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Introduction Children are not well understood nor well represented in the archaeological record. In 1989, Grete Lillehammer called for more attention to be paid to children in the archaeological record; however, few archaeologists answered her call (Kamp 2001). In fact, when a symposium on childhood was organized for the Society of American Anthropology five years later, there were so few potential contributors that it took the organizers two attempts before the symposium could even take place (Kamp 2001:8). The lack of study has created a deficiency in the knowledge of the whole community, as understanding children is crucial to understanding how the population functions. This lack of representation of children in the archaeological record stems not only from preservation issues, but also from a lack of desire to ask questions about the nature of children and childhood. For example, children have smaller bones and as such, it takes less time for their bones to be broken down or lost. However, preservation is a problem that can easily be overcome when it comes to understanding children and childhood. While it is true that our childhood tends to be left simply to memories once we have completed it, some physical remains of childhood stay with a person forever: teeth. Teeth have long been used as fundamental tools to reconstruct the disease, diet and nutritional status of human groups (Cuccina et al. 1999:405). Linear (LEH), a dental defect produced during the formation of teeth, has been studied since the early 1700s, however, it has almost exclusively been applied at the population level (Palubeckaite et al. 2002, Cuccina 2002, Humphrey 2000, Lillie & Richards 2000, Cuccina et al. 1999, Mays 1998, Larsen 1997, Danthforth 1997, Li et al. 1995, Skinner 1996, White 1994, Moggi-Cecchi et al. 1994, Hall & Browman 1992, Whittington 1992, Goodman & Rose 1990, Olsen Kelley & Angel 1987, Rose et al. 1985, Goodman et al. 1980, Infante & Gillespie 1974). Linear enamel hypoplasia can offer Linear Enamel Hypoplasia: What Can much needed information of what it is to be a it Say About the Condition of child in a society where LEH is prevalent. Information that can be gleaned from examining Childhood? LEH includes: differential treatment of the sexes, differences between the health status of elite children versus non-elite children, and the patterns and implications of early weaning.

['un·;.:'! ,,,I I' ::fl(I·';· ..2flfl) \ ."pynght /; 2()flS OJ( '1'1-:\1; The lj\\'()['>l.lrnal of :\nthTI)!"o!<,!,:\' recognize patterns in data, yet this task depends Archaeological Problem on their prior expectations, knowledge and Feminist theory posits that women in models, all of which can lead to bias the archaeological record have traditionally been (Chamberlain 1997:248). Part of the problem is portrayed as passive rather than active (Fedigan the concept of childhood is an adult creation 1986). While this portrayal has changed in (Sofaer Derevenski 1997:193). When dealing recent times, children have replaced females as with the notion of childhood, a Western the passive members of society. Curiously, archaeologist cannot allow the contemporary children were left behind in the feminist Western view of children/childhood to cloud movement in archaeology, despite the fact that a his/her view of children in another time or place. woman's role as a mother is one of the strongest An archaeologist must remember that there have roles of both past and present females. Feminist been many ways of viewing children within the theory seems to have divorced itself from this community of study. For instance, during the role of 'woman the mother' in its theories and Middle Ages in Europe children were viewed as studies (Sofaer Derevenski 1997: 192). Instead, mini-adults. Another view includes that of the archaeologists have continued to see children as Puritans, who believed that children were born the object of others' control, assuming that only sinful and needed guidance to triumph over evil. adults are productive members of society (Kamp Historically in Western culture, children have 2001:24). been seen as capable of work from a very young age (Kamp 2001:4). Similar to perceptions of gender studies, the Despite the difficulties involved, study of children and childhood is seen by many children do need to be studied not only to learn as intangible because the roles of children are about them, but also because,"an understanding culturally defmed. However, the recent emphasis of children's economic role, attitudes towards on gender studies in the archaeological record children, the health of infants and children, and should force archaeologists to reconsider the other aspects of childhood will improve not only possibility of discovering children and childhood our basic descriptions of a culture, but also our (Kamp 2001:2). analysis of broader issues" (Kamp 2001:2). While it may be difficult to fmd children in the archaeological record because of Background acidic soils or burial practices that omit them, Teeth are often extremely well there are