Oceanography © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT for SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT for SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, Reproduction number LC-DIG-highsm-43299 (original digital file © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALECHAPTER OR DISTRIBUTION 1 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION The Growth of Oceanography © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

© Jones■■ Describe & Bartlett the history Learning, of ocean exploration LLC and of oceanography. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT■■ FORCritically SALE evaluate OR the DISTRIBUTION nature and power of the scientific method.NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■■ Become proficient at reading graphs and doing unit conversions.

© Jones & BartlettPreview Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEA complete OR DISTRIBUTION historical account of oceanographic explorationNOT FOR and research SALE wouldOR DISTRIBUTION be a massive undertaking. The record stretches back over several millennia to the time when ancient mariners built boats and ventured boldly onto the sea to explore the unknown. However, a brief sketch of maritime history is needed in a book that deals with the physical, chemical, geological, and biological processes of the ocean in a scientifically rigorous manner. First and foremost, this reminds us that for eons there have been people in the field of “oceanography”—people with an insatiable desire to make the unknown familiar.© Knowledge Jones & that Bartlett is commonplace Learning, today LLC required painstaking investigations© Jones by numerous& Bartlett seafarers Learning, LLC throughout centuriesNOT of exploration.FOR SALE Many OR intended DISTRIBUTION to become rich by exploiting resourcesNOT and FOR controlling SALE seaOR routes DISTRIBUTION for commerce. All were driven by a yearning to understand the mysteries of the Earth and its seas. Today’s oceanographers (modern sea explorers) carry forward this quest to satisfy humankind’s curiosity. They owe a huge debt to the courage and vision of earlier mariners, who by slow increments replaced ignorance and myth with knowledge. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ▸▸ 1-1 Oceanography: What Is It? ology meaning “the science of”) is etymologically more accurate. The distinction between oceanography and efore delving into the science of oceanogra- oceanology is similar to that made between geography © Jones & Bartlettphy Learning,, we should LLC understand exactly what © the Jones (the & Bartlett physical description Learning, of LLC the world and its biota) NOT FOR SALE ORword DISTRIBUTION means. The fi st part of the term is coinedNOT FORand SALEgeology OR (the DISTRIBUTION scientific study of the Earth and its Bfrom the Greek word okeanos, or Oceanus, the name processes). The word oceanology has not, however, dis- of the Titan son of the gods Uranus and Gaea who was placed oceanography, because the latter term is solidly father of the ocean nymphs (the Oceanids). Eventually, entrenched in the minds of the laypeople as well as the oceanus was applied© Jones to the sea& Bartlett beyond the Learning, Pillars of LLCWestern practitioners of© theJones science. & BartlettThus, this Learning, text LLC Hercules, the NorthNOT Atlantic FOR Ocean. SALE Th ORe second DISTRIBUTION part will follow convention, usingNOT the FOR more SALE familiar OR term DISTRIBUTION to of the term comes from the Greek word graphia, which denote the scientific tudy of the oceans. refers to the act of recording and describing. In fact, A common misconception is that oceanography is the word oceanography is inadequate to describe the a pure science in its own right, practiced by women and science of the seas because scientists do much more men who are specifi ally and narrowly instructed in than© Jones merely & record Bartlett and describeLearning, the ocean’sLLC physical, its investigative© Jones methods. & Bartlett Most oceanographersLearning, LLC are, in chemical,NOT FOR geological, SALE OR and DISTRIBUTION biological characteristics. fact, trainedNOT in FOR one ofSALE the traditional OR DISTRIBUTION sciences (physics, Oceanographers investigate, interpret, and model all chemistry, biology, and geology) or a related fi ld aspects of ocean processes, using the most modern (engineering, meteorology, mathematics, statistics, or and sophisticated techniques of scientific and math- computer science) and choose to apply their research © Jones & Bartlettematical Learning, inquiry. The LLC term oceanology (the suffix© Jones expertise & Bartlett to the Learning, study of the LLC oceans. After obtaining NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

3 © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

4 Chapter 1 The Growth of Oceanography

BIOPHYSICS GEOCHEMISTRY © Jones &OCEANOGRAPHY Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION PHYSICS GEOLOGY GEOPHYSICS

FIGURE 1–©1 JonesThe field & ofBartlett oceanography. Learning,This diagram LLC organizes oceanography into© fourJones principal & Bartlettcategories—biological, Learning, LLC geological,NOT physical, FOR and SALE chemical OR oceanography—that DISTRIBUTION are linked to one anotherNOT by cross-disciplines. FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION (biology) © Tiburin Studios/ShutterStock; (chemistry) © Photodisc; (geology) © Horia Bogdan/Shutterstock.; (physics) © Photodisc.

© Jonesundergraduate & Bartlett Learning,training in a LLC traditional science, they © JonesRather, as& theBartlett science Learning, of oceanography LLC has matured NOT FORgain SALE experience OR DISTRIBUTION conducting oceanographic research NOTand FOR as research SALE vessels, OR DISTRIBUTION sampling devices, and elec- in graduate school or at a marine institute. Recently, tronic instrumentation have become increasingly new career opportunities in oceanography have devel- sophisticated and more widely applied to probe the oped in marine policy and management, marine law, ocean’s secrets, many beliefs of the past have been resource and environmental assessment, and other disproved. The lesson from history is clear-cut. Our related fi lds. Marine studies© Jones commonly & Bartlett rely on Learning, col- ideas LLC of the oceans today, which© Jones seem & so Bartlett appeal- Learning, LLC laboration among manyNOT types FOR of scientists, SALE mathema OR DISTRIBUTION- ingly fi al and are written aboutNOT and FOR taught SALE with ORso DISTRIBUTION ticians, engineers, technicians, and policymakers. much fervor and certainty, will be refi ed by the fi d- It is customary to subdivide oceanography into ings and thoughts of future generations of marine the four fi lds of physical, geological, chemical, and scientists. biological© Jones oceanography & Bartlett (FIGURE Learning, 1–1). These LLCfi lds are A practical© Jones means & of Bartlett organizing Learning, the historical LLC in turnNOT linked FOR to one SALE another OR by DISTRIBUTIONthe cross-disciplin es record of oceanographyNOT FOR is SALE to arrange OR theDISTRIBUTION events into of geochemistry, biochemistry, geophysics, and three broad stages. The fi st includes the early efforts biophysics. of individual mariners as they attempted to describe the geography of the Earth’s oceans and landmasses. During this time of ocean exploration, the very lim- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesits of the & worldBartlett were Learning, sought. Th LLCe second includes NOT FOR▸▸ SALE1-2 HistoricalOR DISTRIBUTION Review of NOTthe FORearly systematicSALE OR attempts DISTRIBUTION to use a truly scientific Oceanography approach to investigate the oceans. The third covers the growth of modern oceanography that has resulted Our perception and understanding of the oceans from the widespread application of state-of-the-art have changed markedly over time. Although this technology and the international collaboration of sci- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC text stresses the most current ideas championed by entists. We will conclude this historical review with an marine scientists, theseNOT attitudes FOR and SALE impressions OR DISTRIBUTION did assessment of future prospectsNOT and tryFOR to predictSALE theOR DISTRIBUTION not suddenly appear out of an intellectual vacuum. nature of oceanographic investigations in the middle They grew out of—and evolved from—the ideas and part of the twenty-fi st century. deductions of prior generations of ocean explorers A limited number of the innumerable events that and scientists.© Jones Marine & Bartlett scientists Learning, are well aware LLC of the contribute to© the Jones rich history & Bartlett of oceanography Learning, can LLC be fact thatNOT all of FOR their workSALE rests OR on DISTRIBUTION the contributions of highlighted inNOT a single FOR chapter. SALE Although OR DISTRIBUTION the details of the innumerable investigators that came before them. only a few of the many important research cruises and But, obviously, this does not mean that all the conclu- studies are elaborated here, synopses of many others sions of those early investigators have been validated. are cataloged chronologically in FIGURE 1–2. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

1-2 Historical Review of Oceanography 5

■ ■ ca. 4000 bce ca. 1100 bce Egyptians developed the arts Most islands of the of shipbuilding and coastal Pacific Ocean settled © Jones & Bartlettby Polynesians. Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC piloting. Courtesy of NOAA Central Library NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ ca. 1000–600 bce Phoenicians explored the entire Mediterranean Sea, sailed into the Atlantic to Cornwall, England, and probably circumnavigated Africa. They navigated by familiar coastal landmarks and by the stars. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ■ NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 450 bce NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION The Greek Herodotus compiled a map of the known world that centered on the Mediterranean region (see Figure 1–3).

■ 325 bce © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC The Greek Pytheas explored the© coasts Jones of England, & Bartlett Norway, and perhaps Learning, Iceland. He developed LLC a NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION means of determining latitudeNOT from FOR the angular SALE distance ORof the NorthDISTRIBUTION Star and proposed a connection between the phases of the Moon and the tides. Aristotle published Meteorologica, in which he described the geography and physical structure of the Greek world, and Historia Animalium, the first known treatise on marine biology.

■ © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 276–192 bce © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC The Greek Eratosthenes, a scholar at Alexandria, determined the circumference of the Earth with remarkable NOT FORaccuracy SALE using trigonometryOR DISTRIBUTION and noting the specific angle of sunlight that occurredNOT at Alexandria FOR and SALE at OR DISTRIBUTION Aswan (then known as Syene) in Egypt. © Photos.com ■ 54 bce–30 ce The Roman Seneca devised the hydrologic cycle to show that, despite the inflow of river water, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCthe level of the ocean remained stable© because Jones of evaporation. & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ ca. 150 ce The Greek Ptolemy compiled a map of the entire Roman World that showed latitudes and longitudes.

■ © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, 673–735 ce LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION The English monkNOT Bede publishedFOR DeSALE Temporum OR Ratione DISTRIBUTION, in which he discussed the lunar control of the tides and recognized monthly tidal variations and the effect of wind drag on tidal height.

■ © Bettmann/Getty Images 982 ce © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCThe Norseman Erik the Red completed© theJones first & Bartlett Learning, LLC transatlantic crossing and discovered Baffin Island in the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Arctic region of Canada. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ 995 ce Leif Eriksson, son of Erik the Red, established the North American settlement of Vinland in what is now Newfoundland. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC FIGURE 1–2 A chronology of ocean exploration. BCE,NOT before the commonFOR era SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION CE, of the common era

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

6 Chapter 1 The Growth of Oceanography

© Jones Landmark& Bartlett Events Learning, in Early Ocean LLC Exploration © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1400 1425 1450 1475 1500 1525 1550 1575 1600 1625 1650 1675 1700 ▼▼▼▼▼▼▼▼▼▼▼▼▼ ■ 1452–1519© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Leonardo da Vinci observed, recorded, and interpreted detailsNOT about FORcurrents andSALE waves and OR noted DISTRIBUTION that fossils in NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the mountains of Italy implied that the level of the sea had been higher in the ancient past. ■ 1492 © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Christopher Columbus LLC rediscovered North America © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONby sailing to the islands of the West Indies. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ 1500 Pedro Alvares Cabral discovered and explored Brazil. Courtesy of Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division [LC-USZ62-8355] ■ © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 1513 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Juan Ponce de LeonNOT described FOR the swift SALE and OR DISTRIBUTION powerful Florida current. ■ 1513–1518 Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus © Jones & Bartlettof Panama Learning, and sailed in theLLC Pacific Ocean. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR■ DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1515 Peter Martyr proposed an origin for the Gulf Stream. © Photos.com ■ 1519–1522 Ferdinand Magellan embarked on a © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCcircumnavigation of the globe; Sebastian© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONdel Cano completed the voyage. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ 1569 Geradus Mercator constructed a map projection of the world that was adapted to © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ©navigational Jones charts &. Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ 1674 Robert Boyle investigated the relation among temperature, salinity, and pressure with depth and reported his findings in “Observations and Experiments on the Courtesy of Library of Congress © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ©Saltiness Jones of the &Sea. ”Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Data from Ingmarson, D. E., and Wallace, W. J. Oceanography: An Introduction, Table 1.2; McConnaughey, B. H., and Zottoli, R. Introduction to Marine Biology, Chapter 24; McCormick,© Jones J. C., and Thiruvathukal,& Bartlett J. V. Elements Learning, of Oceanography, LLC Tables 1.1 and 1.2; Parker, H. S. Exploring the© Oceans Jones, Chapter & 1; andBartlett Thurman, H. Learning,V. Introduction to LLC Oceanography,NOT FOR Chapter 1.SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION FIGURE 1–2 (CONTINUED) A chronology of ocean exploration.

1-2 Historical Review of Oceanography 7

© Jones & BartlettA Chronology Learning, of Ocean LLC Exploration © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1700 1725 1750 1775 1800 1825 1850 ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ■ © Jones1725 & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Luigi Marsigli compiled Histoire Physique de la Mer, the first book to deal entirelyNOT with the FOR science SALE of the sea. OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ 1740 Leonhard Euler calculated the magnitude of the forces that generate ocean tides and related them to the © Jones & Bartlett Learning,attractive force LLC of the Moon. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ Courtesy of NOAA Central Library 1769–1770 Benjamin Franklin published the first ocean chart of the Gulf Stream, which shippers consulted extensively as they crossed the North Atlantic Ocean. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ■ © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1768–1771, 1772–1775,NOT 1778–1779 FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Captain James Cook commanded three major ocean voyages, gathering extensive data on the geography, geology, biota, currents, tides, and water temperatures of all of the principal oceans. ■ © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 1802 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Nathaniel Bowditch published the New American Practical Navigator, a superb navigational NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONresource that continues to be revised and publishedNOT to thisFOR day. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ 1807 President Thomas Jefferson mandated coastal charting of the entire United States and established the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett ■ Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR 1817–1818 SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Sir John Ross ventured into the Arctic Ocean to explore Baffin Island, where he sounded the bottom successfully © Photos.com and recovered starfish and mud worms from a depth of 1.8 kilometers.

■ 1820 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Alexander Marcet,© Jones a London physician, & Bartlett noted that Learning, the proportion of theLLC chemical ingredients NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORin seawater SALE is unvarying OR DISTRIBUTION in all oceans. ■ 1831–1836 The epic journey of Charles Darwin aboard the HMS Beagle led to a theory of atoll formation and later to the theory of organic evolution by natural selection. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett■ Learning, LLC 1839–1843 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONSir James Ross, nephew of the Arctic explorer Sir John Ross,NOT led a scientific FOR expeditionSALE to OR Antarctica, DISTRIBUTION © National Library of Medicine recovering samples of deep-sea bottom life down to a maximum depth of 7 kilometers. ■ 1841, 1854 Sir Edward Forbes published The History of British Star-Fishes (1841) and then his influential book, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Distribution of Marine Life© (1854), Jones in which & he Bartlett argued that sea Learning, life cannot exist belowLLC about NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE600 OR meters DISTRIBUTION (the so-called azoic zone). FIGURE 1–2 (CONTINUED) A chronology of ocean exploration.

8 Chapter 1 The Growth of Oceanography

© Jones Milestones& Bartlett in Early Learning, Oceanography LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1855 1860 1865 1870 1875 1880 1885 1890 1895 1900 ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ■ 1855 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Matthew Fontaine Maury compiled and standardized the wind and current data recorded in U.S. Navy ship logs and summarizedNOT his FOR findings SALE in The Physical OR Geography DISTRIBUTION of the Sea. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ 1868–1870 Charles Wyville Thomson, aboard the HMS Lightning and HMS Porcupine, made the first series of deep-sea temperature measurements and collected ample life from great depths, disproving Forbes’s azoic zone. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ■ NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION1871 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION The U.S. Fish Commission was established with a modern laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. ■ 1872–1876 © Jones & UnderBartlett the leadership Learning, of Charles Wyville LLC Thomson, the HMS Challenger conducted© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEworldwide ORscientific DISTRIBUTION expeditions, collecting data and specimens that were laterNOT analyz edFOR in over SALEfifty large OR DISTRIBUTION volumes of the Challenger Reports. ■ 1873 Courtesy of Steve Nicklas, NOS,NGS/NOAA Charles Wyville Thomson published a general and popular book on © Jones &oceanography Bartlett called Learning, The Depths of theLLC Sea. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION■ NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1877–1880 Alexander Agassiz, an American naturalist, extensively sampled life in the deep sea while aboard the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey ship Blake. He also founded the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University and the first .S.U marine station, the Anderson School of Natural History, on Penikese Island, Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ■ © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 1884–1901 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONThe USS Albatross was designed and constructedNOT specifically FOR to SALE conduct scientific OR DISTRIBUTION research at sea and undertook numerous oceanographic cruises. ■ 1888 The Marine Biological Laboratory was established at Woods Hole, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Massachusetts,© Jones and Dr.& CharlesBartlett Otis Whitman Learning, served as its LLC first director. NOT FORCourtesy SALE of Steve Nicklas, OR NOS,NGS/NOAA DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ 1893 The Norwegian Fridtjof Nansen had the Fram constructed with a reinforced hull for use in sea ice; he confirmed the general circulation pattern of the Arctic Ocean and the absence of a northern continent. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

1-2 Historical Review of Oceanography 9

© Jones & BartlettA Chronology Learning, of Ocean LLC Exploration © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 ▼▼▼▼▼▼▼▼▼▼▼▼ ■ 1902 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Danish scientists with government backing established the International Council for the ExplorationNOT ofFOR the Sea SALE(ICES) to investigate OR DISTRIBUTION oceanographic NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION conditions that influence North Atlantic fisheries. Council representatives were from Great Britain, Germany, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland, and Russia. ■ © Jones1903 & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTThe Friday FOR Harbor SALE Oceanographic OR DISTRIBUTIONLaboratory was established by the Uni- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION versity of Washington, Seattle. ■ 1903 The Scripps Institution of Biological Research, which later © Jones & Bartlettbecame Learning, the Scripps Institution LLC of Oceanography, was © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEfounded OR atDISTRIBUTION La Jolla, California. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ 1912 The German meteorologist Alfred Wegener proposed his theory of continental drift. © Bonandbon/Shutterstock © Jones & Bartlett Learning,■ LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 1925–1927 NOT FORA German SALE expedition OR aboard DISTRIBUTION the research vessel Meteor studied the physical NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION oceanography of the Atlantic Ocean as never before, heralding the modern age of oceanographic investigation. Scientists used an echo sounder extensively for the first time. ■ © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 1930 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONThe Woods Hole Oceanographic InstitutionNOT was establishedFOR SALE on OR DISTRIBUTION the southwestern shore of Cape Cod, Massachusetts. ■ 1932 The International Whaling Commission was organized to collect data on whale species and to enforce voluntary © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ©regulations Jones on the& whalingBartlett industry. Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ 1942 Courtesy of John Bortniak/NOAA Harald Sverdrup, Richard Fleming, and Martin Johnson published the scientific classic The Oceans, which is still consulted today. ■ © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & 1949Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONThe Lamont (later changed to Lamont Doherty) GeologicalNOT FORObservator SALEy at OR DISTRIBUTION Columbia University in New York was established at Torrey Cliffs Palisades on the bedrock cliffs of the Hudson River. ■ © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC1957–1958 The International Geophysical Year (IGY) was organized—an ambitious NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION international effort to coordinateNOT the FORgeophysical SALE investigation OR of theDISTRIBUTION Earth, including its oceans.

