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Ecology and Genetic Control of the Onion Fly, Delia

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Ecology and Genetic Control of the Onion Fly, Delia M. Loosjes Institute of Phytopathological Research, Wageningen Ecology and genetic control of theonio nfly, Delia antiqua (Meigen) qp Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation Wageningen - 1976 Z0((?^ Abstract Loosjes,M . (1976)Ecolog y and genetic control of the onion fly,Deli a antiqua (Meigen). Agric. Res.Rep . (Versl. landbouwk. Onderz.) 857. Pudoc Wageningen. ISBN 90 220 0611 5. (vii)+ 179 p., 95 figs, 39 tables, 331 refs, Eng. and Dutch summaries. Also: Doctoral thesis Leiden and Meded. Inst, plziektenk. Onderz. 743 Literature data on the onion fly's biology are given. The field work on its ecology, relevant for genetic control, is reported, with an emphasis on dispersal. The methods used are discussed, especially marking the flies at emergence, releasing sterilized pupae dug in the soil, recapturing flies by flight interception traps,an d sampling of pupae. Some data are given on the prediction of emergence, the incidence of diapause and Entomophthora infection of the flies.Th e distribution of damage and pupae can be descri­ bed by the negative binomial, and problems are encountered in estimating confidence intervals for the mean density. Densities of pupae normally are some 100 0 -20 000 per ha. From estimates of the life-span distribution of female flies and the frequency of oviposition phases the fecundity is estimated. Reproduction factors are found to be about 7 and 3 for the two flights,respectively . Dispersal is shown to be in general independent of the wind direction. Several methods of estimating a diffusion coefficient to describe the fly dis­ persal are applied. The best results are obtained by computer simulation with heterogeneity in time and space,yeildin g 2 000m /day in onion fields and 14 000m^/da y outside these. Dispersal is age dependent, occurring less in reproductive phases.Th e logarithm of the total number recaptured of the released group is about linearity related to the distance from the release site.Fiel d trials on control by sterile males are described, and data on competitiveness and reproduction are given. In an onion growing area Ih a treatment gave successful control.A release schedule for the practical application of genetic control to the onion fly is given with estimates for release site density, barrier zone depth, over- flooding ration, and optimal distribution of available steriles over the two flights and the subsequent years.Fo r the Netherlands, an estimated mass-rearing output of 1.5 x 10^ competitive fly equivalents is needed. Free descriptors:Anthomyiidae , competitiveness, damage distribution, diapause, diffusion, Diptera, dispersal, flight interception trap,releas e strategies,reproduction , sampling methods, simulation, sterile insect technique. ISBN 90 220 0611 5 The author graduated as Doctor of Science at the State University of Leiden, theNether ­ lands, on a thesis with the same title and contents,o n 15Decembe r 1976. © Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation,Wageningen , 1976. No part of this book may be reproduced and/or published in any form, by print,photoprint , microfilm or any other means without written permission from the publishers. Contents 1 INTRODUCTION ' 2 INTRODUCTORY DATA ONTHE ONION FLY ANDITS CONTROL 3 2.1.GENERA LBIOLOG Y 3 2.1.1 Taxonomy 3 2.1.2 Morphology 3 2.1. S Geographical distribution 7 2.2 ECOLOGY 8 2.2.1 Life cycle 8 2.2.2 Population dynamics 10 2.2.3 Niche 11 2.3 ONIONGROWIN GAN DPES TCONTRO L 13 2.3.1 Onions in the Netherlands 13 2.3.2 Damage 14 2.3.3 Pest control 17 2.4 SUMMARY 19 3 ENVIRONMENT ANDDISCUSSION OFMATERIALS AND METHODS 21 3.1 ENVIRONMENT 21 3.1.1 Experimental area 21 3.1.2 Weather 24 3.2 FLIESUSE DFO RTH EEXPERIMENT S 26 3.2.1 Mass rearing 26 3.2.2 Sterilization 27 3.3 DISCUSSIONO FMETHOD S 28 3.3.1 Marking 28 3.3.1.1 Markinglarva e 28 3.3.1.2 Markingemergin gflie s 29 3.3.1.3 Markingb ysterilizatio n 30 3.3.1.4 Wingvei naberration s 31 3.3.1.5 Size 31 3.3.2 Releasing 32 3.3.2.1 Releasingpupa e 32 3.3.2.2 Releasingflie s \ 35 3.3.3 Trapping flies 36 3.3.3.1 Flightinterceptio ntrap s 36 3.3.3.2 Attraction 39 3. S.4 Obtaining eggs 41 3.3.5 Sampling flies, larvae and damage 42 3.3.6 Sampling pupae 43 3.3.7 Fly inspection 46 3.3.8 Field observation of fly behaviour 47 3.4 SUMMARY 48 50 ONION FLÏ ECOLOGY 4.1 LIFECYCL E 50 4.1.1 Prediction of emergence •)" 4.1.2 Flight curves •" 4.1.3 Incidence of diapause •'•' 4.1.4 Number of flights 58 4.2 NICHE 59 4.2.1 Oviposition site 59 4.2.2 Larval and adult food 62 