several ways to locate them. Direct preserved in the fossil record, as enamel is the evidence can be uncovered through skeletal hardest tissue of the human body. remains and material remains; indirect evidence Mature human dental enamel is made up of 96% can be uncovered by investigating daily life inorganic material (crystalline hyproxypaite), within the settlement, including the time, space which is not subject to decay, 2% water and 2% and place in which activities were carried out protein ( and ) (Goodman (Danforth 1997). and Rose 1990, Hillier and Craig 1992: 381). However, there are barriers that run Enamel is formed in layers by deeper than acidic soils or burial practices. The ameloblast cells. The ameloblast cells move assumption that juvenile skeletons do not away from the cusp of the leaving a protein preserve as well as adult skeletons prevents matrix, which is later calcified behind them. archaeologists from looking for juvenile Any systematic disturbance that disrupts the skeletons (Danforth 1997). Further, because ameloblast alters the direction of movement and children are not seen to be as important as the as such, alters the enamel prism being formed. adults in society, they are not actively searched If the ameloblast cells do not recover out (Danforth 1997). This excavation bias from a disturbance, these ameloblasts will form prevents further data from being gathered on no further enamel; this results in enamel juveniles. Moreover, this bias at work in hypoplasia (Rose 1985). There are four types of previous excavations has led to a wealth of lost enamel hypoplasia (EH): pits, vertical grooves, data that most likely will never be regained missing enamel and horizontal grooves (Guatelli- (Danforth 1997:130). Steinberg & Lukacs 1999:77). Horizontal hypoplasia, more commonly referred to as linear There are problems related to dealing enamel hypoplasia, can be a single sharp line on with children in the archaeological record, even the crown, or a single groove/furrow/ridge on the when children are found. Archaeologists try to crown surface (Guatelli-Steinberg & Lukacs

Tl JTF\1 ,·,,1 I) 2(JfJol·.'.1I!/.'; C()p·:ri.L:hr \:' .:'005 "[,C)TI-:\1: l'h\: I."\VO FmrTLd of \prhropd

f'(YIT',\1 ,,,I I' cil(l.'·I·'::'1I1'5 •. "1"yngh",;' ?Oll:) TC>Tr:\1:The lj\\/( JI"urnal of i\nthmpoJ<.!>,· The "Osteological Paradox" has several used in several of the studies reviewed here ramifications on the study of LEH (Wood et al. (Goodman & Rose 1990:99). 1992). First, the children found to have LEH There are some problems in the were the survivors of a stress episode. However, methodology of enamel hypoplasia; for instance, those children who died without any evidence of not all teeth show the same amount of LEH do not necessarily represent healthy hypoplasia. Research has shown earlier children; instead, they represent those who died developing tooth crowns tend to have more before LEH could develop, This is possible hypoplasia than later developing tooth crowns because while LEH is a good indicator of stress, (Goodman & Armelagos 1985:487). This it does not represent all stressors. Sudden death provides evidence of morphological will not be seen through LEH; as such, it should developmental factors influencing the expression not be assumed that the children in the of EH (Goodman & Armelagos 1985:488). archaeological record without LEH were stress- However, not all of the differences can be free individuals (Skinner 1996:847). To attempt explained via time in tooth development; thus, it to uncover which of these two options are is possible that there is increased genetic control reflected in the skeletal remains, other evidence over the development of certain teeth. Teeth on the particular community and particular believed to be heavily constrained by genetics individual need to be considered. are referred to as polar or key teeth. The upper All children in the archaeological central incisors, lower lateral incisors, canines, record were frail in life, as they died first premolars and first molars are considered prematurely. To study the possible effects of the polar teeth. Hypoplasia is believed to affect individual frailty and the effects of morbidity these genetically controlled teeth. This is upon mortality, one individual can be followed believed to be the case because EH may be the though childhood, comparing the defects of the only way polar teeth can react to stress, given deciduous and permanent dentition as well as the that genes tightly control the speed of age of death (Storey 1997: 119). development and size. Non-polar teeth, or those with less genetic control, can react to stress in a Materials and Methods variety of ways such as slowing down To identify LEH, a bright light, lOx development and decreasing in overall size. hand lens and dental probe are the only Studies providing evidence of the existence of instruments needed. If a defect is so small that it polar teeth show that in response to nutritional can only be seen under a microscope, then it is stress, third molars decrease in size at a greater probably not a true hypoplasia, as such rate than first molars, with second molars being researchers look for macroscopic as opposed to intermediate in this reaction (Goodman & microscopic evidence (Goodman & Rose Armelagos 1985 :491). 