FIGURE 1–2 (CONTINUED) A chronology of ocean exploration.

10 Chapter 1 The Growth of Oceanography

© Jones The& BartlettEra of Modern Learning, Oceanography LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ■ 1958 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC The nuclear submarine USS Nautilus, commanded by C.D.R. Andersen, reached the North Pole under the ice. ■ NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1959–1965 The International Indian Ocean Expedition was established under the auspices of the United Nations to make a systematic investigation of the oceanography of the Indian Ocean. ■ © Jones 1966 & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTThe FOR U.S. Congress SALE adopted OR the DISTRIBUTION Sea Grant College and Programs Act to provide nonmilitary NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION funding for education and research in the marine sciences. Courtesy of U. S. Navy Submarine Force ■ 1968, 1975 The U.S. National Science Foundation organized the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) to core through the sediments and rocks of the oceans. This effort was reorganized in 1975 as the International Program of Ocean Drilling, which continues to be active in all © Jones & Bartlett Learning,of the world’sLLC oceans today. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1970 The U.S. government created the department of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to oversee and coordinate government activities that have a bearing on oceanography and meteorology. ■ © Jones1970s & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTThe United FOR Nations SALE initiated theOR International DISTRIBUTION Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE) NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION to improve our scientific knowledge of all aspects of the oceans. ■ 1972 The Geochemical Ocean Sections Study (GEOSECS) was organized to obtain accurate measurements of seawater chemistry in an effort to explain the nature of ocean circulation and mixing and the biogeochemical recycling of chemical © Jones & Bartlettsubstances. Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1978 Seasat-A, the first oceanographic satellite, was launched, demonstrating the utility of remote sensing in the study of the oceans. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ■ © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 1980s–1990s NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONThe Coordinated Ocean Research and Exploration SectionNOT program FOR (CORES) SALE was organized OR to DISTRIBUTION continue the scientific work of the IDOE into the 1980s. The Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) continued the geological exploration of the oceans. Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech ■ 1992 © Jones & BartlettNASA Learning, launched the TOPEX/Poseidon LLC satellite to monitor sea level© and Jones to keep track & ofBartlett changes in Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONcurrent patterns as climate fluctuates.NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ 1997 Kyoto Climate Protocol.

■ © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett 1998 Learning, LLC International Year of the Ocean is organized to educate the public about the value NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOTand importance FOR of SALE the ocean’s OR resources. DISTRIBUTION

■ 2001 Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech Joint launching of Jason-1 satellite by NASA and the French Space Agency to improve forecasting of currents and climate. Implementation of GLOBEC (GLOBal Ocean ECosystem Dynamics), an international © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC research program© designed Jones by oceanographers, & Bartlett marine Learning, ecologists, and fisheryLLC scientists. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION FIGURE 1–2 (CONTINUED) A chronology of ocean exploration. © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

1-2 Historical Review of Oceanography 11

© Jones & BartlettThe Era of Learning, Modern Oceanography LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 ▼▼▼▼▼▼▼▼▼▼▼▼ ■ © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 2003© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Japan and the United States create the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP). NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ 2006 Launching by IODP of a new ocean drilling vessel, Japan’s Chikyu. ■ 2008 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © JonesThe International & Bartlett Year of Planet Learning, Earth. LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION■ 2009 The Copenhagen Global Climate Accord. ■ 2010 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & BartlettClimate Learning, Change Conference LLC Cancun, Mexico. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ 2011 International Climate Summit Durban, South Africa. ■ 2015 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © JonesGlobal Climate& Bartlett Accords, Parris. Learning, LLC FIGURE 1–2 (CONTINUED)NOT A FORchronology SALE of ocean OR DISTRIBUTIONexploration. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC weather© patterns Jones as & well Bartlett as on the Learning, position of LLCkey navi- OceanNOT FOR Exploration SALE OR DISTRIBUTION gationalNOT stars inFOR making SALE a planned OR DISTRIBUTION landfall after a deep- Humans have been going to sea for tens of thousands sea crossing of hundreds, even thousands, of kilometers. of years. Anthropologists suspect, for example, that Records of sailing vessels indicate maritime activ- the ancestors of aboriginal people reached Australia ity in Egypt as far back as 4000 bce . It is likely that the by seagoing vessels some 40,000–60,000 years ago, an extent of these voyages was restricted, with mariners © Jones & Bartlettincredible Learning, feat requiring LLC courage, skill, and determina© Jones- remaining & Bartlett well Learning,in sight of land, LLC probably in the imme- NOT FOR SALEtion. ThORey DISTRIBUTIONlived through a glaciation and deglaciation,NOT FORdiate SALE vicinity OR of DISTRIBUTIONthe Nile River and the shores of the following the shoreline as sea level dropped and then eastern Mediterranean Sea. By the sixth century bce , rose to its present position. These events are recorded however, Phoenicians had established sea routes for in their powerful myths and art. trading throughout the entire Mediterranean region In many respects© Jones, the Polynesian& Bartlett migration Learning, to LLCand had even ventured© westwardJones & into Bartlett the Atlantic Learning, LLC the many large andNOT small FOR islands SALE of the OR Pacific DISTRIBUTION Ocean Ocean, sailing as far northNOT as theFOR coast SALE of Cornwall OR DISTRIBUTION in (FIGURE 1–3), completed well before the common era England. Historians suspect that Phoenicians, around (bce ), ranks as one of the most spectacular exploration 600 bce , were probably the fi st to circumnavigate the feats ever. Their canoes, which they sailed and paddled, continent of Africa. True ocean navigation was difficult were made by hollowing out logs or by lashing planking at the time. Navigators charted the courses of their ves- together© Jones with & braidedBartlett ropes. Learning, These seaworthy LLC vessels sels according© Jones to the & stars.Bartlett Undoubtedly, Learning, sailors LLC steered wereNOT built FOR with SALE simple OR tools DISTRIBUTION made of rock, bone, and their craftNOT in FORsight of SALE the coastline OR DISTRIBUTION whenever possible, coral. In order to travel safely from one island to the relying on distinctive landmarks to fi d their way and next, these Pacific seafarers relied on sound seamanship, establish their position. Th s process is called piloting. extensive navigational skills, and detailed local knowl- By the third century bce , the fl urishing Greek © Jones & Bartlettedge, all Learning, of which—in LLC the absence of a written lan© Jones- civilization, & Bartlett plying Learning, the Mediterranean LLC for trade as it NOT FOR SALEguage—was OR DISTRIBUTION passed on to others orally in the recitationNOT FORestablished SALE ORits infl DISTRIBUTIONuence and control over the entire of epic poems. Polynesian seafarers could depend on region, was highly dependent on its maritime prow- accurate, detailed lore of local wind, wave, current, and ess. A notable sea adventurer of the time was Pytheas, © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

12 Chapter 1 The Growth of Oceanography

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION N O R T H A M E Japan R IC NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN A © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION HAWA l’I

Philippines MICRO N ESIA Caroline Is.

© Jones & BartlettMarshall Is. Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Papua POLYNESIA NewNOT Guinea FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION MARQUESAS IS.. Indonesia Solomon Is. SAMOA M ELANESIA SOCIETY (TAHITI) IS. FIJI COOK IS. Vanuatu TUAMOTU IS.

TONGA New Caledonia Australia AUSTRAL IS.. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC EASTER© Jones IS.. & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

NEW ZEALAND SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC (a) POLYNESIA (b) NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION FIGURE 1–3 Polynesia. (a) Polynesians settled these Pacific Islands, navigating across an ocean area the size of a continent. (b) Polynesians used canoes made of hollowed-out logs or planks. (b) © GeorgeBurba/iStock/Getty Images.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the fi st Greek to circumnavigate England and gauge enormous expanses of ocean that the Greeks believed the length of its shoreline. Although his travels are extended to the very ends of the world. not documented by fi st-hand accounts, some his- Th oughout the Middle Ages (between 500 and torians believe that Pytheas may have voyaged as far 1450 ce ), there was little ocean exploration by Europe- © Jonesnorth & Bartlett as Norway Learning, and as far LLCwest as Iceland. If he did, © Jonesans, with & the Bartlett notable exceptionLearning, of the LLC Viking seafarers. NOT FORthis SALE stands asOR an DISTRIBUTION incredible navigational accomplish- NOTBetween FOR theSALE ninth OR and DISTRIBUTION the twelfth centuries, Scandi- ment. Historians have established that Greek mari- navians extended their influence over Europe and ners estimated latitude (Appendix IV) by the length across the Atlantic Ocean by acquiring new lands. The of the day, correcting for the time of the year. How- Norse ventured boldly to Iceland, Greenland, and the ever, without mechanical timepieces (accurate chro- Baffi Islands, for example, and established a North © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC nometers) it was impossible for them to determine American settlement known as Vinland in the area longitude. Pytheas’s discoveryNOT FOR that SALE the tides OR of DISTRIBUTION the that we now call Newfoundland.NOT Th FORese Viking SALE out OR- DISTRIBUTION Atlantic Ocean vary regularly with the phases of the posts eventually were abandoned because of the harsh moon underscores his deep understanding of ocean climates. Also, the onset of the “Little Ice Age” (1430 processes. to 1850 ce ) caused the extensive buildup of sea ice that A map© Jones compiled & Bartlettby Herodotus Learning, in 450 bce LLC shows cut off he northern© Jones sea routes& Bartlett from Scandinavia. Learning, LLC the extentNOT of theFOR Greeks’ SALE understanding OR DISTRIBUTION of world geog- The Norsemen—theNOT FOR most SALE adept OR and DISTRIBUTION experienced raphy (FIGURE 1–4). The Mediterranean Sea promi- navigators in the Western world at that time—sailed nently occupies the center of the map and is surrounded westward by maintaining a course on a predetermined by three landmasses of enormous proportions—Libya line of latitude. They accomplished this navigational (northern Africa), Europe, and Asia. The polar limits feat by sailing to a coastal point along Norway and © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC and coastline configur tions of the latter two conti- measuring the angular height of the North Star. They NOT FORnents SALE were unexploredOR DISTRIBUTION at the time and are not marked NOTthen FOR kept SALEit at the OR same DISTRIBUTION angle on the starboard beam on the map. All of the familiar land is surrounded by of the vessel throughout the night. Their daytime © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

