“Me and God, We’d Be Mates”: Toward an Aussie Contextualized Gospel Robert L. Gallagher
ith boyish optimism and laconic wit, Paul Hogan Separation of Church and Culture Wswaggers through the Australian film Crocodile Dundee in good-humored naïveté.1 In many ways, his behavior and There is no simple way to remedy the decreasing percentage of worldview typify the self-perception of contemporary Austra- Australians attending church. Some church leaders have looked lians. In fact, one specific scene in the movie may hold the key to to society and found reasons for the decline in secular humanism, unlocking the Australian heart toward God. When questioned as urbanization, and the increasing power of the state over the to whether he was afraid of death, Crocodile Dundee confidently church.6 Regrettably, few investigators have looked within the declared, “Nah. I read the Bible once. You know, God and Jesus church itself to find the solution. I believe that one of the church’s and all them apostles. They were all fishermen, just like me. Yep. main challenges is the cultural divide between itself and the Straight to heaven for Mick Dundee. Yep. Me and God, we’d be community it desires to serve. Too many churches do not include mates.” This mythology of mateship demonstrates a theological essential cultural concerns in their Christian faith. Church life, paradigm whereby the Gospel might be presented and received though, must be grounded in the experiences, attitudes, and by a present-day Aussie society in spiritual decline.2 reflections of its people if they are going to embrace the church. A marked decline in church attendance in Australia over the By bridging this divide, the church might see a reversal of present last fifty years has been confirmed in an analysis done by Peter trends. Religion in Australia needs an Aussie accent, that is, an Kaldor and associates in Winds of Change.3 Although the number approach that presents a contextualized Gospel in harmony with of unchurched people had increased, the majority of Australians the cultural elements.7 still saw themselves as religious.4 Reasons for nonparticipation Trying, instead, to duplicate the church life of another coun- in church life were unrelated to beliefs or religious experience but try shows a lack of understanding for the need to plant the Gospel pointed instead to the nature of the churches as institutions.5 story in Australian soil. Unfortunately, the majority of Christian Perhaps by understanding the reason behind this lack of re- traditions that have been brought to Australia from other coun- sponse, the Christian church might relate better to the Australian tries have been modified only slightly, if at all, to fit the Austra- population. lian context. Therefore, the Gospel has largely been received as a foreign message packaged in imported forms that appear to Robert L. Gallagher is Associate Professor of Intercultural Studies at Wheaton show little concern for reflecting the specific nature of the Austra- 8 College Graduate School, Wheaton, Illinois. He served as a pastor and executive lian community. The unique characteristics that Australian pastor in Australia (1979–90) and has been involved on a short-term basis in culture has developed as its own have little connection with the theological education in Papua New Guinea and the South Pacific since 1984. personality of Australian Christianity.9
July 2006 127 European expressions of worship have dictated the struc- secret aspirations were all a part of having a special “mate.” Even ture of the Australian church service throughout its history. when wronged, mates would be prepared to make almost any Much like the European landscape, these forms have a sense of sacrifice to help one another. By the 1880s the myth of mateship composed restraint and elegance, an ordered formality through had become a powerful institution, and it was further implanted practice and experience, as well as a balanced beauty in architec- in the Australian tradition by the country’s involvement in two ture—forms that are completely alien to the Australian bush.10 world wars. Australians characteristically yearn for an expression of worship In 1915 the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps that harmonizes with the spirit of the land and its people. An (ANZAC) was defeated in a bloody battle against the Turkish authentically Australian liturgy would value freedom, irregular- army at Anzac Cove on the Gallipoli Peninsula in Turkey. The ity, and informality, as well as a celebration of earthiness, wide- Australian legend of mateship was propelled into the twentieth open spaces, creative energy, and rugged beauty. century because of the courage and sacrifice that the young The Australian church has made little or no attempt at diggers displayed in such difficult circumstances.15 