4.2.3 Parasitoids 63 4.2.4 Entomophthora "^ 66 4.2.5 Predators 4.3 ESTIMATIONO FDAMAG EINTENSIT YAN DPOPULATIO NDENSIT Y 67 67 4.3.1 Damage intensity 4.3.1.1 Damagepatter n 67 4.3.1.2 Distributiono fdamag e 4.3.1.3 Precisionestimatio n 70 4.3.1.4 Plotsiz e 73 4.3.1.5 Damage frequency in time 74 4.3.2 Pupal population density ^ 4.3.3 Fly population density 78 4.3.4 Relation between density and damage 83 4.4 MORTALITY 83 4.5 REPRODUCTION 87 4.5.1 Mating 87 4.5.2 Oviposition 89 4.5.3 Reproduction factor 92 4.6 SUMMARY 93 DISPERSAL 95 5.1 PRELIMINARYDISPERSA LEXPERIMENT S 95 5.2 FACTORSAFFECTIN GDISPERSA L 96 5.2.1 Weather and onions 96 5.2.2 Barriers 99 5.2.3 Passive dispersal 100 5.2.4 Fly properties 101 5.3 DIFFUSION 102 5.3.1 Introduction 102 5.3.2 Calculation of diffusion coefficient from field observations of fly behaviour 103 5.3.S Calculation of diffusion coefficient from release-recapture experiments 105 5.4 DISPERSALSIMULATIO N 107 5.4.1 Simulation model 107 5.4.2 Analysis of a release-recapture experiment 109 5.5 NUMBERSVERSU SDISTANC E 113 5.6 AGE-DEPENDENTDISPERSA L 119 5.6.1 Trapping place versus age 119 5.6.2 Age distribution of immigrating flies 122 5.6.3 Dispersal with regard to genetic control 123 5.6.4 Migrated fractions of reproducing populations, in relation to distance 126 5.7 SUMMARY 126 6 GENETIC CONTROL 129 6.1 FIELDTRIAL SA TTH ESCHUILENBUR G 129 6.1.1 Introduction 129 6.1.2 Reproduction 131 6.1.3 Competitiveness 132 6.2 GENETICCONTRO LFIEL DEXPERIMEN TO NOVERFLAKKE E 134 6.2.1 Introduction 134 6.2.2 Fly sterility 136 6.2.3 Competitiveness 139 6.2.4 Egg sterility 141 6.2.5 Damage 143 6.2.6 Sampling of pupae 143 6.2.7 Reproduction 144 6.3 ANORMALIZE DFIEL DEXPERIMEN T 146 6.4 RELEASESTRATEGIE S 147 6.5 SUMMARY 153 7 CONCLUDING REMARKS 154 7.1 DISPERSAL 154 7.2 PESTSITUATIO N 154 7.3 GENETICCONTRO L 155 SUMMARY 158 SAMENVATTING 160 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 163 REFERENCES 164 APPENDIX 177 1 Introduction Themai n insectpes to fonion si ntemperat e regionso fth enorther nhemispher ei sth e onion fly,Deli aantiqu a (Meigen) (e.g.Hennig ,1953 ;Balachowsk i& Mesnil ,1935 ;Essig , 1926; Miller,1956 ;Metcal f& Flint ,1962) . Itma ydestro yu pt o50-100 4o fth ecrop . Effective chemical controlmeasure s havebee ndevelope dan dapplie dmainl y during thepas t fewdecade s (Dustan,1938 ;Wright ,1938 ;McLeod , 1946;Maan , 1947). Researcho nth eonio nfl yha sbee ndon eo nit sgenera lbiolog y (e.g.Eyer ,1922 ; Kästner,1929b ;Isaev ,1932 ;Maan ,1945 ;Miles ,1956 ,1958a ;Rygg ,1960 ;Perro nan dco ­ workers,1951-1972 ;Ellington , 1963)an do nspecia laspect s like laboratory rearing (Friend& Pattern ,1956 ;Frien de tal. , 1957,1959 ;Alle n& Askew , 1970), attractants (Peterson,1924 ;Matsumot o& Thorsteinson , 1968a,1968b ;Matsumoto ,1970 )an d reproduction (Missoimier& Stengel ,1966) .A bibliograph y hasbee ngive nb yScot t (1969),mor e selected references arefoun di nHenni g (1974). Literature compilationso nit s lifehistor y have beenmad eb yBeirn e (1971)an dSchnitzle r (1967). Developmento fresistanc eagains tpesticide suse d (Howitt,1958 ;Anonymous ,1967 ; Brown,1974 )an dth ehazard s thatpesticide s constitutefo r theenvironmen t causedre ­ searcht ob estarte d aiminga tth edevelopmen to fgeneti c controlo fth eonio nfl yi n theNetherland s (Noordirik,1966 )an dals oi nCanad a (McClanahan& Simmons ,1966 ;McEwe n et al., 1973).Th emetho do fgeneti c controlwa s first appliedb yKniplin g (1955), Baumhovere tal . (1955)an dLindquis t (1955). Thedevelopmen to fth egeneti c control methodha sbee nreviewe db yProverb s (1969), Smith& vo nBorste l (1972)an dWhitte n& Foster (1975). Theordinar y typeo fgeneti c controli sth esteril e insect techniqueo rsteril emal e technique.B yreleas eo fsterilize dmale so fth esam especie si nhig hnumbers ,th epossi ­ bilityo fa wil d femalet omat ewit ha wil dmal ei slowere dt oth eexten ttha t the average numbero freproducin g offspringpe rfemal ei sles stha ntwo ,resultin g ina populatio n decline.Othe rpossibilitie so fgeneti c control arebase do nmor e subtlegeneti cmanipu ­ lations,lik e induced chromosomerearrangements . Thisrepor t contains theecologica lpar to fth eresearc hfo r thedevelopmen to fge ­ neticcontro lo fth eonio nfl yi nth eNetherlands ,carrie d outb ya researc htea ma t Wageningen.Othe r aspectsexamine db ythi sresearc h teamare : -mas srearin g (Ticheler& Noordirik ,1968 ;Ticheler ,1971 ;Noorlander ,i nprep.) , -sterilizatio n (Ticheler& Noordink , 1968;Noordink , 1971), -us eo fradioisotope s (Noordink, 1971), -histopatholog y (Theunissen, 1971,1973a ,1973b , 1976), -sterile-mal e fieldtrial s (Tichelere tal.
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