1-2 Historical Review of Oceanography 13

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION FIGURE 1–4 The Greek world. Herodotus compiled a map of the known world around 450 bce, showing the Mediterranean Sea surrounded by the landmasses known as Europa, Asia, and Libya. Large tracts of ocean in turn surrounded this land, extending to the very edges of the world. Courtesy© Jones of MEER. & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION navigation relied on the careful calculation of the sun’s bears his name and sailed around South America and position for the time of year. A map dated at about 1570 into the Pacific Ocean. The following 3 months were shows the remarkable state of the Vikings’ geographic desperate for Magellan’s crew, who endured starva- knowledge of the North Atlantic Ocean (FIGURE 1–5). tion and disease, and doubtless suffered much from © Jones & BartlettEconomic, Learning, political, LLC and religious motives© Jones fear & ofBartlett the unknown. Learning, They eventuallyLLC reached Guam NOT FOR SALEencouraged OR DISTRIBUTION western Europeans to undertake longNOT sea FORon MarchSALE 6, OR 1521. DISTRIBUTION After proceeding to the Philippines explorations in the fi eenth and sixteenth centuries; later that month, Magellan was killed on 27 April they crossed the Atlantic and ventured into the Pacific on the small island of Mactan while participating in Ocean. Portuguese sailors were particularly success- a dispute among local tribes. Sebastian del Cano ful explorers during this time. In 1487 and 1488, eventually completed the circumnavigation under tre- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope mendous hardship, reaching Spain on September 8, at the southern tipNOT of Africa. FOR A SALEfter sailing OR aroundDISTRIBUTION the 1522, in the last remainingNOT vessel FOR of the SALE expedition, OR DISTRIBUTION the Cape of Good Hope in 1498, Vasco da Gama contin- Victoria. Of the original 230 seamen, only 18 reached ued as far eastward as India. Seville and completed their 3-year-long circumnavi- Perhaps the crowning achievement of this age gation of the globe. is© theJones circumnavigation & Bartlett Learning, of the globe LLC by Ferdinand © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC MagellanNOT FOR. Departing SALE OR from DISTRIBUTION Spain in the late Septem- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ber 1519, Magellan proceeded southwestward with Early Scientific I vestigations his fl tilla of five age-worn ships to the northeastern A number of remarkably sophisticated scientific prob- coast of Brazil (FIGURE 1–6). There he began to search ings of the ocean’s secrets were made in the eighteenth for a seaway to the Pacific and, in the process, lost and nineteenth centuries. The British were preeminent © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC two of his vessels, one by desertion. Almost 1 year during this stage of ocean investigation. Th ough gov- NOT FOR SALEafter hisOR departure DISTRIBUTION from Spain, Magellan located NOTthe FORernment SALE sponsorship, OR DISTRIBUTION and often under the auspices of 500-kilometer-wide (~310 miles) passage that now major scientific societies such as the Royal Society of © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

14 Chapter 1 The Growth of Oceanography

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Joneswinds to & round Bartlett the Cape Learning, of Good LLCHope and circumnavigate the globe. He maintained a course as close to NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the latitude 60° S as possible, continually avoiding ice- bergs. In the fi al report of his fi dings, Cook wrote: Thus, I flatter myself that the intention of Iceland © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCthe voyage has in every© respect Jones been & Bartlett fully Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONanswered, the Southern NOT Hemisphere FOR SALE suffi- OR DISTRIBUTION ciently explored and a fi al end put to the searching after a Southern Continent, which Eastern has at times engrossed the attention of some Ireland Canada of the maritime powers for near two centu- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ries past, ©and Jones the geographers & Bartlett of all Learning, ages. That LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION there mayNOT be a continentFOR SALE or large OR tract DISTRIBUTION of land near the pole, I will not deny. On the contrary I am of the opinion there is (Hale, J. R. Age of Exploration. New York: Time, Inc., 1966, 192). © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Great © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Britain Cook’s fi al voyage (1778–79) led him to the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOTPacific FOR Ocean SALE once OR again, DISTRIBUTION where he discovered numerous islands, including the Hawaiian Islands. Becoming FIGURE 1–5 A Viking chart of the North Atlantic Ocean. the fi st mariner to sail the polar seas of both hemi- This Viking map, dated at about 1570, demonstrates how spheres, Cook also ventured northward into the Ber- extensive the knowledge of© the Jones North Atlantic& Bartlett Ocean Learning,was at ing LLC Sea until stopped by pack© ice Jones at a north & Bartlett latitude Learning, LLC that time. Familiar land features include Great Britain, Ireland, of 70°44′. After returning to Hawaii, Cook was killed Iceland, Greenland, and a portionNOT FORof the northeasternSALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION while attempting to recover a large boat stolen by a shoreline of Canada. The voyages of Erik the Red (982) are shown in red, those of Leif Eriksson (~1000) in green. group of natives. Courtesy of Royal Library. Important work in marine science during the mid-nineteenth century was conducted by Matthew © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Fontaine Maury© Jones, director & Bartlett of the U.S. Learning, Naval Depot LLC London,NOT they FOR expanded SALE their OR geographic DISTRIBUTION and scien- of Charts andNOT Instruments. FOR SALE While OR compiling DISTRIBUTION Wind tific knowledge about the world’s seas, which was vital and Current Charts, a task that began in 1842, Maury if they were to uphold their maritime and economic realized the need for international cooperation in superiority. making ocean measurements: “[A]s these American © Jones & CaptainBartlett James Learning, Cook best LLC represents the British © Jonesmaterials & are Bartlett not suffici Learning, t to enable LLC us to construct NOT FORseafaring SALE adventurer OR DISTRIBUTION of that day. Cook constructed NOTwind FOR and SALEcurrent OR charts DISTRIBUTION of all parts of the ocean, it accurate charts of coastlines and made import- has been judged advisable to enlist the cooperation ant observations about the geology and biology of of the other maritime powers in the same work.” In unexplored regions, as well as of the customs of 1855, Maury published an important and successful native populations. In 1768, on his fi st major voy- book, The Physical Geography of the Sea, to familiarize age commanding the HMS© Jones Endeavour & Bartlett, Cook sighted Learning, the LLC general public with the most© recentJones scientific & Bartlett fi d- Learning, LLC the coast of New ZealandNOT and FOR charted SALE much OR of DISTRIBUTION its ings about the ocean. His bookNOT went FOR through SALE eight OR DISTRIBUTION shoreline. He demonstrated convincingly that it was editions in the United States and nineteen editions in not part of Terra Australis (a large continent then England and was translated into several languages. believed to extend into the polar latitudes, con- Th s fi st book dedicated entirely to the science of jectured© Jones on the conviction& Bartlett there Learning, were equal LLC pro- oceanography© earned Jones him & theBartlett title “father Learning, of physical LLC portionsNOT of landFOR and SALE ocean OR on DISTRIBUTIONthe Earth). He then oceanography.”NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION proceeded westward to Australia and explored and One of the best known ocean expeditions of the mapped its eastern coast, almost foundering on the nineteenth century was the cruise of the HMS Bea- Great Barrier Reef. gle, with Captain Robert Fitzroy as commander During his second major voyage between 1772 and Charles Darwin as the ship’s naturalist. The © Jonesand & 1775,Bartlett commanding Learning, the LLCHMS Adventure and the © JonesBeagle em & barkedBartlett on Learning, a 5-year voyage, LLC beginning in NOT FORHMS SALE Resolution OR DISTRIBUTION, Cook used the prevailing westerly NOTlate FOR December SALE of 1831;OR DISTRIBUTION Darwin spent the bulk of that © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

1-2 Historical Review of Oceanography 15

Arctic Circle © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 60° N NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR60° NDISTRIBUTION

Departure (September 1519) Magellan killed © 30°Jones N & Bartlett(April Learning, 27 , 1521) LLC © Jones & BartlettHome Arrival Learning, LLC30° N (September 1522)Tr opic of Cancer NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Guam Equator 0° 0°

Straits of Magellan (October 1520) 60° S © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett60° Learning, S LLC

NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALEAntarctic OR Circle DISTRIBUTION