1990:92). To measure an episode of LEH, There is also a problem in examining needlepoint Helios dial callipers are used and the teeth for LEH due to attrition. Attrition from data is rounded to the nearest tenth of a chewing or cultural modifications of teeth can millimetre (Lukacs 1992:7). To ensure best interfere with the ability to locate LEH and count results, teeth should be cleaned in a nonabrasive the number of stress episodes. In this paper, manner to remove excess dirt and any obscuring deciduous teeth were examined and teeth with items (Goodman & Rose 1990: 92). heavy wear or unusual wear patterns were The measured distance from the CEl's excluded to reduce any confounding factors. to LEH can be graphically converted to an age of The following three sections of this development. The formula for this procedure is paper each reflect their own methodology as they as follows: the age at formation is equal to the are from a variety of studies. A brief outline of negative rate of enamel development (mm per the methodology will be discussed for each year), multiplied by the distance of the defect study. from the CEl (in mm), plus the age at crown completion (Goodman & Rose 1990:97). This methodology was used in all of the studies using individuals of unknown age reviewed within this Differential Treatment afthe Sexes paper. For comparative purposes, information on LEH is an indicator of stress; as such, the formation of the tooth matrix of different studies can use LEH in comparing different groups (i.e. males vs. females) is available and groups to one another in order to determine if one group experiences more stress than the other.

'I () 1'1'.\1",,11) 2IJU+2lll,S C()r:¥L~:..::I1! \' _~C05T()lJ~_\L Tht. l..'\\:() jc)uf!u! of .\!1r!tropnj')gy In some contemporary societies preferential documented presence of male preferential treatment of one sex over the other exists. If the treatment in China during this time period. First, study of LEH in these cultures reveals a the authors suggest that where there is high stress correlation between the high frequency of LEH among the population as a whole, as seen episodes and the poorly treated sex, it may be through high stress markers and high mortality used as evidence for differential sex treatment in for the time period, preferential treatment may past societies where cultural practices are disappear as there is not enough resources to unknown. However, when making comparisons treat anyone preferentially. Second, females in between the sexes, female buffering must be China were so selected against that they died taken into consideration (Guatelli-Steinberg & quickly without development of LEH, and were Lukacs 1999:73). I The theory of female removed from the population studied buffering suggests that females are better . It is possible that many females were removed buffered against parasites and infectious disease from the population due to premature death, as a result of the demanding role that since the death rate increased by 135% during reproduction places on the female body. In fact, the famine. However, females should posses less research on nutritional stressors has shown that LEH than males in stressful circumstances long-term effects of protein deprivation are more because of female buffering; therefore, fmding pronounced in males than females. For example, no significant differences between the sexes Rhesus macaque females gain weight better and could be interpreted as weak evidence of male are more efficient when placed on a low protein preferential treatment. diet compared to males (Guatelli-Steinberg & The Zhou and Corruccini study Lukacs 1999:80). In humans, females may be provides some evidence of differential treatment more resilient at birth, as males tend to be larger between the sexes despite the extreme and with more muscle mass and less subcutaneous unusual circumstances of the Chinese famine. fat. This leads to a higher caloric requirement However, not all evidence of preferential and less caloric reserves for males (Guatelli- treatment as seen through LEH comes from Steinberg & Lukacs 1999:82). As a result of unusual circumstances like a political famine, evidence for female buffering, many studies nor is all of the evidence weak. propose that males in a stressful environment will exhibit higher levels of LEH. In other words, 2) Goodman et af. (1987) LEH would only be found in females if the In 1987 Goodman et af. completed a environmental stressors were high throughout the study on the prevalence and development of entire population. As such, a higher level of LEH LEH in Solis Valley, Mexico. in females than males might be used as a marker This study is useful because it includes a of preferential male treatment (GuateIIi- diversity of socioeconomic and nutritional status. Steinberg & Lukacs 1999:118). Furthermore, information concerning social systems and social practices was known 1) Zhou & Corruccini (1998) for every individual used in the study. In 1998 Zhou & Corruccini conducted a The study consisted of 300 Latino children from study comparing EH of males and females five communities; all of the participants involved during the Chinese famine (1959-1969). 