Of all the embracing the myth that makes the Australian national identity stories passed down from this time, the one with the most unique. Like that of any people group, the Australian ethos has continuing power is that of the work of Private John Simpson sprung from its own unique history, in which the convict work- Kirkpatrick, a twenty-two-year-old medical orderly who carried ing class was responsible for the shaping of much of the culture. his wounded comrades to safety on the back of a donkey at great personal risk. He was killed within the first four weeks of the long campaign, but the sacrifice of this common soldier for his mates will always live in Australian history and touch the hearts of the The song “My Religion” 16 suggested that mateship had Australian people. become a deliberate Religion of Mateship substitute for religion. The 1905 bush song “My Religion” expressed an attitude toward organized religion that had prevailed in Australia since the beginning of penal settlement.17 The song suggested that mate- Vance Palmer explained the need to incorporate Australian myth ship had become a deliberate substitute for religion. A number of in Australian Christianity: “Men cannot feel really at home in any prominent historians have noted this idea that mateship became environment until they have transformed the natural shapes a replacement for God.18 Allan Grocott states, “The typical bush- around them by infusing them with myth. . . . Myth making is an man did not ‘care a fig’ for theology, heaven or hell, or any of the important means of communication, bringing people together, consolations of the Christian religion; he was far more concerned and giving isolated communities something to hold in com- with the pleasures of the flesh. His strength and comfort came mon.”11 from mateship.”19 For the majority of Australians, it would seem Some of the more obvious characteristics of the Australian that the imported Christian message has always been unappeal- myth include egalitarian collectivism, a rough-and-ready capac- ing and unacceptable. Historically, convicts and former convicts ity for improvisation, a light-hearted intolerance of respectable were both cynical and contemptuous toward clergy and or conventional manners, and an antiauthoritarian attitude. There churches.20 The early Anglican clergymen were chaplains to the is also a conviction that the working bushman is the “true convict settlements and were often seen as extensions of the Australian,” a view that includes the concept of mateship. This penal system. Many of the ministers were also magistrates, such value has led to an egalitarian and familiar attitude toward as Samuel Marsden, who had such a reputation for savagery that God—one, however, that is not essentially sacrilegious.12 he was nicknamed the “flogging parson.”21 The resulting atti- tude toward the church and Christianity has been passed on Traditions of Aussie Mateship from the convicts to the bushmen and on to the Anzac diggers. Even today the Australian church has a reputation for Mateship, the spirit of comradeship, originated as a response to wowserism,22 emotional rigidity, and a killjoy attitude, that the historic and geographic conditions of a harsh continent, distances it from the everyday life of the people.23 where difficulties were shared and mutual dependence was Rather than viewing this negative image as unredeemable, needed. Between the years 1788 and 1868, over 160,000 convicts sympathetic observers will find within the Australian tendency were transported from the British Isles to Australia. The chief to demean the church and clergy an underlying yearning for trait among them was their strong feeling of group solidarity and personal identity and self-worth. Australians have channeled loyalty. Amid the cruel environment of eighteenth-century prison this deep desire in the direction of mateship and egalitarianism life, egalitarian class solidarity was the one humane characteris- out of a historic reaction caused by years of suffering and tic remaining, once “the system” had done its worst. This frater- rejection. Since the desire for intimacy and security is fertile nity was not a voluntary union among brothers but a necessity ground for the Holy Spirit to work, there is value in planting the for survival among exiles. The difficulties of prison life made the Gospel within the soil formed from the positive aspects of the practice of a collectivist mateship essential.13 myth of mateship. For God himself, as revealed in the narratives Over the years, as the convicts earned pardons, the majority of Israel’s past, used these same universal desires to form a stayed and settled in the country areas of eastern Australia. covenant with his people. Again, the difficult conditions in the outback made mateship indispensable.14 The great distances, the loneliness, and the Covenant Making harshness of the climate provided opportunity for people to treat one another as family. In a spirit of Christian community, citizens For the Hebrew people, entering into covenant with another offered what they had. The sharing of money, goods, and even person was a solemn decision whereby two persons would form