© Jones°09 E &120° Bartlett E°150° ELearning,081 LLC150° W 120° W 90° W ©60° WJones30° W& Bartlett0° Learning, 30° E 60° LLC E FIGURENOT 1– FOR6 The SALE circumglobal OR DISTRIBUTION voyage of Magellan. Ferdinand Magellan embarkedNOT FOR on aSALE 3-year-long OR voyage DISTRIBUTION in 1519, intent on discovering a seaway to the East Indies. In 1520, he rounded the Straits of Magellan and continued to the Philippines, where he was killed during a skirmish with natives. Sebastian del Cano completed the journey as leader of the expedition.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC FIGURE 1–8a b NOT FOR SALEtime studyingOR DISTRIBUTION the geology and biology of the SouthNOT FORthe SALE HMS Challenger OR DISTRIBUTION ( and ). Between American coastline (FIGURE 1–7). He was particularly 1872 and 1876, the Challenger completed a globe- impressed by the unique animal populations of the encircling voyage, covering almost 125,000 kilometers Galápagos Islands off Ecuador and by the latitudinal (~77,500 miles) (FIGURE 1–8c). A primary goal of the changes in the makeup of the biota of the coastal envi- cruise was to resolve the controversy about whether ronments of South© America. Jones A&ft Bartletter the successful Learning, com- LLCor not life existed in the© abyss Jones of the & oceans.Bartlett Edward Learning, LLC pletion of the voyage,NOT Darwin FOR SALEspent the OR next DISTRIBUTION 20 years Forbes (1815–1854), anNOT influential FOR English SALE naturalist, OR DISTRIBUTION examining and refl cting on his copious data. He maintained that the ocean depths below 550 meters eventually developed a most elegant theory of organic (~1,750 feet) were azoic (lifeless). A staff of six scien- evolution, suggesting that the appearance and evolu- tists tirelessly followed the dictates of the Royal Soci- tion© Jones of new &species Bartlett result Learning, by natural selection,LLC which ety of London,© Jones determining & Bartlett the Learning,chemical composition LLC operatesNOT FOR slowly SALE over ORvery DISTRIBUTIONlong periods of deep geo- of seawaterNOT andFOR the SALE distribution OR DISTRIBUTION of life forms at all logic time. His arguments, observations, and conclu- depths, conducting observations of coastal and ocean sions led to the publication of his seminal work, On currents, and describing the nature of the sedimen- the Origin of Species, in 1859. tary deposits that blanket the sea fl or. Th s global One of the more successful and signifi ant scien- approach to ocean studies represented a fundamental © Jones & Bartletttific voyages Learning, of the nineteenth LLC century was directed© by Jones step & inBartlett the evolution Learning, of marine LLC science and heralded a NOT FOR SALEC. Wyville OR DISTRIBUTION Thomson aboard the 2,360-ton corvette,NOT FORnew SALE era in ocean OR DISTRIBUTION exploration. © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

16 Chapter 1 The Growth of Oceanography

(a) HMS BEAGLE © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT(b) CHARLES FOR SALE DARWIN OR DISTRIBUTION

E °09 E 120° E°150° E 081 150° W 120° W 90° W 60° W 30° W 0° 30° E 60° E © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Arctic Circle

30° N © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Tr opic of Cancer LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Galapagos Equator (September-October 1835) 0°

Tropic of Capricorn Arrived Brazil © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 30° S NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE(February OR DISTRIBUTION 1832)

Cape of Good Hope Sydney (June 18, 1836) (January 1836) © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett60° S Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORAntarctic SALE Circle OR DISTRIBUTION

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC FIGURE 1–7 The voyage of the HMS Beagle. (a) Drawing depicting the HMS Beagle, which was commanded by Captain Robert NOTFitzroy. FOR(b) Charles SALE Darwin, OR who DISTRIBUTION occupied the post of naturalist aboard theNOT Beagle FOR, made SALE astute observationsOR DISTRIBUTION and ample collections of the biota and rocks that he encountered everywhere during the 5-year voyage. Reflection on these data later led him to postulate the evolution of all organisms by natural selection. (c) Route of the HMS Beagle. (a) © Science History Images/Alamy Stock Photo; (b) © National Library of Medicine. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

1-2 Historical Review of Oceanography 17

E °09 E 120° E°150° E 081 150° W 120° W 90° W 60° W 30° W 0° 30° E 60°E

Arctic Circle

60° N © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Departure© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC (December 1872) NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOTReturned FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION (May 1876) (May 1873) (June 1875)

30° N Tr opic of Cancer Manila Hawaiian Islands (March © Jones &(November Bartlett Learning, LLC(August 1875) © Jones1873) & Bartlett Learning, LLC 1874) NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONEquator 0° Tonga Islands (June 1874) Tahiti Island (September 1875) (September 1873) Tropic of Capricorn

(October 30° S 1875) © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCCapeTown (October 1873) Kerguelen NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Island (January 1874)

60° S © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & BartlettAntarctic Circle Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

(c) ROUTE OF THE CHALLENGER EXPEDITION © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC FIGURE 1–8 The Challenger expedition. (a) This painting shows the HMS Challenger plying the seas between 1872 and 1876. (b)NOT Charles FOR Wyville SALE Thomson OR commandedDISTRIBUTION the circumnavigation of the globeNOT expeditions. FOR SALE (c) The OR track DISTRIBUTION of the Challenger expedition shows that measurements were made in all parts of the world’s oceans, except for the northern Indian Ocean and the Arctic Ocean. (a) Courtesy of Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS/NOAA; (b) © National Library of Medicine. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

18 Chapter 1 The Growth of Oceanography

Wave: © Yuri Samsonov/Shutterstock.com, Inc. Science by the© Jones Numbers & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Graphs

As you know, scientists strive to display information clearly of water from sea surface to sea bottom). The relationship and accurately.© Jones A useful & Bartlett and revealing Learning, way to display LLC data is between water© depth Jones and zooplankton & Bartlett abundance Learning, is inverse. LLC to plot theNOT information FOR SALE on a graph. OR ADISTRIBUTION data plot summarizes To the unsuspecting,NOT FORthe plot SALE suggests OR that DISTRIBUTION zooplankton the information quickly and reveals trends and relationships concentrations decrease gradually downward and that among variables. Sometimes the relationship between significant numbers of zooplankton exist even at depths variables is direct, meaning that an increase in one leads to below 5 kilometers. This impression is not, however, correct an increase in the value of the other, and a decrease leads to because the zooplankton abundances are plotted on a scale © Jonesa corresponding& Bartlett Learning, decrease. Other LLC times, the relationship is © Jonesthat varies & as Bartlett the power Learning, of 10. Thus, theLLC minute quantities NOT FORinverse, SALE meaning OR thatDISTRIBUTION an increase in one leads to a decrease NOTof zooplankton FOR SALE found OR in waterDISTRIBUTION deeper than 1 kilometer are in the other, and vice versa. amplified by the scale chosen to plot them. In many cases, relationships between variables are A conventional plot of the data using a linear scale for not linear but are curved in some complicated way. Also, zooplankton concentrations shows a very different graph scientists may choose not to use linear scales for one or both (FIGURE B1–B). This reveals that zooplankton are essentially variables plotted on a graph.© JonesOceanographers, & Bartlett for example, Learning, confined LLC to water that is no deeper© Jones than 1 kilometer & Bartlett below Learning, LLC commonly graph a variableNOT as a FORpower SALEof 10. Let’s OR look DISTRIBUTION at the sea surface. Below 2 kilometers,NOT there FOR are SALEvirtually ORno DISTRIBUTION FIGURE B1–A. At first glance, it appears as if the concentration zooplankton. Also, the sharp downward curve of the graph of tiny zooplankton suspended in the water above the between 1 and 2 kilometers is masked by plotting the data Kuril-Kamchatka Trench of the northwestern Pacific Ocean along a scale that varies as a power of 10 (compare Figures decreases regularly with water depth, except near the sea B1–A and B1–B). The lesson to be learned from this is that surface,© where Jones the zooplankton & Bartlett are aLearning, bit more abundant LLC than one must always© noteJones the scale & Bartlett intervals that Learning, are used for LLC all they areNOT lower downFOR in SALE the water OR column DISTRIBUTION (the vertical extent the variables plottedNOT onFOR a graph. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

0 0

1 1

4 4 Water depth (km) Water Water depth (km) Water 5 Data for water above the 5 Data for water above the Ku©ril-Kamchatka Jones & Trench Bartlett Learning, LLC Kuril-Kamchatka© Jones Trench & Bartlett Learning, LLC 6 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION6 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 0.1 110 102 103 0 250 500 750 103 3 Zooplankton (mg/m ) Zooplankton (mg/m3) FIGURE B1–A Nonlinear plot. FIGURE B1–B Linear plot. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Researchers were jubilant with the scientific suc- (~5.6 miles). Each specimen was described, cataloged cess of the Challenger expedition. The crew com- carefully, and preserved for later laboratory analysis. pleted more than 360 deep-sea soundings and raised The fi dings of the Challenger crew left no doubt © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an equal number of dredged samples off the bottom that organisms lived at all depths in the ocean, fi ally NOT FOR(FIGURE SALE 1–9 ).OR They DISTRIBUTION obtained no fewer than 7,000 sea-life NOTdemolishing FOR SALE the age-old OR DISTRIBUTION belief championed by Forbes specimens, some from as great a depth as 9 kilometers that the cold temperature, darkness, and high water © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