3014 were part of the Collaborative Research Support individuals were sampled and Goodman's Program. This longitudinal study provided modifications of Federation Dentaire details on each family and each individual, International (FDI) were used for the including information on anthropometry, food classification of LEH. Age at LEH occurrence history, psychosocial and behavioural also followed Goodman's 1987 methodology. development, as well as socio-economic and Zhou and Corruccini's study found that the environmental conditions. Goodman modified chances of possessing LEH during famine was the FDI's techniques for classification of LEH greater than while not in a famine, securing LEH and other earlier dental techniques creating the as representative of stress from the famine. In methods used in Zhou and Corruccini's terms of the male to female ratio of LEH, there aforementioned study. was no significant difference between rates of The female rate for EH in Goodman's individuals possessing LEH (Zhou & Corruccini study was over twice as high on the mandibular 1998). lateral incisor (polar tooth). Furthermore, while There were several reasons for this lack of the male rate for EH dropped after the third year difference between the sexes despite the well- of life, the female rate of EH remained high

liYiF\l \.,I I' ~1I').l··21 HI) l»pyrigh~ 7(il;5 TCiTF\L The U\,'\.'{} h ,urn,ll of" ./\J~tf·lTl:poh,p~' (Goodman et at. 1987). From the rate of EH in rates/severity of LEH, than one could each developmental zone, it is unlikely that the hypothesize that the poor children are dying increased frequency in females over males was before LEH can develop; further, that the rate of related to differential attrition or eruption. Based high LEH represents the survivors of high status on these data the authors suggest that males children, most likely to due differential access to might have had greater access to food, shelter resources. One way to detennine whether this is and health care than females (Goodman et at. the case would be to see if there is a spike in the 1987:18 May et al. 1993). death records, similar to the Chinese famine These two studies suggest that in some situation. If there is a spike in the deaths of communities males received preferential children, then such a pattern could suggest LEH treatment over females, resulting in less stress. is a sign of survivorship rather than frailty. This connection seen between LEH and However, if the frequency/severity of LEH is differential sex treatment allows archaeologists different, with the high status groups having to hypothesize on preferential treatment of one lower rates/severity of LEH, one could sex over another. If males are being treated hypothesize that high status children are preferentially in a community, by way of better protected from stresses via familial access to access to medical attention or other resources, resources. As a result, the high status children archaeologists can also begin to make lead very different lives from the poor children. detenninations on what it would be like to be a 3) Lanphear (1990) female living in that community. For example, To examine this possibility I compared preferential treatment can lead to changes in Kim Lanphear's 1990 study of the Munroe feelings of self worth (Barlow & Durand 2002). Poorhouse population to the 1992 Little et at. As such, females living in a community with study of the high status Weir family. Both of male preferential treatment may see themselves these studies involved the examination of clean, as less worthy; which, may also contribute to maxillary central incisors and the mandibular other cultural beliefs or behavior within the canines. Hypoplasias were aged using community. Furthennore, if archaeologists can Goodman's revisions of MassIer's chronology identify male preferential treatment, they can (Lanphear 1990, Barbara Little, e-mail to author also ask questions about fonns of resistance to October 212004). this belief system possibly reflected within art, In regard to samples, both studies dealt architecture or other cultural remains. with white populations in the Southern United States between the time period of 1826 to 1907. Lanphear's 1990 study consisted of 153 Status Differences individuals. Her research found that 84% of the As reviewed in the study of LEH in individuals under investigation had LEH. Little's detennining differential treatment of the sexes, 1992 study found of the 13 individuals studied, the comparison of groups though the frequency 53.8% had LEH. To accommodate for the and number of LEH episodes can provide useful difference in sample size, a chi-squared analysis data for understanding the life of a child. This of the data was calculated. The calculations same process can be used to compare high status suggest that the difference between these two to