Québec FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE

FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook Authors: Pascale Côté(1), Andrée Bolduc(1), Simon Careau(2), Esther Asselin(1)

Visual Elements Léopold Nadeau(1), Luce Dubé(3), Marco Boutin(3)

Layout and production Marie-Josée Tremblay(1)

(1) : Natural Resources Canada, Geological Survey of Canada, GSC-Québec: http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/org/quebec (2) : Parks Canada, Québec Field Unit : http://www.pc.gc.ca (3) : Institut national de la recherche scientifique :http://www.ete.inrs.ca

This fieldtrip guidebook provides information complementing the “Geoscape Quebec” poster and website.

The “Geoscape Quebec” website is accessible at: http://geoscape.nrcan.gc.ca/quebec

The double-sided colour poster measuring 67 cm X 97 cm can be ordered from the Quebec Geoscience Centre’s distribution centre: Telephone: (418) 654-2677 Email: [email protected]

The Earth Sciences Sector of Natural Resources Canada covered the cost of reproducing this guidebook in connection with the activities of National Science and Technology Week. NRCan activities hold considerable importance for the economy, promote the maintenance of strong communities, foster advances of knowledge, innovation and technology, support sustainable development and give NRCan a leading role in the international scientific community. http://nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/nstw-snst/

This publication is also available online at: http://www.cgq-qgc.ca/fieldtrip

Cette publication est également disponible en français TA B LE OF CONTENTS Table OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ...... 5

FIELDTRIP ...... 6

STOP 1 - Esplanade Powder Magazine ...... 7

STOP 2 - Maison Cureux ...... 9

STOP 3 - Parc du Cavalier-du-Moulin ...... 10

STOP 4 - Québec Citadel ...... 11

STOP 5 - Rue des Carrières ...... 18

STOP 6 - Governor’s Garden ...... 20

STOP 7 - Dufferin Terrace ...... 21

STOP 8 - Champlain Monument ...... 22

STOP 9 - Prescott Gate ...... 23

STOP 10 - Maison Parent ...... 24

STOP 11 - The Royal Battery ...... 25

STOP 12 - Place Royale ...... 30

STOP 13 - Côte de la Montagne ...... 31

STOP 14 - Rue Saint-Antoine ...... 32

STOP 15 - Rue Sous-le-Cap ...... 33

CONCLUSION ...... 38 glossary ...... 40 references ...... 42 useful links in earth sciences ...... 44

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook  LOCATION OF STOPS

 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook I ntroduction INTRODUCTION

This fieldtrip provides a geological and historical overview of the Québec City area. The geological landscape of this region provides the backdrop for explaining how landscape components come into being or change over time. The notions of geology that we discuss are linked to our immediate environment, Old Québec, and to the spectacular events that sometimes make regional headlines, such as earthquakes and rock slides. This tour of Old Québec comprises 15 stops. Scientific concepts are explained in detail at each of them and are complemented with historical vignettes in italics that focus on historic sites and fortifications.

All the information on the dimension stones has been graciously provided by Robert Ledoux, professor at the department of geology and geological engineering at Université Laval. The information comes from the sources listed in the reference section or from personal communications. All the information, visual elements and vignettes related to history have been provided by Parks Canada. All the visual elements, graphs and diagram, unless otherwise specified, have been produced by the Québec Geoscience Centre. Alix Pincivy (INRS) has conducted the preliminary research from which the concept of this guide book was developed. Aïcha Achab (INRS) provided advice on the content of this document. Alwynne Beaudoin (Royal Alberta Museum) contributed most of the information about human migrations. We are grateful for these additions that enhance the text of stop 11.

We hope that you will find this guide useful for the fieldtrip that you are about to embark on. Teachers should find it a help as it gives examples drawn from the local urban and natural environment that support teaching of the Earth Sciences.

Enjoy your fieldtrip and good reading…

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook  FIELDTRIP

Built on an extraordinary site, atop a cliff, the Fortifications of Québec tower over the St. Lawrence River. Visitors can stroll along the 4.6-km-long walkway and FIELDTRIP enjoy the splendid views. Like nowhere else in North America, the City of Québec’s defence system follows a classic urban style, characterized by flanking and defence in depth, and was adapted to the city’s topography. More than just the vestiges of the military art of war, the Fortifications of Québec also bear witness to the era of fortified cities between the 17th and 19th centuries. Inside Québec’s walls, you can get a feeling of how the military’s presence dominated the city. The parade grounds, esplanades, military arteries, barracks and warehouses, in which ammunitions and artillery paraphernalia were stored in the 18th and 19th centuries, are remnants of a city’s past that was punctuated by the beat of the war drum.

Québec, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is the only city in North America to have retained the major parts of its defence system. This picturesque setting with its superb vistas serves as the backdrop for an exploration of the region’s billion- year-old geological history. At different sites, visitors can discover traces of an ancient ocean, the transportation of enormous rocky masses over long distances to the threshold of the city itself, and the passage of colossal glaciers that covered the area for thousands of years. The legacy of this eventful past provides some of the most spectacular attractions in the region, along with an environment that is occasionally at the mercy of nature’s whims.

 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook STOP 1 STOP 1 - Esplanade Powder Magazine 100 rue Saint-Louis

here and there. This stone was used towards the end of the French regime, around 1740. It was quarried between Sillery and Cap-Rouge, along boulevard Champlain. Its hardness makes it difficult to cut and explains why it has not been used much so far, despite its proximity to Québec City. Chaussegros de Léry used this stone to build part of the Québec fortifications. The British used it extensively in their military National Archives Canada, c. 1830, J.P. Cockburn works, such as the Martello towers. Close to the door, we can see a black Between the St. Louis and Ursulines building stone that appears in thin beds. bastions, stands the Esplanade Powder It is called “Cap Diamant” stone, Cap Magazine (1815), restored and open stone or Québec stone. It is the first to the public. The effectiveness of stone used in the Québec area, because fortifications largely depends on the the first settlers could find it right at the location of their powder magazines. heart of the town, in the promontory. It This is is why the British would is a black, argillaceous limestone that distribute them strategically around the splits into thin sheets along the bedding city, while at the same time avoiding planes, when exposed to water and air. having an overly large concentration of There were numerous quarrying sites gun powder in one place. In 1816, there along the Cap Diamant promontory and were 12 powder magazines in the City this fieldtrip will visit one of them. of Québec. To protect the surrounding area, the walls of the powder magazines Built atop a rocky promontory at the are 1.5 meters thick, their ceilings are junction of three geological provinces, arched and they are surrounded by a Québec City is a rich source of building thick outer wall. stones and, ever since the French regime in the seventeenth century, builders have At the entrance of the powder magazine, made extensive use of all of them. The we can see two types of building stones Cap stone and the Sillery-Cap-Rouge that are among the oldest building sandstone belong to the Appalachians materials used locally. The greenish and were readily exploitable close to stone is very abundant in the fortifications town. With time, the supply sources of Québec City. It is a sandstone that diversified and limestone from the St. shows a brownish weathering surface Lawrence Lowlands were exploited in and contains pebbles and fragments

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook  quarries located in Beauport, Château- the second half of the XIXth century, Richer, Neuville, Deschambault and and when the railway opened up, Saint-Marc-des-Carrières. With time, granite from the Canadian Shield was new building materials were used in exploited.