1-2 Historical Review of Oceanography 19

As this chapter on the history of oceanography indicates, rigorous testing of each hypothesis by experimentation or by scientists make statements© Jones about& Bartlett the natural Learning, world; LLCthe gathering of additional© observations; Jones & Bartlettthe explicit Learning,intent LLC they assume thatNOT natural FOR processes SALE areOR orderly DISTRIBUTION and of the test is to determineNOT whether FOR the SALEhypothesis OR is DISTRIBUTIONfalse therefore knowable by a rational mind. Statements made or true. If the test results disagree with the prediction, then by scientists are not merely random opinions about the the hypothesis being evaluated is disproved, meaning that workings of the world. Rather they are logical explanations, it cannot be a legitimate account of reality. Then it is either termed hypotheses, that are grounded solidly on a set of modified into a new hypothesis that is compatible with observations© Jones and& Bartlett tested rigorously Learning, in order LLC to evaluate their the test ©findings Jones or & discarded Bartlett altogether Learning, and replaced LLC by credibility.NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION other, still-to-be-testedNOT FOR SALE hypotheses. OR KeepDISTRIBUTION in mind, however, Scientific investigations are begun typically by people that agreement between expected and experimental who develop an interest in answering a question about the test results is not proof that the hypothesis is true. Rather, natural world. Examples of such questions in oceanography it means only that the hypothesis continues to be a valid might be: version of reality for the time being. It may not survive the © Jones & Bartlett■■ What isLearning, the geologic LLCorigin of a particular estuary? © Jonesnext & test.Bartlett If a hypothesis Learning, repeatedly LLC avoids falsification, then NOT FOR SALE■■ How OR does DISTRIBUTION the chemistry of the seawater in this estuaryNOT FORscientists SALE regard OR it asDISTRIBUTION a close approximation of reality. A flow vary over time? diagram of this version of the scientific method is presented ■■ What is the water current pattern in this estuary and as FIGURE B2–A. what controls it? In this text, we describe the results of a long-standing ■■ What effect does lead dissolved in the water have on a interest among scientists in answering questions about the species of clam ©in thisJones estuary? & Bartlett Learning, LLCworkings of the oceans. It© is Jonesa current & update Bartlett of the Learning, facts, LLC hypotheses, and theories of ocean processes. Undoubtedly, The questions canNOT be generalFOR SALE or specific, OR theoretical DISTRIBUTION or NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION as oceanographers continue to conduct scientific work in applied, abstract or concrete. the world’s oceans, some of these ideas will be disproved Scientists interested in a question then conduct and replaced by other hypotheses. This is the way it must laboratory, field, or modeling (mathematical) experiments be; this is the scientific process. in order to generate accurate facts (observations) that bear© Jones on an answer & Bartlett to the questionLearning, being LLC investigated. A © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC legitimateNOT FOR answer SALE (the hypothesis) OR DISTRIBUTION to a scientific question is NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION one that can be tested. A hypothesis is always considered to Question about be a tentative explanation. Scientists first and foremost are reality skeptics, trying to disprove hypotheses in order to eliminate falsehoods from the scientific understanding of the natural © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC world. Examination Hypothesis Depending on the results of tests, hypotheses may be of available NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONis falsified verified, rejected, or modified. When a hypothesis is tested data repeatedly in different ways and not disproved, scientists then assume that it is “correct” and the hypothesis becomes a theory, as new facts continue to support it. For example, Formulation of hypothesis Charles Darwin proposed© Jones his & hypothesis Bartlett ofLearning, biological LLC © Jones & BartlettDisagre ementLearning, LLC between expectation evolution by naturalNOT selection FOR during SALE the OR middle DISTRIBUTION part of NOT FOR SALEand observationOR DISTRIBUTION the nineteenth century. Today, after repeated tests and Making a Conduct countless facts that support the idea, his hypothesis of prediction a test OR biological evolution by natural selection has been elevated Agreement to the status of a theory. between expectation © InJones summary, & scientistsBartlett are Learning, not, as many LLCbelieve, primarily © Jones & Bartlett Learning,and observationLLC concernedNOT FOR about SALE discovering OR DISTRIBUTION and gathering facts. Rather, NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION researchers ask crucial questions about the natural world Hypothesis and then try to answer them by proposing hypotheses— remains valid creative insights about what the truthful responses to those questions might be. What really separates the scientific FIGURE B2–A The process of science. A version of the © Jones & Bartlettmethod from Learning, other ways LLC of knowing is its reliance on© the Jones scientific & Bartlett method Learning, is presented asLLC a simple flow diagram. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

20 Chapter 1 The Growth of Oceanography

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORFIGURE SALE 1–9 TheOR Challenger DISTRIBUTION expedition. A small collection NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION of the 360 dredge samples taken during the Challenger’s circumnavigation of the world, 1872–76. © Natural History Museum, London.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC pressure of the deep sea precluded life there. Almost 5,000 new species of marineNOT organisms FOR SALE were identifiOR DISTRIBUTION d NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION and described. For the fi st time, preliminary charts that delineated sea-bottom topography and the distribution of deep-sea sedimentary deposits for much of the ocean© Jones were &sketched. Bartlett More Learning, than 23 years LLC were © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC requiredNOT to analyze FOR SALEall of the OR data DISTRIBUTION and specimens col- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION lected by the Challenger expedition. These fi dings were published in fi y large volumes that marine researchers still consult today. Near the end of the nineteenth century, the Nor- © Joneswegian & Bartlett explorer Learning, Fridtjof NansenLLC embarked on a © Jones(b) DRIF &T ROUTE Bartlett OF THE Learning, FRAM LLC NOT FORremarkable SALE ORjourney DISTRIBUTION in an effort to study the circula- NOTFIGURE FOR 1–10 SALE The Arctic OR vo DISTRIBUTIONyage of the Fram. (a) The tion of the Arctic Ocean and to be the fi st man to Norwegian vessel Fram, amid the ice of the Arctic Ocean. reach the North Pole. Nansen’s scheme was to con- (b) The Fram, gripped solidly in sea ice, drifted for almost struct a robust, hardy research vessel that could be 3 years across the Arctic Ocean. frozen into the sea ice and© Jones drift safely & Bartlett in this icy Learning, grip (a) CourtesyLLC of Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGA/NOAA. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC for 3 years or more. DespiteNOT considerableFOR SALE opposition OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION from scientists and mariners alike, Nansen obtained Frederick Johansen left the vessel in a courageous funding and built the Fram, a 38-meter (~125 feet), attempt to reach the North Pole by dogsled. After three-masted schooner with the unheard-of hull much hardship, they abandoned their quest after thickness of 1.2 meters (~4 feet) (FIGURE 1–10a). In 14 months, getting only as far as 86°14′. Fortunately, late September© Jones 1893, & Bartlett the Fram Learning,, with its crew LLC of thir- they were sighted© Jones and picked & Bartlett up by aLearning, British expedi LLC- teen menNOT and FOR provisions SALE forOR 5 DISTRIBUTION years, was success- tion on FranzNOT Josef FORLand. SALEThe crew OR members DISTRIBUTION aboard fully locked into the sea ice north of Siberia. There it the Fram made many oceanographic and atmospheric remained trapped in the ice for 3 years, slowly drift- observations during their sojourn, establishing the ing at an average rate of 2 kilometers (~1.2 miles) per absence of a polar continent, the water depths along © Jonesday, & andBartlett got as closeLearning, as 400 kilometers LLC (~248 miles) to © Jonesthe drift & path, Bartlett and theLearning, water-mass LLC structure of the NOT FORthe SALENorth Pole OR (DISTRIBUTIONFIGURE 1–10b). When the ice-locked NOTArctic FOR Ocean. SALE Today OR, the DISTRIBUTION Fram can be seen on display Fram drifted to a north latitude of 84°, Nansen and in Oslo, Norway. © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