low status children. If the rates of LEH are the populations was statistically significant (p > same between the two groups (high status/low 0.05). status), it can be concluded that a high level of Statistically, the Weir family suffered stress across the population inhibits the ability to significantly less linear enamel hypoplasia than protect children and, as such, they have similar those buried in the Munroe County Poorhouse stress levels and occurrences. Alternatively, this Cemetery. As such, the lives of the Weir family finding could suggest that children are treated as children were significantly different than the a unifonn group within the community and, as lives of the children from the Munroe Poorhouse such, their familial resources do not protect high in tenns of stress levels. This difference in stress status children. To detennine which is the more levels is most likely a result of nutritional likely scenario, an investigation into burial differences since the groups are contemporary practices may indicate the place of children with each other and geographically similar, within the culture. although access to monetary and food resources If frequency/severity of LEH between would have differed. high status and low status groups are different, with the low status group having lower

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r ()""1 ,\1 \IJI I:' ~nd·1···211115 I.;lpynght :(:~2(:1ij T{ IT!"::\!: The t;\'\/( ) !(>urnal of .\nthfl;pol(lgy pro-social, sociable, as well as less aggressive addition to information on the migration patterns and withdrawn later in childhood (Howes & of individuals during their childhood years. Matheson 1992: 969). It was also found that the These types of studies would create more children who show emergence of reciprocal play evidence that would allow for in-depth early, exhibit an earlier development in co- hypothesis testing on children in a particular operative play. (Howes & Matheson 1992:969) culture. However, such isotopic studies have Play is a crucial part of childhood as it their drawbacks; fIrstly, isotopic studies are contributes to mathematical thinking (Jarell expensive to conduct; secondly isotope analysis 1998: 56), literacy development (Christie 1998: is a destructive technique that may not be 80), risk-taking decision-making (Jambor 1998), permitted on particular samples. However, with humour development (Berger 1998) and mastery proper consent, isotopic studies in conjunction of social skills in general (Freitag 1998). Such with LEH analysis could provide a clearer research, which shows that the early weaning of understanding of what it would be like to be a a child is associated with higher levels of play child in a particular society. and early play, could help speed up the process Another scientifIc technique that could of social maturity allowing a child to have more be useful in these types of studies is DNA responsibility at an earlier age. Steckel's 1986 analysis, it can identifY disease pathogens in study of North American slaves in the nineteenth skeletal remains. The technique would allow for century cites children's "transitions into the adult a discovery of the pathogens contained within a labour force" by the age of six to seven. Steckel particular individual. This would assist the also cites the weaning age as beginning as early archaeologists in pinpointing the cause of stress as three months, based on the given mother's in an individual or population (Saunders & cotton-picking rates. The research suggests a Barrens 1999). correlation, in this particular case, between early Archaeological methods can also bolster weaning and earlier life responsibility. However, the evidence provided by LEH studies. To at this point the hypothesis suggesting a determine whether children were seen as persons correlation between earlier breastfeeding and within a society, archaeologists could study increased responsibility is merely conjecture. burial patterns. For example, if children were Further studies cross-culturally would need to be considered "outsiders" one could look to see if completed in order to correlate early weaning normal (i.e. adult) mortuary practices for the with an increased early responsibility in children. community (i.e. location, grave goods, position) were applied to the graves of children (Crawford 2000: 176). An example using archaeological Future of Children in Archeaological Studies methods to determine the state of childhood is The study of LEH can begin to explore the study of infanticide (cited in Mays what it would be like to be a child by providing 2000: 180). To identifY infanticide in a particular information on such topics as preferential community, research can be completed on burial treatment, differences in rearing environments practices combined with observing peaks in age and the beginnings of individualization. Based at death near the time of birth (Mays 2000: 181). on the research discussed in this paper, it is clear The practice of infanticide may indicate the that LEH alone cannot offer enough data to belief that newborns were not considered confIrm