The greenish sandstone was exploited in Sillery and Cap- Rouge. It was used to build part of Québec fortifications, the Citadel and the Martello Towers. It has been used to rebuild the Saint-Jean Gate in 1938.

IHistorical interpretation at the Fortifications of Québec Interpretation Centre.

 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook STOP 2 STOP 2 - Maison Cureux 86 rue Saint-Louis

Maison Cureux is one of the rare examples of houses constructed from what was called “Cap Diamant” stone or Cap stone the first type of building stone used in Québec City. When the early settlers built their homes on the promontory, they dug the foundations, reserving the excavated stone to build the walls. This very fissile stone is weakened and splits easily when exposed to air and water. It is therefore The Cureux House was built in 1729 not conducive to providing good quality by innkeeper Michel Cureux. It is the exterior masonry. To ensure that houses second oldest residence on Rue St. made of Cap stone will last longer, they Louis. The house standing today is must be sheathed in wood or covered a reconstruction of the original one, with parget, as was done with this house which was destroyed in 1709 to make up until 1968. Why was this stone so way for fortifications. It was only after a popular in spite of its poor quality during long trial followed by the whole colony the French regime? Simply because of that the French government was forced the proximity of the supply and, hence, to back down and rebuild the house. the lower cost.

The Cap stone, a black argillaceous limestone, was a building material of poor quality.

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook  STOP 3 - Parc du Cavalier-du-Moulin

STOP 3 Bryozoans formed a branched or domed skeleton, composed of thousands of small compartments that housed interconnected animals that lived in colonies. You can also observe small (app. 50 mm) doughnut-shaped fossils that are crinoids’ stalks. Crinoids are echinoderms, like sea urchins, sea stars and sea cucumbers. However, they were not mobile but were fixed on the The little park du Cavalier-du-Moulin is sea bottom. The flexible stalks were considered as one of the most romantic topped by a cup (head) and a crown of parks in Old Québec. It is a remnant ramified movable arms. The presence of a 17th century French fortification. of stalk fragments is an indicator of This defence works was built on a small episodes of storm conditions, which mound called Mount Carmel. In 1663, were strong enough to destroy the sea it comprised a windmill (“Moulin” in bottom. Crinoids were then uprooted French) that was incorporated in the first and transported far enough for them to fortification of Québec. The Cavalier du be disarticulated. Moulin lost its military purpose when the second wall was built in 1700.

At this stop, you can observe an abundance of fossils in the limestone blocks that were used for the polished slabs and the wall that faces the Cavalier du Moulin, and delimits the small yard below the park. These are fossils of marine invertebrates that populated a shallow sea during the formation of the St. Lawrence Lowlands limestone. The rapid burial of their skeletons Abundance of ramified bryozoans in in sediments contributed to their fossiliferous limestone. fossilization. In the limestone blocks in the wall, you If you pour water on the polished slabs, can observe brachiopod valves with you can have a better view of the fossils. radiating ridges and concentric growth You can observe 2-5-cm branches lines. These animals lived in a shell that are the remnants of bryozoans. formed of two valves. Although they Bryozoans played an important role in look similar, they do not belong to the the construction of calcareous reefs same group as mussels, oysters and on the St. Lawrence Platform, when it clams. was located in a tropical environment.

10 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook STOP 4 STOP 4 - Québec Citadel

a rebellion by the city’s French-speaking population. This is why the Citadel faces Old Québec’s centre as much as its periphery.

From this vantage point, we can get a general idea of the diversity of the Québec City area’s geology. Three different physiographic regions can be identified: the Canadian Shield, Engineers and military strategists have the St. Lawrence Lowlands and the always considered the heights of the Appalachians: they correspond roughly Plains of Abraham to be a strategic to geological provinces. A geological location. The French occupied the province is characterized by a similar heights as early as 1693, when they built geologic history and similar structural the Cap Diamant Redoubt. The redoubt features. Nonetheless, the boundaries is one of the oldest military structures of a geological province may differ from in Canada and remains an integral part those of a physiographic region. of the Québec Citadel. The British also sought to fortify this strategic site. In The Canadian Shield is represented 1789, they built a temporary citadel, here by the Laurentians. This chain which they replaced in 1832 with the of mountains corresponds to the permanent one that still stands today. geological province of Grenville, After the construction of the Citadel, the youngest of the Canadian Shield Québec City became known as the provinces. The rocks of the Grenville Gibraltar of the Americas. Nowadays, Province are the oldest in the region. the Citadel is home to the Royal 22nd They are largely metamorphic rocks, i.e. Regiment and is the location of one of the official residences of Canada’s Governor General.

Did you know that the Citadel is the largest fortification in Canada built during the English regime? The star-shaped stone polygon was built to protect the city against a possible American attack, but also to contain

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook 11 igneous rocks or sedimentary rocks that of Ancienne-Lorette and St-Augustin. were transformed and modified at great These rocks formed over a period of depths in the Earth, under high pressures 150 million years and are much younger and high temperatures. Intrusive rocks, than the rocks of the Canadian Shield. i.e., igneous rocks that were emplaced at depth, also occur in this province. The relief of the Appalachian Mountains The Grenville rocks represent the deep can be seen in the distance. Yet the roots of a mountain belt that has been Appalachians province reaches right smoothed out by erosional processes. into Québec City, where it is represented Although some high peaks still exist, by the thrust sheets, or “nappes”, of such as Mont Ste Anne, their current the Québec promontory, Lévis and Ile elevation is merely a fraction of what d’Orléans. The entire south shore of the it was about a billion years ago. At St. Lawrence and most of Ile d’Orléans that time, Mont Ste Anne was part of a are part of the Appalachians, although mountain belt similar to the Himalayas. the relief is fairly flat. Québec City is The rocks of the Grenville Province located at the northern edge of the stretch over an area of more than 4,000 maximum extent of the Appalachians. km (from Labrador to Texas); in some The boundary between the Appalachians areas they are overlain by younger rocks and the St. Lawrence Platform is while in other areas they are exposed at marked by a major fault, called Logan’s the surface. Line. This fault runs to the north of the promontory of Québec, and, from The St. Lawrence Lowlands, wedged our present vantage point, we can see between the Laurentians and the the relief that it forms on the Sainte- Appalachians, are made up of Pétronille side of Ile d’Orléans. For sedimentary rocks that have undergone geologists, the Appalachians are more little or no deformation. Fossils are than the mountains; they encompass especially abundant in some layers of all the thrust sheets or “nappes” that limestone, a very common rock type in were transported over great distances, the Québec City area. Long ago when on the rocks of the St. Lawrence the limestones of the St. Lawrence Platform, as this mountain range was Lowlands were forming, life was forming. The rocks of the Appalachians restricted to the oceans, consequently, comprise mostly deformed and marine species are the only fossil folded sedimentary rocks, which were species found in the Québec City area. transported over dozens of kilometres These limestones formed in a rift valley, along nearly horizontal faults during the on the continental shelf of an ancient mountain-building process. continent. The Lowlands are part of the geological province of the St. Lawrence Platform, and they form a plain that can be seen north of Ile d’Orléans and in the Beauport and Vanier district of Québec City and in the municipalities