1-2 Historical Review of Oceanography 21

Lamont Doherty Geological © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © JonesMassachusetts, & Bartlett Learning,and the LLC Modern Oceanography Observatory in 1949 (now known as Lamont Earth NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Modern oceanographic research is rather arbitrarily Observatory) above the massive basalt cliffs of the taken to begin sometime in the twentieth century, Hudson River in New York. Today, a number of uni- with the design of elaborate experiments involving versities have major oceanographic programs and a truly interdisciplinary approach and a reliance on large, sophisticated seagoing research vessels. highly complex © instruments Jones & andBartlett sampling Learning, devices. LLC The trend recently has© Jonesbeen to organize& Bartlett major Learning, col- LLC A case in point isNOT the expedition FOR SALE in 1925– OR 19DISTRIBUTION27 of the laborations among marineNOT scientists FOR SALE from many OR DISTRIBUTIONdis- Meteor to the South Atlantic Ocean. For 25 months, ciplines and nations. Th ee noteworthy programs of the German scientists used highly developed ocean- this type were the 1957–1958 International ographic equipment to complete an unprecedented Geophysical Year (IGY), the 1959–1965 Interna- tional Indian Ocean Expedition survey© Jones of an & ocean. Bartlett They Learning, delineated, asLLC never before, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, under LLC the aus- the rugged bottom topography of the deep sea and pices of the United Nations, and the International NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION gathered vertical profiles of salinity, water tempera- Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE) of the 1970s, ture, and dissolved oxygen at numerous hydrographic which was supported jointly by the United Nations stations. No data of such quality or density had ever and National Science Foundation of the United States. before been gathered from the ocean. From that day Research became less descriptive and more quantita- © Jones & Bartlettonward, Learning, many large oceanLLC surveys patterned them© Jones- tive, & Bartlettand instruments, Learning, sampling LLC techniques, and data NOT FOR SALEselves OR after DISTRIBUTION the cruise of the Meteor. NOT FORstorage SALE and ORanalysis DISTRIBUTION became increasingly more com- The world wars had important effects on the devel- plex. In fact, many of the concepts we will examine in opment of marine research. The advent of modern war- the remainder of this book are the direct result of such fare, with its reliance on sophisticated vessels, weaponry, cooperative efforts by teams of scientists. and electronic instruments,© Jones made & Bartlett the U.S. Learning,Navy aware LLC Beginning in the 1960s,© Jones the National & Bartlett Science FounLearning,- LLC of an urgent need to understand the nature of ocean dation organized and generously funded the 1968–1975 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION processes. Civilian scientists were recruited, and the Deep-Sea Drilling Project (DSDP). The goals of this navy enacted a program to fi ance basic oceanographic ambitious program included drilling into the sed- research, with an emphasis on physical rather than bio- iments and rocks of the deep sea to confi m seafl or logical problems. Th s fi ancial support by a govern- spreading and global plate tectonics, which were at ment© Jones agency & stimulated Bartlett large-scale Learning, research LLC enterprises the time© recent Jones theories & Bartlett about the Learning, mobility of LLC the oce- andNOT restricted FOR SALEthe activities OR DISTRIBUTIONof many oceanographers to anic crust.NOT Furthermore, FOR SALE scientists OR DISTRIBUTION were to assess the problems that were of interest mainly to the military. oceans’ resources for the benefit of humankind. The Postwar government-spons ored support led not only to Glomar Challenger—a 10,500-ton-displacement vessel great and rapid advances in instrumentation but also (FIGURE 1–11a) designed and built to serve as a drilling eventually to the establishment of sea-grant colleges, platform—employed the latest electronic equipment © Jones & Bartlettpatterned Learning, after already LLC existing land-grant colleges that© Jones for & dynamic Bartlett positioning Learning, over LLC a borehole. Samples of NOT FOR SALEconducted OR DISTRIBUTIONimportant agricultural research. NOT FORsediment SALE and OR rock DISTRIBUTION obtained by drilling below the sea- A new development for promoting and facilitat- bed helped geologists reconstruct the history of the ing oceanographic research was the establishment of Earth and its oceans. The success of the DSDP venture, marine institutions. In North America, such research from both an engineering and a scientific perspective, centers encouraged© Jones and supported & Bartlett both Learning, small- and LLCexceeded the expectations© Jonesof even its& Bartlettmost optimistic Learning, LLC large-scale, local NOT and foreign FOR SALE research OR by DISTRIBUTION providing supporters. In 1975 the NOTprogram FOR was SALE reconstituted OR DISTRIBUTION as funds, laboratory and library facilities, equipment, the International Program of Ocean Drilling (IPOD) research vessels, and scientific expertise. Furthermore, with the support and active participation of France, the marine institutions gave young people the opportunity United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, Japan, and the Fed- to obtain graduate training and valuable experience eral Republic of Germany, as well as the United States. in© conductingJones & Bartlettscience at Learning,sea. In the United LLC States, the Th Glomar© Jones Challenger & Bartlett was retired Learning, in 1983 and LLC another fiNOT st such FOR center— SALEThe OR Scripps DISTRIBUTION Institution of Bio- drillingNOT vessel, FOR the SALEJoides ResolutionOR DISTRIBUTION (FIGURE 1–11b), logical Research, which later became The Scripps continues the geologic exploration of the oceans. To Institution of Oceanography—was founded at date, the DSDP and IPOD programs have drilled over La Jolla by the University of California in 1903. Two 2,900 holes into the sea bottom and retrieved over 320 © Jones & Bartlettoceanographic Learning, centers LLC were later established © on Jones kilometers & Bartlett of mud, Learning, sand, and LLC rock core. NOT FOR SALEthe East OR Coast:DISTRIBUTION the Woods Hole OceanographicNOT FOR SALEA crucial OR technological DISTRIBUTION breakthrough in oceano- Institution in 1930 on the south shore of Cape Cod, graphic research has been the navigational accuracy © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

22 Chapter 1 The Growth of Oceanography

Global Positioning System © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesprovided & by Bartlett the Learning, LLC (GPS), developed by the U.S. Department of Defense during NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the 1970s. Relying on coded satellite signals, a state- of-the-art GPS receiver can determine latitude and longitude and vertical position of a receiver to within a few meters. Th s is accomplished by accurate mea- © Jones & Bartlett Learning,surements LLC of the travel time© of Jones radio signals& Bartlett from Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONa series of orbiting satellites,NOT each FOR with SALE a unique OR DISTRIBUTION transmission code, to a GPS receiver aboard a ship or aircraft. Twenty-four GPS satellites, monitored continually from five ground-based stations, consti- tute the worldwide system; the measurement of the (a) THE© JonesGLOMAR &CHALLENGER Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC precise distance between a receiver and four of the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION GPS satellites suffice to establish almost instantly the receiver’s location. In effect, knowing where you are exactly in the middle of the ocean, where there are no landmarks, is now a standard procedure for © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesoceanographers. & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ▸▸ 1-3 Current and Future Oceanographic Research © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONThe methods of oceanographicNOT investigationFOR SALE areOR DISTRIBUTION changing drastically. Without doubt, this trend will continue (probably at an even more accelerated pace) as technology is applied to the study of the sea in many new and ingenious ways. (b) THE© Jones JOIDES RESOLUTION & Bartlett Learning, LLC The future© Jones directions & thatBartlett marine Learning, research willLLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION take are manifold.NOT FOR A greater SALE reliance OR DISTRIBUTION on international efforts involving many scientists and fl tillas of research vessels is an inevitable result of increases in the magnitude and complexity of scientific problems and the accompanying price tag for such ambitious © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesundertakings & Bartlett at sea. ThLearning,e successes LLC of such large-scale NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOTendeavors FOR SALE as the OR IDOE DISTRIBUTION and DSDP ensure that they will continue. To cite examples, Joides is developing multidisciplinary research strategies and identifying specific drilling sites to investigate climate variability © Jones & Bartlett Learning,over LLC short- and long-term time© Jonesscales; the & Bartlettdynamics Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONof the Earth’s crust and interior;NOT the FOR evolution SALE and OR DISTRIBUTION paleobiology of the marine biosphere; the nature of catastrophic processes such as earthquakes, volcanic (c) THE CHIKYU eruptions, and meteorite impacts; and past variations in the sea-ice cover of the Arctic Ocean. In 2003, FIGURE 1–© 11Jones Ships designed & Bartlett for deep-sea Learning, drilling LLC. (a) The © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Glomar Challenger, a unique drilling vessel 122 meters long, Japan and the United States created the Integrated could manageNOT FOR about 7.6SALE kilometers OR DISTRIBUTIONof drill pipe. (b) The Ocean DrillingNOT Program FOR SALE (IODP). OR A DISTRIBUTION new, state-of- Joides Resolution, about 300 meters long, can handle the-art, 210-meter-long (~229 yards), deep-drilling over 9.1 kilometers of drill pipe and operate safely in vessel, the Chikyu (FIGURE 1–11c), was constructed heavier seas and winds than the Glomar Challenger could. in Japan and delivered in July 2005. Currently, the © Jones(c) & The Bartlett 210-meter-long Learning, Chikyu canLLC drill in water depths up © JonesCenter for& Bartlett Deep Earth Learning, Research (CDEX),LLC a consor- to 2.5 kilometers and carries enough drill pipe to continue tium of Canada, several European nations, China, NOT FOR7.5 kilometers SALE OR below DISTRIBUTION the seafloor. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION (a) Courtesy of International Ocean Discovery Program; (b) Courtesy of Ocean Drilling Program, Texas A&M University; and South Korea, is using the vessel to drill a series (c) © The Asahi Shimbun/Getty Images. of deep holes in seismic zones of the Pacific seafl or. © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

1-3 Current and Future Oceanographic Research 23

FIGURE 1–12a © Jones & BartlettAlso, the Learning, use of submersibles LLC ( ), both© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC manned and unmanned, for probing the depths of the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALEsea, will OR undoubtedly DISTRIBUTION increase as the technology and the design of such crafts c ntinue to improve. Perhaps the newest research development is a much greater dependence on remote-sensing techniques. Many marine© Jones scientists & inBartlett the future Learning, will never LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC go to sea; they willNOT remain FOR in laboratories SALE OR (some DISTRIBUTION located NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION far inland away from the coastline), and satellites will continually transmit data to them from oceanographic buoys and unmanned platforms at sea at an unprecedented© Jones rate. & SomeBartlett of these Learning, research LLC techniques are © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC already in use. Sophisticated electronic instruments NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION have been installed in satellites that can accurately detect sea-surface temperatures and can estimate con- (a) ALVIN centrations of microscopic plants and the topography of the sea surface. For example, the TOPEX/Poseidon © Jones & Bartlettsatellite (Learning,FIGURE 1–12 bLLC), launched by NASA in 1992,© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEcan determine OR DISTRIBUTION the level of the sea surface to withinNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION an accuracy of 13 cm (~5.1 inches). Recently, the Uni- versity of Washington; University of California, San Diego; The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution; Oregon State University;© Jones Scripps & Bartlett Institution Learning, of Ocean- LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ography; and Rutgers collaborated to create a regional NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 900-kilometer-long fiber-optic cable ocean observatory off hore of Oregon. Data about subjects as diverse as earthquakes, eddies, storms, phytoplankton, and fishes are transmitted to a shore system installed at Pacifi City,© Jones Oregon. & In Bartlett Japan, a similarLearning, system LLC (ARENA) has © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC beenNOT deployed FOR SALE to monitor OR DISTRIBUTION seismicity (earthquakes) NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION along deep-sea faults in the ocean crust. All kinds of sensors can be attached to nodes, allowing scientists to collect accurate, instantaneous measurements ranging from ocean and bottom currents, volcanic eruptions, © Jones & Bartlettand marine Learning, life. Such LLCcable networks provide detailed© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEsurveys OR and DISTRIBUTION long-term measurements, which willNOT be FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION invaluable for developing more sophisticated com- (b) TOPEX/POSEIDON SATELLITE puter models of ocean processes. FIGURE 1–12 New technology for probing the sea. Another technique used is LiDAR (Light Detec- (a) Submersibles, such as Alvin, are useful for the close tion and Ranging)© remote-sensing Jones & Bartlett technology, Learning, which LLCexamination and sampling© of Jones the fauna, & sediment, Bartlett and Learning, LLC is useful for three-dimensionalNOT FOR SALE documenting OR DISTRIBUTION of ero- rock of the deep sea. (b) TheNOT TOPEX/Poseidon FOR SALE satellite OR DISTRIBUTION sional and depositional patterns along barrier islands. launched by NASA in 1992 has provided detailed, accurate Remote pulses (~106 pulses/sec) from a laser (light data on the level of the sea surface, crucial for predicting waves) are refl cted from the sea bottom back to a changes in current and climate patterns. scanner and are transformed into a three-dimensional (a) Courtesy of OAR/National Undersea Research Program (NURP), Woods Hole Oceanographic Inst./NOAA; (b) Courtesy NASA /JPL-Caltech. map© Jones of the & beaches Bartlett and Learning, nearshore zonesLLC of barrier © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC islands.NOT FOR Because SALE they OR can DISTRIBUTION pinpoint changes as small NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION as one millimeter, storm erosion can easily be deter- not only as a tool for storing, sorting, and analyzing mined by comparing LiDar maps before and after a the large quantities of information being generated storm event. but also for modeling the ocean’s processes and con- © Jones & BartlettThese Learning, remote techniques LLC enable scientists to sur© Jones- ducting & Bartlett experiments Learning, to trace LLC changes over time, rang- NOT FOR SALEvey large OR tractsDISTRIBUTION of ocean quickly, effici tly, andNOT at FORing SALEfrom time OR scales DISTRIBUTION of a few years (El Niño cycles) to reasonable cost. Large computers are also playing an millions of years (the opening of ocean basins). The increasingly more important role in ocean research, possibilities remain limitless and exciting. © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