128 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 30, No. 3 a life contract. The following actions incorporate the essential loyalty to a mate or covenant partner is fundamental and that the forms of the covenant agreement. ultimate sacrifice is offering one’s life for a friend (John 15:13). In the legend of Australian mateship, there is also evidence • Between two men, the exchange of a coat signified that of a redemptive analogy observed in the repeated themes of an individual was giving his life away to the other. The sacrifice and resurrection in Australia’s participation in the two two were becoming one. (1 Sam. 18:3–4) world wars.26 There is a similarity in the symbolism between • The exchange of a belt, with a sword and dagger at- mateship and covenant, not only in basic concepts, but also in the tached, was a figurative proclamation of guaranteed outward forms. For instance, the meal motif of mateship is military support and protection in time of trouble. At religiously enacted most afternoons after work as mates drink any time, either party would defend the other to the together. The exchange of “shouts,”27 coupled with conversa- death. (1 Sam. 18:3–4) tions centering on sports and women, and the sarcastic skills of • Animals were split in two, and the separate parts were egalitarian leveling have all the rehearsed liturgy of ancient laid opposite one another. The two agreeing parties covenant. Not only is the covenant of mateship reenacted daily would then walk the bloodied path between the pieces in the Australian pubs and clubs through the communal “grog of the carcass, foreshadowing what the outcome would on,”28 but there is also a distinct memorial to mateship. be if either person broke the contract. (Gen. 15:9–10, Each year on Anzac Day, April 25, the nation pays respect to 17–18; Exod. 24:1–8; Jer. 34:18–19) its fallen military. The day progresses with manifestations of the • Blessings and curses were exchanged, by which the more negative aspects of mateship (participation in the illegal representatives would speak the blessings of the cov- two-up game and beer-drinking marathons at the Return enant agreement that would hold if all the conditions Servicemen’s League clubs).29 Yet in spite of the day’s activities, were observed, as well as the curses upon the partner if the central issue of mateship (and covenant) is commemorated the agreement was ever broken. (Deut. 28) by memorializing the Unknown Soldier, who sacrificed his life • The meal taken together in friendship sealed the cov- for a friend. enant and often included the partaking of bread and Other themes of the Hebraic covenant are more subtly wine. This action represented the life of the two part- intertwined in the Australian worldview of mateship. Exchanges ners becoming one with each other. (Gen. 26:30; Exod. of coat and belt are not visibly performed in ceremony but are 24:9–11) enculturated in Aussie society. Though paradoxical in nature, • The planting of a memorial was the final symbolic act so encouragement of rugged independence comes from within the that succeeding generations would be reminded of the confines of the “intimidating unspoken rules of one’s peer covenant made. (Gen. 21:27–34)24 group.”30 The ordinary person is held in esteem because his or her life belongs to the common good of the people. If one rises above Covenants were commonplace in the Book of Genesis. All that commonality for his or her own prestige, then the “tall three of Israel’s patriarchs made covenants with neighboring poppy” will be cut down to the common level through isolation nations that incorporated various combinations of these steps. and sarcasm.31 The sin of the Australian culture is to rise above Yahweh used the covenant ceremony to reveal his character the mass and “forget your mates.”32 Society’s equalizing tech- and purpose when he joined himself to the family of Abraham and the nation of Israel (Gen. 15; Exod. 19–24). His intention was to convey to Israel that they were one together with him in Australian mateship shares covenant unity. He was their God, and they were his people (Exod. 19:4–6). common motifs with the These Hebraic covenantal images continued into the New Hebraic covenant ritual. Testament. During the Last Supper, Christ spoke these words: “This cup is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured out for you” (Luke 22:20 TNIV). Many early church writers also used niques reinforce belief in group solidarity and