12 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook The fact that Québec City is located but on a human time scale these at the junction of three geological changes are not very noticeable. During provinces indicates that it must have had this time frame of millions of years, a very tumultuous past. Its geological the position of the continents relative history can be explained with reference to the poles and the equator changes, to plate tectonics. According to the affecting the climate. Remember, theory of plate tectonics, the Earth’s even if the continents appear to be crust is broken into moving plates that stationary; they have moved over time rub against one another and become and have experienced different climatic modified over time. conditions. Consequently, geologists measure time in thousands or millions In the area where Québec City lies, of years. mountains rose up when the continents collided and oceans formed when they split apart. These phenomena occur at an imperceptible rate of 4 cm to 6 cm per year, which is about how fast our fingernails grow. Consequently, geological time is measured in thousands or millions of years. In fact, the landscape is constantly changing,

Geological landscape of the Québec region

1- Canadian Shield 2- St. Lawrence Lowlands 3- Appalachians

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook 13 FROM OBSERVATION TO INTERPRETATION...

In Grenville times: Québec at the foot The St. Lawrence Platform: Tropical of the highest mountain peaks Québec

The Canadian Shield has not always Some 900 million years ago, the existed in its present form; it arose from Grenville mountain range dominated the continent called Laurentia, which Laurentia. The continent gradually was part of the supercontinent Rodinia, became unstable and broke apart. After i.e. a group of continents that joined that, the motion of the tectonic plates together. This supercontinent existed reversed and a new cycle began as the a billion years ago (in the Proterozoic continents started to drift apart. About era). When Laurentia collided with 500 million years ago (in the Paleozoic some other continents, a mountain era), sediments accumulated on the chain similar to the Himalayas was continental shelf in the Iapetus Ocean, created; this was the Grenville mountain the forerunner of the present-day range, now completely eroded. Atlantic. This was a passive continental margin environment. This assemblage As Laurentia broke up, the Canadian was centred on the Equator; hence, the Shield became dislocated along three area that is now Québec City was located fault systems, tilted approximately in a tropical sea environment much like

FROM O B SERVATION TO INTERPRETATION... 120°, causing a large piece of the present-day Rio de Janeiro. The rocks continent to split off. The Ottawa River of the St. Lawrence Platform are all that Valley represents a fault system. The remain of the vast sedimentary cover that faults that formed the scarped relief on blanketed much of the Canadian Shield the north shore of the St. Lawrence and and can be detected as far away as Lac mark the boundary with the Laurentians Saint-Jean and Lac Manicouagan. This are the expression of another of these sedimentary cover resulted from erosion systems. The third fault system is of the Shield (detrital sediments) and the probably buried under the Appalachians accumulation of calcareous sediments south of Quebec and in New England. from the shells of marine organisms (algae, corals, etc.) that populated the warm, calm and shallow sea.

14 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook T H E GEOLOGICAL ISTOR Y OF QUÉ B EC CIT AREA THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE QUÉBEC CITY AREA

Origin of the Appalachians: Forces to move mountains

Some 475 million years ago (in the Paleozoic era), the tectonic plates began moving in the opposite direction once again and a new cycle began. The Iapetus Ocean closed up again and a new chain of mountains formed (in an active continental margin environment). Sea bottom sediments from dozens of kilometers off Laurentia were pushed toward the continent and forced up onto the rocks of the St. Lawrence Platform. The Québec City area was then situated at the base of mountains, which reached right up to it. The mountain building process for the Appalachians, which stretch 3,500 km from Newfoundland to Alabama, took place over a period of 250 million years. These mountains are now past history, but the world still evolves.

When climbing from the Lower Town to the Upper Town, we are actually going from the St. Lawrence Platform to the Appalachians. The steep hills of the Quebec promontory resulted from the formation of the Appalachians. When climbing the bluffs in Québec City, i.e. Côte Salaberry, Côte d’Abraham and Henri IV Boulevard, like the stairs from the Lower Town, we are moving from one geological environment to another.

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook 15 PAST AND PRESENT...

750 Ma

Laurentia

Siberia

Baltica past and present ...

Rodinia is one of the oldest known supercontinents. It formed some 1,100 million years ago.

620 Ma

Gondwana

Océan Ia Gondwana Sibéria

Laurentia étusp Baltica

From 750 to 540 million years ago, the Rodinia supercontinent broke up into different pieces, including Baltica, Siberia and Laurentia (Canadian Shield), and the Iapetus Ocean was formed.

520 Ma

Laurentia Sibéria a ét s

a p u Gondwana Océ n I Gondwana Baltica

From 540 to 460 million years, the Iapetus Ocean kept spreading and the rocks of the St. Lawrence Platform were formed.

16 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook PLATE TECTONICS plate tectonics

450 Ma

zone de subduction

Sibéria ap u Laurentia

Baltica Gondwana Océan I ét s

Gondwana

From 475 to 380 million years ago, the Iapetus Ocean closed up. The Appalachians formed.

240 Ma

Pangée

Then, some 360 million years ago, aftert he Appalachians formed, all the continents once again came together, forming the supercontinent Pangaea, which subsequently broke up into the continents as we know them today.

The natural environment is not static. The landscape has changed drastically over time. Mountain ranges have been created and then eroded and new mountains are still forming around the world.

