Church... TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance TheThe ChurchChurch attemptedattempted toto growgrow itsits powerpower 13021302 BonifaceBoniface VIIIVIII issuedissued hishis UnamUnam SanctumSanctum bullbull BonifaceBoniface hadhad comecome toto powerpower inin 12941294 afterafter convincingconvincing thethe weakweak PopePope CelestineCelestine VV (then(then reigningreigning inin )Naples) toto resign,resign, throughthrough aa seriesseries ofof complexcomplex politicalpolitical andand theologicaltheological argumentsarguments BearBear inin mind,mind, thisthis wasn'twasn't becausebecause BonifaceBoniface waswas soso devout—itdevout—it waswas becausebecause hehe wantedwanted politicalpolitical powerpower He's been quoted as saying, “To enjoy oneself and lie carnally with women or with boys is no more a sin than rubbing one’s hands together...” since what really matters to God is simply that we enjoy and make the most of the pleasures of this world Do we still run into this “theology” today? TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance TheThe ChurchChurch attemptedattempted toto growgrow itsits powerpower 13021302 BonifaceBoniface VIIIVIII issuedissued hishis UnamUnam SanctumSanctum bullbull BonifaceBoniface hadhad comecome toto powerpower inin 12941294 afterafter convincingconvincing thethe weakweak PopePope CelestineCelestine VV (then(then reigningreigning inin Naples)Naples) toto resign,resign, throughthrough aa seriesseries ofof complexcomplex politicalpolitical andand theologicaltheological argumentsarguments BonifaceBoniface immediatelyimmediately movedmoved thethe papalpapal courtcourt backback toto Rome,Rome, wherewhere hehe beganbegan politickingpoliticking againstagainst thethe familiesfamilies whowho exertedexerted powerpower therethere ForFor instance,instance, hehe tooktook sidessides inin thethe civilcivil warwar withinwithin thethe ColonnaColonna family,family, declaringdeclaring thatthat thethe powerfulpowerful CardinalCardinal GiacomoGiacomo ColonnaColonna hadhad nono rightright toto disinheritdisinherit hishis brothersbrothers In return for the brothers' assurance that they would bribe him heavily, Boniface excommunicated Giacomo and his followers Giacomo responded with accusations that Boniface's papal reign was illegal, since bishops weren't technically allowed to retire (remember?) TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance TheThe ChurchChurch attemptedattempted toto growgrow itsits powerpower 13021302 BonifaceBoniface VIIIVIII issuedissued hishis UnamUnam SanctumSanctum bullbull BonifaceBoniface hadhad comecome toto powerpower inin 12941294 afterafter convincingconvincing thethe weakweak PopePope CelestineCelestine VV (then(then reigningreigning inin Naples)Naples) toto resign,resign, throughthrough aa seriesseries ofof complexcomplex politicalpolitical andand theologicaltheological argumentsarguments BonifaceBoniface immediatelyimmediately movedmoved thethe papalpapal courtcourt backback toto Rome,Rome, wherewhere hehe beganbegan politickingpoliticking againstagainst thethe familiesfamilies whowho exertedexerted powerpower therethere ForFor instance,instance, hehe tooktook sidessides inin thethe civilcivil warwar withinwithin thethe ColonnaColonna family,family, declaringdeclaring thatthat thethe powerfulpowerful CardinalCardinal GiacomoGiacomo ColonnaColonna hadhad nono rightright toto disinheritdisinherit hishis brothersbrothers In return, Boniface sent papal troops against the holdings in 1297 By 1298, the Colonnas were open to surrender, if the Pope would promise that their lands would be spared—and he did He then put them all to death, burned their towns to the ground, and sowed salt in the dirt, declaring them anathema TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance TheThe ChurchChurch attemptedattempted toto growgrow itsits powerpower 13021302 BonifaceBoniface VIIIVIII issuedissued hishis UnamUnam SanctumSanctum bullbull BonifaceBoniface hadhad comecome toto powerpower inin 12941294 afterafter convincingconvincing thethe weakweak PopePope CelestineCelestine VV (then(then reigningreigning inin Naples)Naples) toto resign,resign, throughthrough aa seriesseries ofof complexcomplex politicalpolitical andand theologicaltheological argumentsarguments BonifaceBoniface immediatelyimmediately movedmoved thethe papalpapal courtcourt backback toto Rome,Rome, wherewhere hehe beganbegan politickingpoliticking againstagainst thethe familiesfamilies whowho exertedexerted powerpower therethere InIn 1301,1301, BonifaceBoniface alsoalso broughtbrought inin FrenchFrench troopstroops toto quellquell anan inter-familyinter-family feudfeud inin FlorenceFlorence He did so at the same time that he was supposedly working to find a peaceful solution with one side's representative in Rome— —an intellectual named TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance FunkyFunky littlelittle teachingteaching moment—moment— DanteDante waswas oneone ofof thethe