mateship, and the ancient ritual of covenant to explain the work of the cross. It each nuance of social behavior contains deep within it the curses was Christ who cut a covenant with God on our behalf. Even and blessings of mateship. though we were not historically present, God saw the believer in The similarities between the Hebraic covenant and Austra- Christ Jesus, and through faith in him, we are now God’s holy lian mateship suggest that mateship might indeed be a viable nation (Exod. 19:6; Deut. 7:6; 1 Peter 2:9). In essence, this relation- bridge between church and community.33 In other words, ship is mateship with God.25 mateship could be useful in contextualizing the Gospel for Australians. Throughout Australian history, there has always Covenant and Mateship Parallels been a remnant of Christian ministers who considered the cul- ture when sharing the love of Christ. The early period of Euro- If God could use an ancient ritual to convey his message to the pean settlement in Australia was sprinkled with preachers who nation of Israel, then God might also use the similar ritual of broke through the anticlerical bias of the time. Pioneer clergymen mateship to speak to Australians. The core of God’s message of the 1830s and 1840s itinerated among the up-country pastoral would remain intact: “I am your God, and you are my people” workers, where outback conditions neutralized any special privi- (Exod. 19:5–6; 1 Peter 2:9). Moreover, the crossover would not be leges of the clergy, thus making room for more open relation- difficult to grasp, for the legend of Australian mateship shares ships. History reveals that the outback workers received these common motifs with the Hebraic covenant ritual. Within the bush parsons and priests with warm hospitality because they Australian environment, dangers and hardships reinforced com- “admired practical-minded men who could talk their language radeship and loyalty between people, similar to the situation in and speak from their heart.”34 This Gospel was acceptable to the ancient Israel. The history of both nations has led to the belief that pioneer Australians because of the quality of the bush clergy.
July 2006 129 Models of Mateship Theology are not popular in Australia, since they are seen as trying to impose their Christian beliefs on a society that tends to be cynical Even today these ingredients of character are what the average of organized religion. It is difficult to convince average Austra- citizen is looking for in religious communicators. John Smith,35 lians of the truth of the Christian faith simply through argument. one of Australia’s leading evangelists, has the ability to incorpo- Because they think of themselves as a practical people, they rate both a down-to-earth approach and a passion to reach the concentrate on issues that require practical solutions. In a society unchurched with the message of Christian reconciliation.36 As of skilled “knockers” that is sensitive to hollow pretension,42 founder and executive director of five successful youth outreach clergy first need to present themselves as “good blokes with the organizations, Smith enjoys the respect both of outlaw bikie common touch” if they desire to have any chance of being gangs and of corporate Australia. He is committed to transform- heard.43 ing the lives of youth and society’s outcasts with a strong voice Another element essential to an Aussie contextualized Gos- for social justice, coupled with a capacity for practical action. As pel is humor in context, which is often missing from the church. pioneer of the “Values for Life” school seminars, Smith has In a way that exudes his concern for people, John Smith incorpo- spoken to students in more than four thousand Australian high rates wit into his message and backs it up by his lifestyle. The schools. In 1989 he was jailed and nearly executed in the Philip- warmth of Australian humor and naïveté is appreciated by an pines for defending peasant people, and he has been an advocate Australian audience, as was evidenced in Crocodile Dundee. Ordi- for marginalized peoples in Mexico, El Salvador, and Nicaragua. nary language coupled with humor is an absolute necessity. To communicate the Christian message to a society that is drift- Using the language of the common people gives the Christian ing further from it, Smith gives a common person’s view of message relevance to Australians. High-church language only Christ. For him, Jesus mixed with average blokes,37 talking to serves to alienate them from the message of Christ’s love.44 farmers and fishermen and using stories that attracted the aver- age person frequenting the pubs, beer gardens, and clubs. In Conclusion rejecting the Christian subculture that alienates itself from those outside the church, Smith takes the Gospel to where the people The church in