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook 17 STOP 5 - Rue des Carrières STOP 5 present in the folded sedimentary rocks of the Appalachians, but the quantities encountered are rarely sufficient for development purposes. Bedding or stratification is very evident along with organ-pipe structures on some surfaces (rounded structures). Quarry development within the town entailed many risks, particularly rock slides. It appears that one of the most important black Cap stone quarry sites of the time was on rue Berthelot, or more precisely Ilot Berthelot. In this pretty little park, there is a panel describing this use of the stone, and outcrops can be seen there.

The dark-coloured rocks of Cap Diamant contain numerous fissures, At the base of the park, take the stairs crevasses and cavities, in which a leading to Rue des Carrières. At the number of minerals can be identified. foot of the staircase, on the left, there is The best known of these is bipyramidal an outcrop of fine-grained argillaceous quartz crystals, many of which are well limestone. When two pieces of Cap formed. When Jacques Cartier found Diamant stone are struck together, the some of these crystals in New France, sound is like porcelain breaking and in 1542, he thought he had discovered the break has a conchoidal appearance diamonds—hence the French expression (rounded like a broken bottle base). Cap “Faux comme les diamants du Canada,” stone reacts with diluted hydrochloric which means “as phony as Canadian acid, indicating the presence of diamonds.” (As an aside, following calcite. There is an odour of methane many years of geological research, we and sulphurous gas when the rock is now know that quality diamonds do broken. exist in Canada, and even in Quebec, at suitable sites in the North.) This is the site where black Cap stone was quarried beginning in the 17th century, under the French regime. The quarry workers nicknamed this stone “stinking stone” because of the odour of methane and sulphur that is released when the stone is crushed. This odour is due to the fossil fuels (gas, oil) that are

18 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook How to distinguish between diamond and quartz?

Diamond is harder than quartz; in fact it is the hardest mineral in existence (hardness of 10). Quartz has a hardness of 7. Their crystal structure and their composition differ greatly as well. Quartz (SiO2: silica and oxygen) has a hexagonal structure, whereas diamond (C: carbon) has a cubic structure.

Diamond

Quartz

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook 19 STOP 6 - Governor’s Garden STOP 6 defensive structures were also built in the Governor’s Garden, including several stone structures. In the 18th century, the privacy of the governor and his guests was ensured by the walls enclosing the area. The Garden was first opened to the public in 1838, on Lord Durham’s orders.

National Archives of Canada, 1829, The obelisk in the Governor’s Garden, J.P. Cockburn west of the Château Frontenac, is the oldest monument in Québec City. It was Rue des Carrières separates the built in 1828 in homage to Wolfe and Dufferin Terrace from the Governors’ Montcalm, the two enemy heros who Garden (Jardin des Gouverneurs). died on the battlefield on September The Garden dates back to the colony’s 13, 1759. Wolfe was only 32 years early days, first appearing on maps in old and Montcalm was 47. It is built 1660. Under the Iroquois threat, French with limestone from a village between authorities decided to build enclaves, Neuville and Saint-Augustin. and later a wooden palisade in the park to protect the inhabitants. Other

20 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook STOP 7 STOP 7 - Dufferin Terrace

structure burned down in 1834, and Lord Durham had a terrace built in 1838 to cover the ruins of Château St. Louis. The terrace was extended in 1878, and was henceforth known as the Dufferin Terrace.

The Dufferin Terrace, a key part of the St. Louis Forts and Châteaux National Historic Site, is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Québec City. It has The remains of the St. Louis forts and been open to the public since 1838, chateaux, the governors’ residences when it was 50 meters long, and has until 1834, can be found under the since been extended to its current Dufferin Terrace. Fort St. Louis was first length of 433 meters [1,420 feet]. Since built in 1621 by Samuel de Champlain, its official inauguration on June 9, 1879, and was modified and repaired several the Terrace has offered a panoramic view times, by both the French and the British, of the St. Lawrence River and Québec to adapt it to its new functions. In fact, City’s surroundings to the millions of it was in the Château St. Louis that visitors that stroll down the boardwalk Governor Frontenac made his infamous every year. 1690 statement: “Je vous répondrai par la bouche de mes canons.” [“I will reply from the mouth of my cannons.”] The

The ornemental stone of Château Frontenac, Archaeological excavation at one of the most-photographed hotels in the the Dufferin Terrace, by Parks world, is made of limestone. Canada.

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook 21 STOP 8 - Champlain Monument

STOP 8 was created by Paul Chevré, a survivor of the 1912 Titanic shipwreck off the coast of Newfoundland.

Place d’Armes, located close to the Château Saint-Louis, once the seat of political and military power, was the main assembly grounds for the soldiers who were needed to respond quickly in the event of an attack. Québec’s main streets (Saint-Jean, Saint-Louis and Sainte-Anne) lead away from Place d’Armes toward the fortifications, in the European tradition. During the British period, in the 19th century, Place d’Armes became an urban park complete with horseback riding and public hangings. Nowadays, the centre of Place d’Armes features the The Champlain Monument on the Monument de la Foi [Monument to esplanade in front of the Château Faith], built in 1916 to commemorate Frontenac was built in 1898 with the the 300th anniversary of the Récollet same limestone that was used for the fathers’ arrival in Québec City. Arch of Triumph in Paris and for the Montmartre Basilica. Time had taken its toll on the monument and it was restored with the original stone as a contribution of Québec City for its 400th anniversary. This stone is very vulnerable under our climate and we can assume that it will show signs of age and wear, such as cracks and breaks, sometime in the future.

Did you know that no official portrait of Québec City’s founder exists? A false portrait of Samuel de Champlain bears Société historique de Québec the features of Michel Particelli, an unscrupulous French finance inspector, from a 1654 portrait. The monument

22 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook STOP 9 STOP 9 - Prescott Gate Côte de la Montagne

government and religious institutions were located in the Upper Town, which guaranteed their safety and set them apart socially.

The Break-Neck Steps were one of the first links between the Lower and Upper Towns. On a 1660 map of the city, the steps are known as “l’escalier National Archives of Canada, 1873, W.O. Carlile Champlain.” The current name dates back to the 19th century and stems Not far away, in Côte de la Montagne, from a nickname given to the steps by General Prescott ordered the 1797 American visitors to the city. construction of a gate that would better control access to the Upper Town, and National Archives of Canada, 1830, to which he lent his name. The Prescott Gate is one of five entrances to the Upper

Town, along with the St. Louis, St. Jean, J.P. Cockburn Hope and Du Palais gates. The original gates were far narrower than those that exist today. After it was demolished in 1871, a footbridge was erected by Parks Canada in honour of the Prescott Gate, during the 375th anniversary of the City of Québec.