firstfirst ofof whatwhat hashas becomebecome knownknown asas aa “Renaissance”“Renaissance” man—aman—a widely-widely- accomplishedaccomplished polymathpolymath whowho hashas interestsinterests andand trainingtraining inin severalseveral differentdifferent fieldsfields HeHe waswas bornborn intointo thethe powerfulpowerful GuelphGuelph familyfamily (originally(originally thethe “Welf”“Welf” familyfamily fromfrom Bavaria,Bavaria, whowho supportedsupported thethe Pope),Pope), engagedengaged inin aa long-standinglong-standing ItalianItalian civilcivil warwar withwith thethe GhibellineGhibelline familyfamily (originally(originally thethe “Waiblingen”“Waiblingen” familyfamily fromfrom southernsouthern Germany,Germany, whowho supportedsupported thethe HolyHoly RomanRoman Emperor)Emperor) NOTE: Shakespeare's play, Romeo and Juliet, is based around the feud in Verona between the Montagues (who supported the Ghibellines) and the Capulets (who supported the Guelphs) —so this was kind of a famous feud TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance FunkyFunky littlelittle teachingteaching moment—moment— DanteDante waswas oneone ofof thethe firstfirst ofof whatwhat hashas becomebecome knownknown asas aa “Renaissance”“Renaissance” man—aman—a widely-widely- accomplishedaccomplished polymathpolymath whowho hashas interestsinterests andand trainingtraining inin severalseveral differentdifferent fieldsfields HeHe waswas bornborn intointo thethe powerfulpowerful GuelphGuelph familyfamily Thus,Thus, DanteDante waswas affordedafforded thethe opportunityopportunity ofof aa top-top- notchnotch educationeducation He fought as a soldier against the Ghibellines, trained as a pharmacist in the politically powerful Physicians' and Apothecaries' Guild in Florence, and thus also became a strong political voice in the city's council TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance FunkyFunky littlelittle teachingteaching moment—moment— DanteDante waswas oneone ofof thethe firstfirst ofof whatwhat hashas becomebecome knownknown asas aa “Renaissance”“Renaissance” man—aman—a widely-widely- accomplishedaccomplished polymathpolymath whowho hashas interestsinterests andand trainingtraining inin severalseveral differentdifferent fieldsfields HeHe waswas bornborn intointo thethe powerfulpowerful GuelphGuelph familyfamily Thus,Thus, DanteDante waswas affordedafforded thethe opportunityopportunity ofof aa top-top- notchnotch educationeducation He fought as a soldier against the Ghibellines, trained as a pharmacist in the politically powerful Physicians' and Apothecaries' Guild in Florence, and thus also became a strong political voice in the city's council But where his passions really lay was in writing In 1274, at the age of nine, he fell in love with the eight-year-old Beatrice Portinari—whom he physically met only twice But he spent years writing poetry to her, creating his own “new style” in the process When Beatrice died in 1290, a heartbroken Dante turned to a study of the classics at a locallocal DominicanDominican school,school, andand hishis writingwriting turned from love poems to more complex, theological subjects TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance FunkyFunky littlelittle teachingteaching moment—moment— DanteDante waswas oneone ofof thethe firstfirst ofof whatwhat hashas becomebecome knownknown asas aa “Renaissance”“Renaissance” man—aman—a widely-widely- accomplishedaccomplished polymathpolymath whowho hashas interestsinterests andand trainingtraining inin severalseveral differentdifferent fieldsfields HeHe waswas bornborn intointo thethe powerfulpowerful GuelphGuelph familyfamily Thus,Thus, DanteDante waswas affordedafforded thethe opportunityopportunity ofof aa top-top- notchnotch educationeducation He fought as a soldier against the Ghibellines, trained as a pharmacist in the politically powerful Physicians' and Apothecaries' Guild in Florence, and thus also became a strong political voice in the city's council But where his passions really lay was in writing In short, this powerful, rich, well-educated war- hero-turned-politician-turned-popular-writer was totally the wrong sort of guy for Pope Boniface to torque off (and who, in 1308, began his magnum opus, the Divine Comedy...) But Dante wasn't the only person that Boniface annoyed TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance TheThe ChurchChurch attemptedattempted toto growgrow itsits powerpower 13021302 BonifaceBoniface VIIIVIII issuedissued hishis UnamUnam SanctumSanctum bullbull BonifaceBoniface attemptedattempted toto cementcement hishis powerpower byby issuingissuing thethe UnamUnam SanctumSanctum inin 13021302 AmongAmong otherother things,things, thethe bullbull declared,declared, “Outside of [the Church] there is neither salvation nor the remission of sins.” And so, since the Pope is the unquestioned head of the whole Church, “We declare, we proclaim, we define that it is absolutely necessary for salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman Pontiff.” Thus, the Pope holds ultimate power, both politically and spiritually, over the entire world —and anyone who believes differently is automatically forfeiting their salvation TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance TheThe ChurchChurch attemptedattempted toto growgrow itsits powerpower 13021302 BonifaceBoniface VIIIVIII issuedissued hishis UnamUnam SanctumSanctum bullbull BonifaceBoniface attemptedattempted toto cementcement hishis powerpower byby issuingissuing thethe UnamUnam SanctumSanctum inin 13021302 EdwardEdward II ofof EnglandEngland immediatelyimmediately withdrewwithdrew hishis protectionprotection ofof BritishBritish clergyclergy PhilipPhilip IVIV ofof FranceFrance immediatelyimmediately stoppedstopped allall FrenchFrench fundsfunds fromfrom flowingflowing towardtoward Rome—allRome—all tithestithes andand offeringsofferings ceasedceased BonifaceBoniface thenthen excommunicatedexcommunicated PhilipPhilip PhilipPhilip thenthen calledcalled aa councilcouncil andand denounceddenounced BonifaceBoniface asas aa fraud,fraud, aa sinner,sinner, andand aa hereticheretic Five archbishops and twenty- one bishops agreed with him TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance TheThe ChurchChurch attemptedattempted toto growgrow itsits powerpower 13021302 BonifaceBoniface VIIIVIII issuedissued hishis UnamUnam SanctumSanctum bullbull BonifaceBoniface attemptedattempted toto cementcement hishis powerpower byby issuingissuing thethe UnamUnam SanctumSanctum inin 13021302 EdwardEdward II ofof EnglandEngland immediatelyimmediately withdrewwithdrew hishis protectionprotection ofof BritishBritish clergyclergy PhilipPhilip IVIV ofof FranceFrance immediatelyimmediately stoppedstopped allall FrenchFrench fundsfunds fromfrom flowingflowing towardtoward Rome—allRome—all tithestithes andand offeringsofferings ceasedceased BonifaceBoniface thenthen excommunicatedexcommunicated PhilipPhilip PhilipPhilip thenthen calledcalled aa councilcouncil andand denounceddenounced BonifaceBoniface asas aa fraud,fraud, aa sinner,sinner, andand aa hereticheretic BonifaceBoniface denieddenied thethe chargescharges So Philip sent his troops— backed by the remaining Colonna family—to arrest Pope Boniface Supposedly, one of the Colonnas even slapped the Pope in the face TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance TheThe ChurchChurch attemptedattempted toto growgrow itsits powerpower 13021302 BonifaceBoniface VIIIVIII issuedissued hishis UnamUnam SanctumSanctum bullbull BonifaceBoniface attemptedattempted toto cementcement hishis powerpower byby issuingissuing thethe UnamUnam SanctumSanctum inin 13021302 EdwardEdward II ofof EnglandEngland immediatelyimmediately withdrewwithdrew hishis protectionprotection ofof BritishBritish clergyclergy PhilipPhilip IVIV ofof FranceFrance immediatelyimmediately stoppedstopped allall FrenchFrench fundsfunds fromfrom flowingflowing towardtoward Rome—allRome—all tithestithes andand offeringsofferings ceasedceased BonifaceBoniface thenthen excommunicatedexcommunicated PhilipPhilip PhilipPhilip thenthen calledcalled aa councilcouncil andand denounceddenounced BonifaceBoniface asas aa fraud,fraud, aa sinner,sinner, andand aa hereticheretic BonifaceBoniface denieddenied thethe chargescharges Pope Boniface was tormented for three days, then finally sent back to Rome in shackles...... where he died after gnawing through his own wrists to release himself so that he could bash his skull against a stone wall until he died... TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance TheThe ChurchChurch attemptedattempted toto growgrow itsits powerpower 13021302 BonifaceBoniface VIIIVIII issuedissued hishis UnamUnam SanctumSanctum bullbull 13081308 DanteDante beganbegan workwork onon thethe DivineDivine ComedyComedy TheThe epicepic poem—dividedpoem—divided intointo threethree booksbooks ((,Inferno, PurgatorioPurgatorio,, andand ParadisoParadiso),), portrayedportrayed aa fantasticalfantastical triptrip throughthrough Hell,Hell, Purgatory,Purgatory, andand HeavenHeaven PopePope BonifaceBoniface waswas depicteddepicted asas beingbeing tormentedtormented inin thethe EighthEighth CircleCircle ofof HellHell (the(the second-lowestsecond-lowest level,level, justjust aboveabove CainCain andand JudasJudas Iscariot),Iscariot), alongsidealongside PopesPopes NicholasNicholas IIIIII andand ClementClement V,V, andand SimonSimon Magus...Magus... TheThe epicepic waswas thethe mostmost popularpopular bookbook inin EuropeEurope forfor centuries—socenturies—so popularpopular inin ,Italy, inin fact,fact, thatthat it'sit's actuallyactually creditedcredited withwith makingmaking thethe TuscanTuscan dialectdialect usedused inin thethe poempoem thethe standardstandard forfor thethe ItalianItalian languagelanguage asas aa wholewhole ForFor thethe firstfirst time,time, itit waswas actuallyactually popularpopular toto bebe denouncingdenouncing thethe powerpower ofof thethe Pope...Pope...