Australia will need to change its strategy if there live, telling passionate stories that are entertaining, engaging, is any real desire for it to reverse the present decline in atten- and relevant in a manner that appeals to most Australians. dance. To simply go on as an institution and maintain existing In considering the model of mateship, the following ele- structures and operations for their own sake will not build ments are important for deciding how to develop contextualized bridges between the church and the community. Some of the styles of evangelism that will make connections for those uncom- reasons for the decline in church attendance may lie within fortable with traditional church practices. Realism in everyday Australian society, but the decline is a complex phenomenon life is a key component, since triumphal Christianity is out of with multiple causes. It is also possible that many churches have place in Australian culture. Many Australians are strong skep- simply been insensitive to Australian culture, which can explain tics, who see the idea of “the endless possibilities for life’s the persistent drift away from the institutionalized church. happiness in Christ” as completely unrealistic. The irrelevance of Insofar as the church has presented Christianity in a form the church to everyday life is a common cry among the un- inappropriate for the Australian worldview, it has been difficult churched in Australia.38 for ordinary persons to comprehend the message of Christ. Since Compassion for ordinary people will gain respect. The Aus- World War II, Australians have increasingly struggled to iden- tralian community will listen to those whose deeds speak louder tify their national character. In this process they have found little than their words. Christians must demonstrate that they care reason to pay attention to the church. Quite simply, they have about the concerns of ordinary people.39 In The Word Made Flesh, found it easy to reject any form of Christianity that does not speak Ross Langmead comments that on sociological grounds “Aussie” by addressing the problems of life in Australia. incarnational mission is particularly relevant for modern-day How, then, are the Australian churches to contextualize the Australian society. In his conclusion he suggests, “The feature of Gospel in Australian culture? If churches seek to move beyond incarnational mission which speaks most effectively to [Austra- their existing populace, they need to consider the nature of their lian] society is the integration of word and deed, in other words, community and its needs. The multicultural aspects of Austra- the credibility earned for the gospel by its demonstration in lian society require the development of new visions that will transformed lives and engagement in all aspects of the wider allow new forms of ministry to emerge which will foster willing- community. The central theme of incarnational mission is em- ness to include people who have been excluded from the commu- bodiment, whether we express it in terms of ‘the Word taking nity. Perhaps the concept of mateship can provide the necessary flesh,’ christopraxis, costly discipleship, or allowing the gospel to means for achieving these goals. be inculturated. The directions of this ‘bearing in our bodies the The Australian culture is still developing its own recogniz- life of Christ’ are consistently towards public friendship, solidar- able identity. Australia’s history, people, and land are shaping a ity with the poor, compassion, and justice. Compared to merely way of life that is distinctively Australian. Hidden within this verbal forms of evangelism, incarnational mission strives in the struggle for national uniqueness is a search for meaning and power of Christ for the embodied word (or Word).”40 purpose. At this critical juncture, the churches should join with For this reason, the Salvation Army, demonstating “Chris- the Australian people and help to shape their cultural distinctive- tianity with its sleeves rolled up”; the Anglican archbishop of ness.45 They must work together to produce an authentic Chris- Brisbane, Peter Hollingworth (“bishop of the poor”); “Flynn of tianity genuine to Australia. A major part of this Aussie Chris- the Inland,” a Presbyterian minister who founded the first air tianity might best be expressed through the biblical motif of ambulance service; and the late David Penman, Anglican arch- covenant/mateship. In light of this possibility, perhaps the ensu- bishop of Melbourne, are a few of the more respected Christian ing missiological outcome will be many more Australians boldly leaders because they have defended the weak and lowly while declaring their present and living relationship with the Savior, challenging those in power.41 In contrast, American televangelists “Me and Christ, we be mates!”