The thrust sheets of the Appalachians are what gave rise to the city’s scarped You are currently in the Petit Champlain relief. The stairs from the Lower Town district, which was long held to be the and the steep hills allow us to climb up gateway of Irish immigrants in the 19th or down the thrust sheet forming the century. It topped all other districts with promontory of Québec. The funicular a 72% Irish population. The nearby also provides a way to go between these harbour, shipyard and lumber coves two different levels. The geology of provided employment for the district’s Québec City has played a role in urban low-skilled workers. Managed by development. At the start of the colony, Parks Canada, the Old Port of Québec most of the houses were located in Interpretation Centre located on Quai Place-Royale and in the Petit-Champlain Saint-André is a testament to the golden district. This facilitated port exchanges age of Québec City’s timber trade in the along with access to water supplies 19th century. and resources. Only dignitaries and

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook 23 STOP 10 - Maison Parent 11 rue Saint-Pierre STOP 10

Parent. Located at the corner of rue Saint-Pierre and rue Sous-le-Fort, this house was rebuilt in 1761, after being demolished during the siege of Québec City by the British in 1759. The exterior wall coverings contain various stones, some of which were salvaged from the former building. They include Ange-Gardien calcareous sandstone of varying grain size whose ochre and red coloration is attributable to oxidation of ferruginous minerals, Beauport grey limestone, Sillery green sandstone, Rivière-à-Pierre granite and “Cap Diamant” stone.

To see all of the rocks that typify the Québec City region, it is necessary to cover a lot of ground. Many of them were used in constructing the Maison

24 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook STOP 11 STOP 11 - The Royal Battery

When it was built in 1691, the Royal Battery encroached on the St. Lawrence River. We are therefore standing on land that was once under water. In addition to the fill that was dumped in the river to create land on which to build Champlain Boulevard, natural variations in sea level, such as those associated with the most recent glacio-isostatic adjustments, help to explain the river’s retreat since colonial times.

The Royal Battery can be found right At this stop, we will introduce the next door to the Parent House. Built in Quaternary, the geological period 1691 on Governor Frontenac’s orders, it extending right to the present which is was intended to fill a defensive void. The characterized by extensive glaciations. British invasion led by Phips in 1690, The course of the St. Lawrence River though driven back, pushed Frontenac will be used to illustrate the history of to improve Québec’s defences. The deglaciation in the Québec City area. Royal Battery was in the shape of a Indeed, the river’s position can be linked bastion, as can be seen from its present- to ancient fractures of the Earth’s crust, day configuration. It was reconstructed but its current location is an artifact of in 1977 and now includes replicas of the last period of glaciation, as we will French cannons. explain below.

At the Royal Battery, you can see the monument entitled « Dialogue avec l’histoire » that features white marble blocks from Greece, separated by bands of black South African granite. This monument was created by Jean-Pierre Raynaud. It is aligned with the Louis XIV statue on Place Royale and marks the transition to modernity.

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook 25 18,000 years ago, Québec City sleeps under tons of ice After being located successively in and erratic blocks which are scattered the Tropics and then at the foot of tall over the three physiographic regions. mountain peaks, the Québec City area The Jacques-Cartier and Montmorency lay under tons of ice. Between 1,800,000 river valleys have the typical U-shape and 10,000 years ago, several periods of of glacial cut valleys. The most recent glaciation took place, each contributing of these glacations, the Wisconsin to bury almost all of the northern part glaciation, began nearly 75,000 years of the continent under an impressive ago and ended about 10,000 years ago. build-up of ice. Like a gigantic bulldozer, At its maximum, some 18,000 years the glaciers smoothed and eroded the ago, the region lay under an ice sheet Grenville and Appalachian mountains 3,000 meters thick. The weight of this and plateaus. The glaciers scoured ice sheet depressed the continent, and debris from the bedrock, leaving behind Québec City was located more than till deposits (a heterogeneous mixture 200 m below sea level. of clay, sand, gravel and boulders)

A B

Relief of the Québec region 80,000 years ago, before the Wisconsin glaciation.. 18,000 years ago, at the glacial maximum, the continent sussided under the weight of an icelayer three kilometres thick, Québec City was locatedmore than 200 meters below sea level.

The Champlain Sea occupied the St. Lawrence The circleis completed in the space of 80,000 Valley, sea level declined gradually, isostatic years and equilibrium is attained. rebound occured.

Isostasy is the response of the Earth’s crust to being depressed by (subsidence) or relieved of (rebound) an enormous weight that disrupts crustal equilibrium. More specifically, glacio- isostasy is due to the development and the melting of Quaternary ice caps. Under the weight of an ice cap that was 2 km to 3 km thick at its maximum extent, the original topography of the St. Lawrence Valley (A) was depressed by several hundred metres (B). When the glacier melts, since glacio-isostatic rebound does not occur instantly, the depressed valley becomes invaded by a postglacial sea (C). Freed from the weight of the glacier, the crust rises as it seeks to regain its former state of equilibrium (D), and the sea is forced to recede towards the ocean. The time it takes the Earth’s crust to regain its equilibrium in the new situation created by the creation or retreat of an ice cap has been estimated at 20,000 years.

26 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook 12,000 years ago, Québec City under water

Approximately 12 000 years ago, after the glaciers retreated, water of the Atlantic Ocean invaded the St. Lawrence Lowlands and formed the Champlain Sea. It covered some 55 000 km2, from Québec City to Pembroke, Ontario, and from the Appalachians to the Laurentians. The average water temperature in the Champlain Sea was similar to that of James Bay, between -1 and 8 oC. It was a cold sea, home to marine mammals such as beluga, boreal whale, walrus and different species of seals.

The glaciers retreated as the Earth’s climate The area that is now Quebec City gradually experienced a warming trend, leaving behind rose as a result of isostatic rebound, and the depressions deeper than sea level. The waters Champlain Sea began receding. The first two of the Atlantic Ocean then invaded the St. high points on Ile d’Orléans emerged. Lawrence Valley, forming the Champlain Sea. As the glacial melt waters mixed with the seawater, the Champlain Sea eventually reached its maximum extent 12,000 years ago.

The sea kept receding, making way for an The level of the St. Lawrence has fluctuated, estuary and then a system of rivers representing changing by tens of metres several times over the forerunner of the St. Lawrence. This the last 9,000 years, in response to climatic happened 9,500 years ago. The highest points changes which were minor compared with the in the region, namely Saint-Augustin, Cap- glaciations but had a considerable effect on Rouge, Sainte-Foy, Quebec City and Lévis, riparian ecosystems. The present-day course of existed as islands at one point in their history. the St. Lawrence is the result of a long tectonic, Today, ÎIe d’Orléans alone bears witness to the glacial and marine history! islands scattered around Quebec City long ago. As it retreated, the Champlain Sea covered the St. Lawrence Lowlands with a thick layer of sediments, which gave rise to the fertile soils of today

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook 27 Walking from Asia to Québec via...?