a particular claim with suffIcient persons. This is a notion that is not all that authority; good archaeological research requires uncommon. In fact, Tooley (1983) argued that multiple lines of evidence to substantiate a given until an infant has a concept of self, it is not a claim. In the case of LEH, many different person; as such, infanticide is acceptable (Mays methods can be used to shed light on some of the 2000: 181). In other cultures, reaching milestones questions concerning the legitimacy of the may have been required before an infant/child claims, or simply to back up a particular study's was considered a person/member of the fmdings. community, such as eating solid foods, walking, To confmn the time of weaning in an or receiving a name (Mays 2000: 182). individual, nitrogen stable isotope analysis could Whatever the reason, information on both burial be used; this would allow the social and place and birthrates may provide insight into the behavioural ramifIcations to be examined more lives of children. reliably (Katzenberg 2000: 318). Further, isotopic studies can offer information on the types of diets children were consuming, in

TOTF\-! ,,.,! 1\ 2\)(14·.,0(1'> Cl)f".:r:L'"hr \~ 2005 T()'! r:\f: The I..:\V().[,)urru[ of .\l~rh.r()r'n!<)gy Children have the power to influence comments. I would also like to extend my thanks adults. In psychological studies, it has been to Barbara Little for her assistance. found that experiences with child interaction, and not necessarily with the adult's own child, caused the adults in the study to: change values or priorities; recall forgotten or repressed memories from their own childhood; become more creative and more cognitively flexible; and observe the world with wonder and curiosity Alvesalo, L. 1997. Chromosomes and human (Dillon 2002: 267). Psychology suggests that the growth: a dental approach. Human Genetics. reason for this strong influence of children on 10 I: 15. adults is related to genetic stratification; a theory whereby earlier modes of knowledge are not Barlow, David and V. Mark Durand. 2002. replaced by new ones, but coexist along a Abnormal Psychology. Canada: Wadsworth parallel line instead. As such, there are functional Thompson Learning. and multiple modes of knowledge existing within an adult. It is also theorized that the Berger, Doris. 1998. "Playas a Context for influence of children is due to dynamic Humour Development." In Play from Birth to intersubjectivity. This theory suggests Twelve and Beyond: Contexts, Perspectives and development in adults does not move in a single Meanings. Doris Pronin Fromberg and Doris line; instead, it reunites knowledge acquired Bergen (editors). pp. 324-337. New York: from infancy and childhood with that knowledge Garland Publishing, Inc. gained in adolescence and adulthood (Dillon 2002:273). These psychological theories show Blakey, Michael, Teresa Leslie and Joseph P. how children affect the lives of the adults around Reidy. 1994. Frequency and Chronological them, be it how they remember their own past or Distribution of Dental Enamel Hypoplasia in how they think as an adult. Enslaved African Americans: A Test of the Furthermore, children are not merely Weaning Hypothesis. American Journal of smaller versions of adults; rather, they maintain Physical Anthropology. 95:371-383. their own sense of identity, world-view, priorities and social networks (Wilkie 2000: I00, Crawford Chamberlain, Andrew T. 1997. "Commentary: 2000). As such we cannot simply apply adult Missing stages of Life - toward the perception of beliefs, social practices and behaviours across children in archaeology." In Invisible People and the population as a whole. More importantly, Processes. Jenny Moore and Eleanor Scott when conducting an excavation, it must be (editors). pp. 240-257. New York: Leicester remembered that, "children contribute to the University Press. archaeological record whether or not we are competent to recognize them" (Chamberlain 1997:249 emphasis original). Christie, James. 1998. "Play: A Medium for The children of today are the adults and Literacy Development." In Play from Birth to leaders of tomorrow; as such, understanding the Twelve and Beyond: Contexts, Perspectives and sort of childhood they experienced not only Meanings. Doris Pronin Fromberg and Doris allows bioarchaeologists to better understand this Bergen (editors). pp. 50-55. New York: Garland segment of society, but it also allows Publishing, Inc. bioarchaeologists to understand why changes may have occurred. While LEH may only provide a glimpse into the past, it does provide Crawford, Sally. 2000. "Children, Grave Goods and excellent starting point to fully investigate and Social Status in Early Anglo-Saxon the lives of children. England." In Children and Material Culture. Joanna Sofaer Derevenski (editors). pp. 169-179. New York: Routledge.

Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge Lisa Hodgetts and Cuccina, Andrea. 2002. Brief Communication: the anonymous reviewers for their helpful Diachronic Investigation of Linear enamel

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