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@>/8>,/8 >/ >?& >9, >?(?+ 2>>8( 9> />-/?>(-+B >9&(11(-%2>>8( 9>8 >9B) ?>?/>&-% >D(?&/B?>-/?( 2 July 2006 131 Notes 1. Crocodile Dundee, directed by Peter Faiman, Australia, Paramount 23. Hugh Mackay, Reinventing Australia: The Mind and Mood of Australia Pictures, 1986. in the 90s (Pymble, N.S.W.: Angus & Robertson), p. 244. 2. “Mateship” is the equal and friendly fellowship that a person 24. See Robert L. Gallagher, “The Hebraic Covenant as a Model for receives from a companion—a mate. This leads to comradely Contextualization,” in Appropriate Christianity, ed. Charles H. Kraft independence based on group solidarity. Myth, according to Harvie (Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 2005), pp. 135–54; see also Conn, “functions on that deepest level of culture’s structure” (Eternal Charles E. Van Engen, “The New Covenant: Knowing God in Word and Changing Worlds [Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984], p. 326). Context,” in The Word Among Us, ed. Dean S. Gilliland (Waco, Tex.: 3. Peter Kaldor, with John Bellamy, Ruth Powell, Merilyn Correy, and Word Publishing, 1989), pp. 74–100. Keith Castle, Winds of Change: The Experience of Church in a Changing 25. See Karl Barth, Credo (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1962), Australia, The National Church Life Survey (Homebush West, N.S.W.: p. 46; and Robert L. Gallagher, “From ‘Doingness’ to ‘Beingness’: Lancer, 1994). A Missiological Interpretation of Acts 4:23–31,” in Mission in 4. Tom Kelly, A New Imagining: Towards an Australian Spirituality Acts: Ancient Narratives in Contemporary Context, ed. Robert L. Gal- (Melbourne: Collins Dove, 1990), pp. 1–24. lagher and Paul Hertig (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2006), pp. 5. Peter Bentley, ’Tricia Blombery, and Philip Hughes, Faith Without the 45–58. Church? Nominalism in Australian Christianity (Melbourne: Christian 26. See Ronald Conway, Land of the Long Weekend (Melbourne: Sun Research Association, 1992), pp. 44–49, 70–109; and Gary D. Bouma Books, 1978), pp. 81–82. and Beverly R. Dixon, The Religious Factor in Australian Life 27. A “shout” is a free drink or a free round of drinks. One’s turn to buy (Melbourne: MARC Australia, 1986), pp. 166–67. drinks is expressed as “my shout.” 6. Barry Chant, The Shape of Belief (Homebush West, N.S.W.: Lancer, 28. “Grog” is the general term for alcoholic drink, usually beer. To “grog 1984); Roland Croucher, Your Church Can Come Alive (Melbourne: on” is to continue steady drinking. See Miriam Dixson, The Real Joint Board of Christian Education, 1991); Douglas G. Eadie, Matilda: Woman and Identity in Australia, 1788 to the Present (Ringwood, “Listening to Australia,” Journal of Ecumenical Studies 11, no. 3 (1974): Vic.: Penguin Books, 1987 [1976]), pp. 169–70. 431–45; and James Haire, “Visions of the Spirit for the Church in the 29. “Two-up” is a gambling game based on spinning two pennies and Great Southern Land,” Asia Journal of Theology 6, no. 2 (1992): 250–62. wagering how they will fall. 7. See Neil Brown, “Theology and Australian Literature,” in Faith and 30. Ronald Conway, The Great Australian Stupor (Melbourne: Sun Books, Culture: Issues for the Australian Church, ed. Neil Brown (Manly, 1971), p. 248. N.S.W.: Catholic Institute of Sydney, 1982), pp. 8–9; and Robert L. 31. A “tall poppy” is anyone who is eminent in any way. Gallagher, “Blinky Bill Rides Again: An Australian Folk Tale’s 32. See the Australian ballad “Sam Holt” in Ward, Australian Legend, Impact,” Theology, News and Notes 44, no. 4 (1997): 14–15. pp. 202–3. 