The latter part of the Quaternary is also the Wisconsin glaciation, the Bering the interval during which North America Strait, between the Chukchi Peninsula was first occupied by people. Although in Siberia and the Seward Peninsula in alternate scenarios have been proposed, Alaska, was dry. Shallow coastal areas most evidence suggests that people around Alaska and Siberia were also dry, entered North America from northeast and formed part of a northern landmass Asia. During glaciation, the huge amount called Beringia, across which humans of water stored in the continental traveled and entered North America. glaciers caused sea-level to drop substantially, exposing extensive areas of terrain along the present coastlines that are now again under water. During

The map shows a schematic representation of the extent of ice during the Quaternary, showing the two routes of human migration. It should be noted that both routes can not have co-existed and are represented together on the map only to support the text.

28 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook The timing of this arrival in North An alternate view is that people migrated America remains a matter of great from interior Alaska and Yukon into debate. So far, no relevant archaeological interior North America south of the sites in northeast Asia or Alaska have ice-sheets using an inland route east been shown conclusively to date from of the Rockies. This hypothesized route before the last glaciation. The best was known as the “ice-free corridor”. hypothesis is that people first entered Certainly this route would have been Alaska sometime after the last glacial impassable at the height of glaciation maximum, that is, after 18,000 years when the Laurentide Ice Sheet abutted ago, although the oldest sites presently against the mountain front and ice from known in Alaska date to around 12,000 the mountains flowed eastwards. At years ago. some point in deglaciation, however, land east of the Rockies did become Besides the timing of entry of people ice-free. The deglaciation patterns into North America, a second debate and archeological evidences found in exists around the route they took. With southern Alberta do not enable a good lower sea level and a more extensive correlation between the final opening of coastal area, people could have traveled the ice-free corridor and the age of the down the west coast of North America sites. and from there inland, perhaps up major river valleys. Rich coastal and in-shore The discussion about how, when and marine resources would have provided where people first entered North America ample food. Any archaeological sites is unlikely to end any time soon! What is associated with such travel would certain, however, is that by the end of the now probably be underwater, since last ice-age people were well-established these coastal areas were inundated in areas south of the Laurentide ice during deglaciation. To compound the sheet and poised to take advantage of problem, there are no archaeological new terrain and opportunities as land sites known from the northwest coast became available during deglaciation. that date to the right time to record the migration. Some parts of the journey, for instance along the southern coast of Alaska, would probably also have required travel by water. Although it is not impossible that people in this region had boat technology at the time, there is no archaeological evidence for it.

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook 29 STOP 12 - Place Royale STOP 12 If you take a close look at the front of the Elizabeth Douaire house, between street numbers 3B and 3C, you will note a large number of bryozoans and brachiopods in the blocks of coarse- grained limestone next to the carved stones that form the decorative framing around the doors.

A little bit further, the cut stone forming It was only in 1967 that the Quebec the right corner of the Notre-Dame des government decided to restore Place Victoires church features many fossils Royale and its surroundings. Since the shaped like small doughnuts. They neighbourhood was poor and dilapidated, are crinoids, a group of invertebrate the provincial government took charge animals, composed of a crown and a of the restoration and reconstruction of stalk. The small disks were part of the the buildings in the area to restore the stalks, by which the animal attached New France ambience, and thus recall itself to the sea bottom. If you happen the urban development of Québec’s to walk in Old Québec close to the Price beginnings. Nowadays, Place Royale is building, you can observe pink crinoid largely a tourist and commercial district; disks in the columns of the building. the site of the city’s early colonization now beats to the rhythm of the tourist season, because few people live there.

Crinoid in a limestone block at Notre-Dame des Victoires church

Brachiopod in the Fossiliferous limestone of the Douaire house

30 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook STOP 13 STOP 13 - Côte de la Montagne

Appalachians). Because of the relief resulting from the rising mountain range, and gravity-induced erosion, large rock masses were detached from the flanks of thrust sheets and slided to the sea. These blocks slided, then were stuck in the mud, similar to chocolate chips in cookie dough. They were gradually buried under sediments, that continued to accumulate above them, then the nappes themselves overthrusted them. Submitted to high pressures and temperatures due to burial, the sediments were transformed into rock (diagenesis).

Côte de la Montagne was built by Champlain in 1620. It was the first official link between the city’s Lower and Upper Towns. The different levels modelled Québec City’s development along the lines of a medieval town: an Upper Town for the political, military and religious elite, and a Lower Town for the merchants, craftspeople and workers.

The cliff located at the junction of Côte de la Montagne and rue Sault-au-Matelot displays an olistostrom, a rock that features blocks of various sizes contained in a matrix of argillaceous rock. The argillaceous matrix originated as mud deposited in the depths of an ancient ocean. This ocean was flanked by a mountain range in formation (the

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook 31 STOP 14 - Rue Saint-Antoine

STOP 14 and 1800. A portion of the lowering of the St. Lawrence level indicated by the markers is due to the fact that all the houses east of rue St-Paul were built on embankments. In addition, work conducted in the Montmagny area has shown that since the ice retreat, the level of the St. Lawrence level has fluctuated several times compared to today’s level. The sea retreat is thus another factor that contributes to the lowering of the The position of rue Saint-Pierre is level of high tides. the exact extent of high tides in the beginnings of the colony. Markers have been installed in the cobblestones in rue Saint-Antoine where the water was at its maximum in 1600, 1700,

On rue Saint-Pierre, stand several imposing stone buildings built between 1850 and 1915 to house banks and important businesses. In the early 20th century, this part of the Lower Town was called “Québec’s Wall Street”. Note the different finishes of the limestone blocks in the building facades: hammered, sanded, vermiculated, etc.

32 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook STOP 15 STOP 15 - Rue Sous-le-Cap

boulders, the construction of a retaining wall (rue Sault-au-Matelot) and the installation of rock bolts.

When the Americans invaded Québec City in 1775, during the American Revolution, Benedict Arnold’s troops landed with the intention of overtaking the city and preventing the British from deploying reinforcements to the 13 colonies. Arnold was joined by General Richard Montgomery, who had already conquered Montreal in early December. While Montgomery launched an attack on the Cap Diamant side, Arnold attacked near Rue Sous le Cap, at the Sault au Matelot barricade on the other side of town. Arnold succeeded in In rue Sous-le-Cap and at the seizing several barricades, but in the intersection of rue Barricade and rue end was defeated by Captain Dumas Sault-au-Matelot, there is an outcrop of and his militia. the thrust sheet that forms the Québec promontory. Massive argillaceous limestone is interbedded with thin layers of black shale and there are vein veneers on some beds. The rocks underwent considerable deformation (folding, faulting).

The lane between rue Sous-le-Cap and rue Sault-au-Matelot is now blocked The Library of Congress, 1786, J. Trumbull and fencing was recently installed to prevent accidents connected with the The Americans laid siege to the City landslide hazard. Draped wire mesh, of Québec in 1775. Knowing that the rock bolts and fences installed in the cliff contracts of several of their soldiers along rue Sault-au-Matelot serves as a would expire at the end of the year, the reminder that the Place-Royale sector two American generals launched the of Cap Diamant is unstable. Corrective attack on December 31, 1775 during a work was carried out to make the site snowstorm. The Rue Sous le Cap attack safer, including the removal of unstable was a complete failure and marked the end of the American military drive.

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook 33 Gravity at work

The landslides at Cap Diamant caused weakness) was parallel to the slope. numerous deaths and considerable Vegetation that would otherwise help property damage, particularly in the to retain the debris and stabilize the early days of the colony. The two most slope could not become established serious slides on the site of present-day easily. Furthermore, in the early days Champlain Boulevard were the one on of settlement, the river waters lapped May 17, 1841, in which six houses were against the houses at high tide. destroyed and 27 people killed, and the Owing to the limited space available one on September 19, 1889, in which for building, workers would excavate 45 people lost their lives. This part of deeply into the cliff base, thereby the Québec promontory was one of the increasing the instability of the upper most dangerous inhabited areas of the slope. Climatic conditions such as heavy region, where rockslides claimed at rains and frost–thaw action played a least 85 victims during the nineteenth role in triggering landslides, as did the century. The area around rue du Petit- vibrations associated with earthquakes Champlain has also seen some dramatic or, historically, cannon shots. slides. A number of conditions led to these catastrophic slides: the very steep cliff and unstable slope, the highly friable sedimentary rocks (argillaceous limestone and shales) and the bedding plane (corresponding to the plane of

Société historique de Québec Landslide of September 19, 1889

34 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook Effective techniques were employed to minimize the risk of landslides all along Champlain Boulevard and rue Sault-au-Matelot: unstable material was removed in order to create a gentler slope, and draped wire mesh, rock bolts and fences were installed.

Tilting or dipping layers cause more of a landslide hazard on the north shore of the St. Lawrence River. On boulevard Champlain, the strata tilt along slope, amplifying the landslide hazard. On the contrary, on the south shore, they tilt inwards into the cliff, providing cramping and giving greater stability.

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook 35 About seismicity in Québec parliament clock at 9:34 pm, which is when the event occurred. Its epicentre Seismic activity in Quebec is centred in was located in the Cap-Rouge area. In the Charlevoix/Kamouraska region where 1988, it was an earthquake centred in a meteorite once struck, weakening the the Saguenay that rattled the capital. Earth’s crust. It is expressed mainly The sectors at risk in Québec City are the through reactivation of the faults that Cap Diamant cliff (risk of landslide) and delimit the St. Lawrence rift valley, the Saint-Charles River valley, whose which is undergoing readjustment clay sediments tend to amplify seismic owing to isostatic rebound. In Québec waves and cause liquefaction. Buildings City, the seismic risk is limited and the constructed directly on bedrock can effects are weak. However, the city is not withstand seismic waves better. immune to earthquakes. On November 5, 1997, an earthquake of magnitude 5.2 shook the city and even stopped the

36 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook 37 CONCLUSION and Quebec. During the period spanned by Logan’s career, the GSC offices were But just who was Logan? located in Montreal.

Although William Logan was a rich man, he paid little attention to his

C onclusion physical well-being and his attire. At times he was taken for a vagabond, and there are many confirmed cases where his appearance led strangers to believe that he was mentally unbalanced. On one of these occasions, Logan was doing some field work while staying in a hotel in Québec City. On the first Providing an introduction to William morning, he asked the hotel clerk to Logan is a fitting way to end this arrange for a horse-drawn carriage, or geological overview of the Québec City calèche, to pick him up. At the sight region. He was one of the first geologists of Logan coming out of the hotel, the to study the diverse geology of the area driver immediately assumed that this and the fault that bears his name. In was a patient from the insane asylum in 1842, Logan founded the Geological Beauport coming back from an outing. Survey of Canada (GSC), which he Without heeding Logan’s protests, the directed for 27 years. He was a well- driver began heading for the asylum. known geologist and a great explorer Logan’s problem was that people whose studies took him across Canada thought he was crazy. So the founder from the Atlantic to the Pacific. of the GSC decided to take advantage of this situation. He pulled out his Logan was born in Montreal in 1798, geologist’s hammer, and brandishing the son of a baker who had immigrated it near the driver’s head, he demanded to Canada from Scotland. After studying to be taken to his chosen destination. for a short time at the University of The driver obeyed. At the end of the Edinburgh and working in England day, Logan asked the driver to take him and Wales, Logan became interested back to the hotel. While the director of in how to find coal and began studying the GSC unloaded his rock samples, the geology, which at the time was a driver told his fellow drivers about the young discipline. Logan was 44 years awful day he had spent in the company old in 1842, when he was appointed of this dangerous lunatic. Without to conduct a geological survey of the saying a word, Logan went up to the Province of Canada. During his early driver, paid him his due and added a years with the Geological Survey, Logan large tip. Upon leaving his hotel the next and an assistant travelled across much morning, he found a crowd of drivers of the Province of Canada, which at the all wanting to provide conveyance for a time consisted of the southern half of generous lunatic. the present-day provinces of Ontario

38 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook For more information:

Sir William Logan 1798-1875: http:// cgc.rncan.gc.ca/hist/logan/index_ e.php

No stone unturned. The first 150 years of the Geological Survey of Canada : http://cgc.rncan.gc.ca/hist/150_e.php

William E. Logan and the Geological Survey of Canada: Written in stone : http://www.collectionscanada.ca/ logan/index2-e.html

Life of a Rock Star: http://www. collectionscanada.ca/rock/index2- e.html

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook 39 GLOSSARY Limestone: Sedimentary rock composed of over 50% calcium carbonate. Nappe: A large sheetlike body of rock Active continental margin: Continental (= allochtonous) that has been moved margin where an ocean plate is far from its original position and covers GLOSSAR Y subducted beneath the continental another assemblage (= autochtonous). crust. Syn. thrust sheet.