8. Not only has the Gospel been seen as a foreign message, but also its 33. Conn states that “theologizing . . . is created out of covenant messengers were foreign. The majority of both the Anglican and commitment to the covenant God. Sovereign grace bestowed creates Roman Catholic clergy were trained outside Australia until well into reciprocal responses of faith, love, and obedience” (Eternal Word and the twentieth century, with their leaders being chosen from European Changing Worlds, p. 233). countries. One of the results of this foreignness was that it was only 34. Grocott, Convicts, Clergymen, and Churches, p. 192. in 1981 that the Church of England in Australia changed its name to 35. See John Smith, Advance Australia Where? (Homebush West, N.S.W.: the Anglican Church of Australia. Anzea Publishers, 1988); and John Smith, with Elizabeth Gibson, 9. David Millikan, The Sunburnt Soul: Christianity in Search of an Australian Cutting Edge (Turnbridge Wells, U.K.: Monarch Publications, 1992). Identity (Sydney: Anzea Publishers, 1981), p. 19. 36. See Hendrikus Berkhof, Introduction to the Study of Dogmatics (Grand 10. “Bush” is the term used for the unsettled or sparsely settled areas of Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985), p. 23. Australia. 37. A “bloke” is an ordinary, everyday type of person. 11. Vance Palmer, The Legend of the Nineties (Melbourne: Oxford Univ. 38. Lesslie Newbigin, “Evangelism in the Context of Secularization,” in Press, 1954), quoted in Russel Ward, The Australian Legend (Melbourne: A Word in Season: Perspectives on Christian World Missions (Grand Oxford Univ. Press, 1985), p. 253. Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994), pp. 152–55. 12. James Walter, “Defining Australia,” in Images of Australia: An 39. See Ray S. Anderson, The Praxis of Pentecost (Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Introductory Reader in Australian Studies, ed. Gillian Whitlock and Theological Seminary, 1991), p. 25. David Carter (St. Lucia: Univ. of Queensland Press, 1992), pp. 7–22; 40. Ross Langmead, The Word Made Flesh: Towards an Incarnational and Graeme Davidson, “Inventing Australia,” in ibid., pp. 191–204. Missiology (Lanham, Md.: Univ. Press of America, 2004), p. 239. 13. See the “convict oath” in Ward, Australian Legend, pp. 30–31. 41. Gordon Dicker, “Kerygma and Australian Culture: The Case of the 14. “The outback” describes the regions most remote from the settled Aussie Battler,” in Toward Theology in an Australian Context, ed. districts. Victor C. Hayes (Bedford Park, S.A.: Australian Association for the 15. A “digger” is an Australian soldier of World War I or later. Study of Religions, 1979), p. 50. 16. Two glimpses of Private Simpson may be seen in Peter Weir’s film 42. A “knocker” is someone who is addicted to faultfinding and is Gallipoli, Epik Film Productions, 1981. constantly belittling what others praise. 17. The song is quoted in Ward, Australian Legend, p. 183. 43. For example, Veronica Brady, A Crucible of Prophets: Australians and 18. Manning Clark, “The Quest for an Australian Identity,” in Occasional the Question of God (Sydney: Theological Explorations, 1981), p. 1; Writings and Speeches (Melbourne: Fontana Books, 1980), pp. 226, David Millikan, “Christianity and Australian Identity,” in The Shape 231, 233; Clark is quoted in Millikan, Sunburnt Soul, p. 72; Allan of Belief: Christianity in Australia Today, ed. Dorothy Harris, Douglas Grocott, Convicts, Clergymen, and Churches (Sydney: Sydney Univ. Hynd, and David Millikan (Homebush West, N.S.W.: Lancer, 1982), Press, 1980), pp. 197–99; Ward, Australian Legend, p. 233; and Richard pp. 37–38. White, Inventing Australia: Images and Identity, 1688–1980 (Sydney: 44. Richard Quadrio, “Evangelizing the Lost Aussie,” Urban Mission 11, George Allen & Unwin, 1987), p. 137. no. 4 (1994): 5–12. 19. Grocott, Convicts, Clergymen, and Churches, p. 217. 45. According to Lesslie Newbigin, “The church as a truly universal 20. Grocott described a caricature of a bush parson in ibid., p. 176. supranational society is the bearer of the vision that alone can give 21. Ward, Australian Legend, pp. 90–91. to each nation a true unity of purpose” (Foolishness to the Greeks 22. The term “wowserism,” from “wow,” meaning to whine, grumble, [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990], p. 123). or complain, is defined in G. A. Wilkes, A Dictionary of Australian Colloquialisms (Melbourne: Fontana Books, 1980), p. 365.
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