Diagenesis: Processes that alter Outcrop: A segment of bedrock that can a sedimentary deposit, gradually be seen at the Earth’s surface. transforming it into solid sedimentary rock. Passive continental margin: Continental margin where the continental crust and Continental shelf: Submerged region on the ocean crust are part of the same the edge of a continent. Syn: Continental plate. margin. Sandstone: Sedimentary rock composed Erratic block: A large rock fragment of rounded or angular grains about transported over a great distance by a the size of sand, bound together by a glacier; it differs from the substratum cement of carbonate or silica. on which it lies. Olistostrome: Chaotic mixture of rocks Fault: A fracture in the Earth’s crust from the leading edge of a thrust sheet involving relative displacement of that becomes deposited in a sedimentary the two blocks of rock parallel to the basin as a result of submarine gravity fracture. sliding. An “olistolith” is a large block that is transported as part of this gravity Fossil: Object or substances of biological sliding or slumping and that becomes origin that have become enclosed in embedded in the sediment deposited. rocks through burial or infiltration: animal fossils, trace fossils, fossil fuel, Quartz: Most common form of silica. etc. Shale: Very fine-grained sedimentary Granite: A homogeneous, coarse- rock which is homogeneous, clayey and grained, intrusive igneous rock often calcareous. composed mainly of quartz and feldspars, with one or more black Stratification: The layering or bedding of silicate minerals. sedimentary rocks.

Isostasy: State of hydrostatic equilibrium Plate tectonics: Widely accepted theory that is attained at a depth inside the according to which the solid outer shell Earth called the compensation depth. of the Earth (lithosphere) is composed of rigid plates that are about a hundred kilometres thick and float on the weak and deformable asthenosphere.

40 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook Till: Unstratified drift (rock debris) deposited by a glacier without appreciable reworking by melt water.

Thrusting: Tectonic movement during which one block override another along a gently inclined abnormal contact (thrust plane or fault).

Translation of the French text, which is adapted from Foucault, A. and Raoult, J.F. (2001) or from Jacob H.-L. and Ledoux R. (2001).

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook 41 REFERENCES Charbonneau, André; Desloges, Yvon et Lafrance, Marc, 1982, Québec ville fortifiée, du XVIIe au XIXe siècle, Web resources: Éditions du Pélican, Parcs Canada, Québec, 490 pages. A Journey to a New Land: Virtual

REFERENCES Museum Canada, http://www.sfu. Chartré, C. et al. 1981. Évolution museum/journey historique de la terrasse Dufferin et sa zone limitrophe de 1838 à nos jours, Bourque, P.-A., Planète Terre, http:// Parcs Canada, Québec, 212 p. www.ggl.ulaval.ca/personnel/ bourque/intro.pt/planete_terre.html Feininger, Tomas ; St-Julien, Pierre ; Bolduc, Andrée, 1995. Popular Geology. Côté, P., Achab, A., Michaud, Y.: Québec Geoscience Center, 16 pages. Geoscape Québec: http://geoscape. nrcan.gc.ca/quebec Foucault, A. et Raoult, J.F., 2001. Dictionnaire de géologie. Dunod, Paris. Jacob H.-L., et Ledoux R. : Les pierres de construction et d’ornementation du Fournier, Rodolphe, 1976. Lieux et vieux Québec, http://www.ggl.ulaval. monuments historiques de Québec et ca/ledoux/accueil.html environs, Éditions Garneau, Québec, 340 pages. Tremblay, P. : The Québec City Area Through the Eyes of a Geologist: Gauvin, Robert, 1991. Le jardin des http://cgq-qgc.ca/english/outreach/ Gouverneurs à Québec du XVIIe au geotour XXe siècle, Parcs Canada, Québec, 110 pages. Tremblay, P., Corriveau, L., Daigneault, R.-A. : If the Earth could talk… An Jacob H.-L., Ledoux, R., 1998. Livret introduction to Earth Sciences: http:// guide : Excursion A7, Les pierres de www.cgq-qgc.ca/tous/terre construction et d’ornementation du Vieux-Québec. Congrès AGC/GAC- **************** AMC/MAC-APGGQ, Québec, 73 pages.

Beaudet, Abbé Louis, 1973, Québec, Lafrance, Marc, 1985. La Redoute du ses monuments anciens et modernes Cap-aux-Diamants à Québec, Parcs ou Vade mecum des citoyens et des Canada, Québec, 50 pages. touristes: Société historique de Québec, Québec, Coll.: « Cahiers d’histoire », no Riva J., 1972. Livret guide : Excursion 25, 200 p. B-19, Géologie des environs de Québec. Congrès géologique international, 24e Beaudet, Pierre, 1990, Les dessous session. de la Terrasse à Québec: Septentrion, Québec, 200 p.

42 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook Roubault, M., 1963. Détermination des minéraux et des roches au microscope polarisant. Édition Lamarre-Poinat. Paris.

St-Julien, P., 1979. Livret-guide : Excursion #9, Structure et stratigraphie des roches de la plate-forme et des séquences appalachiennes près de Québec. Congrès AGC/GAC-AMC/MAC, Québec.

Steppler, Glenn, 1976. Quebec, the Gibraltar of North America ? Parcs Canada, Coll.: «Travail inédit numéro 224», 190 pages.

Tremblay, A et Castonguay, S., 1998. Livret-guide : Excursion B6, Stratigraphy and Structural transect across the southern Appalachians. Congrès AGC/ GAC-AMC/MAC-APGGQ, Québec.

QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook 43 useful links in earth sciences

Science and Technology at NRCan: http://www.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/com/subsuj/tectec-eng.php

Sustainable Development: http://www.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/sd-dd

Posters on Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation: http://adaptation.nrcan.gc.ca

Curriculum tools on climate change in Canada: http://adaptation.nrcan.gc.ca/posters/curriculum/index_e.php

Minerals and metal statistics online: http://mmsd.mms.nrcan.gc.ca/stat-stat/index-eng.aspx USEFUL LIN K S IN EART H SCIENCES Geographical Names of Canada: http://geonames.nrcan.gc.ca

Origins of Canada’s Geographical Names: http://geonames.nrcan.gc.ca/education/index_e.php

Topo 101 - Topographic Maps, The Basics: http://maps.nrcan.gc.ca/topo101/index_e.php

Outreach materials, Canada Centre for Remote Sensing : http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/resource/index_e.php

Information for collectors: http://cgc.rncan.gc.ca/bookstore/collect/index_e.php

Geoscape Canada: http://geoscape.nrcan.gc.ca

Canada’s earth materials : http://geoscape.nrcan.gc.ca/canada/index_e.php

Waterscapes: http://geoscape.nrcan.gc.ca/h2o/index_e.php

Canadian Landscapes: http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/landscapes

Earthquakes Canada http://earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca

44 QUÉBEC FORTIFIED CITY: GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE - FIELDTRIP GUIDEbook