24 Chapter 1 The Growth of Oceanography

Units are defined for the measurement of length, mass, multiplying a value by either ratio does not change the and time.© MostJones Americans & Bartlett use the Learning, English system LLC of units value, because© you Jones are multiplying & Bartlett it by Learning,1, and any value LLC wherebyNOT length FOR is expressed SALE as ORinches, DISTRIBUTION feet, and miles; mass times 1 is thatNOT value. FORSo in orderSALE to convertOR DISTRIBUTION 1,200 meters as ounces, pounds, and tons; and time as seconds, minutes, into kilometers, we multiply 1,200 meters by the proper hours, and years. Much of the rest of the world, including conversion ratio that eliminates the meter units. Let’s do this: scientists, uses the metric system. In this scheme, length is measured in centimeters, meters, and kilometers, and mass (1, 200 m)(1km/1, 000 m)= 1, 200 km/1,000 © Jonesis expressed& Bartlett in grams, Learning, kilograms, LLC and metric tons. The units of © Jones & Bartlett Learning,= 1.2km. LLC NOT FORtime SALE in the metric OR systemDISTRIBUTION are identical to those of the English NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION system. Because this is a book of science, it uses the metric Notice that if we use the other conversion ratio, the system of measurement throughout, but English equivalents meter units will not cancel out: are included in parentheses. Appendix II lists the conversion (1, 200 m)(1, 000 m/1km) factors that link the two systems of measurement. 2 A very useful technique© is the Jones conversion & Bartlett of a unit from Learning, one LLC = (1, 200)(1,000)© m/Joneskm. & Bartlett Learning, LLC system of measurement intoNOT another FOR system. SALE For OR example, DISTRIBUTION Now, let’s convert 1,200 metersNOT into miles. FOR We SALE know from OR DISTRIBUTION you may want to express a water depth of 1,200 meters in the above conversion that 1,200 meters = 1.2 kilometers. feet or miles. How does one do this? It is a simple matter. According to Appendix II, 1 kilometer = 0.621 miles. This The key is knowing the conversion factors (Appendix II) and means that keeping track of the units. Let’s try a few problems. Convert© Jones 1,200 meters& Bartlett into kilometers. Learning, According LLC to 1km 0.621mile© Joness & Bartlett Learning, LLC ==1or AppendixNOT II, 1 kilometerFOR SALE = 1,000 OR meters. DISTRIBUTION Dividing both sides 1km 1kmNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION by 1 kilometer yields

1km 1, 000 m 1, 000 m 1km 0.621miles ==or 1 ==1 1km 1km 1km 0.621miles 0.621miles

© Jones &Dividing Bartlett both Learning, sides by 1,000 LLC m yields © JonesTherefore, & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1km 1, 000 m 1km (1.2 km )(0.621miles/1km) ==or = 1 1, 000 m 1, 000 m 1, 000 m ==(1.2)(0.621) miles0.745 miles.

This is not surprising, because if the two units are equal, It bears repeating that the key to accurate conversion is dividing one by the other© must Jones equal & 1. Bartlett This means Learning, that keeping LLC careful track of the units. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Key Concepts © Jones 1.& BartlettOceanographers Learning, are well-trained LLC scientists who © Jonesof &many Bartlett types ofLearning, scientists ( LLCFigure 1–1), math- NOT FOR SALEinvest ORigate DISTRIBUTION the ocean, its organisms, and its pro- NOT FORematicians, SALE OR engineers, DISTRIBUTION technicians, and cesses. Oceanographic work is often multidisci- policymakers. plinary in character, involving the collaboration © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

Study Guide 25

© Jones & Bartlett2. Early Learning, efforts to learnLLC about the oceans involved© Jones & Bartlettship the MeteorLearning, to the LLC Atlantic Ocean in 1927, exploration by ship. The geography of the world, relies on sophisticated instruments to make NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE ORboth DISTRIBUTION its landmasses and oceans, was mapped in accurate and effici t measurements of the increasingly more accurate detail as techniques oceans’ properties. Also, marine institutions in piloting, navigation, and surveying were have been established specifi ally to promote developed and refi ed. The preeminent sea voy- research in the sea. The newest development agers were ©the Jones Egyptians, & Bartlett Phoenicians, Learning, Greeks, LLC is the organization© ofJones major &collaborative Bartlett Learning, pro- LLC and NorsemenNOT (Figure FOR SALE1–2), their OR pioneeringDISTRIBUTION grams involving NOT marine FOR scientists SALE from OR many DISTRIBUTION explorations culminating with Magellan’s epic nations. The International Decade of Ocean circumnavigation of the globe (Figure 1–6) Exploration (1970s), the Deep Sea Drilling Proj- between 1519 and 1521. ect (1968–1975), and the International Program ©3. JonesDuring & th Bartlette eighteenth Learning, and nineteenth LLC centuries, of© OceanJones Drilling & Bartlett (1975–present) Learning, are LLC among long, large-scale expeditions were organized to them. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION sample sea life, chart the sea bottom, measure 5. Future scientific studies of the ocean will rely currents, and determine the chemical makeup more and more on large international proof seawater in all parts of the world. Notable grams and remote-sensing techniques, includ- scientific achievements were made by Cook ing measurements from satellites, ocean buoys, © Jones & Bartlett(1768–17 Learning,79), DarwinLLC (1831–1836) (Figure© Jones & Bartlettunmanned Learning, platforms at LLC sea, and exact location by NOT FOR SALE OR1–7c), DISTRIBUTION Thomson (1872–1876) (Figure 1–8c), NOTand FOR SALEthe Global OR PositioningDISTRIBUTION System (GPS). Compute rs Nansen (1893–1895) (Figure 1–10b), among for storing, handling, and processing the enor- others (see Figure 1.2). mous quantities of data and for modeling ocean 4. Modern oceanography (Figure 1–2), which processes are playing an ever-increasing role in began in earnest© Jones with the& Bartlett cruise of theLearning, German LLC ocean research. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Questions 1. What exactly is oceanography, and how does it f. Matthew Maury differ from other fi lds of science? g. C. Wyville Thomson ©2. JonesBriefl y& descr Bartlettibe the Learning, successes of LLC the Egyptians 5. In© wha Jonest ways & are Bartlett future oceanographic Learning, LLC research NOTand FOR Phoenicians SALE OR in oceanDISTRIBUTION exploration. techniquesNOT FOR likely SALE to diff ORer from DISTRIBUTION present ones? 3. What distinguishes modern oceanography from 6. What is GPS, and why is it critically useful for earlier scientific i vestigations of the oceans? oceanographers? 4. Briefly discuss the scientific achievements (con- 7. What exactly is the scientific method? Can sci- sult Figure 1.2) of the following: entists “prove” their hypotheses? © Jones & Bartletta. Learning,Pytheas LLC © Jones8. & BartlettThe DSDP Learning, and IPOD LLChave recovered over 320 NOT FOR SALE ORb. GeradusDISTRIBUTION Mercator NOT FOR SALEkilometers OR DISTRIBUTION of drill core from the ocean fl or. c. Seneca How many feet and miles of core is 320 kilome- d. Sir John Ross ters? (See Appendix II: Conversion Factors.) e. Nathaniel Bowditch © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Selected ReadingsNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Ashley, S. 2001. Warp drive underwater. Scientific American Euge, P. 2004. Retooling the global positioning system. Scientific 284 (5): 70–79. American 290 (5): 90–97. Ballard, R. D. 2001. Adventures in Ocean Exploration. Washington, Fortey, R. 2005. The Earth—An Intimate History. Vintage. D.C.: National Geographic Society. Gallager, S. 2005. Sensors to make sense of the sea. Oceanus 43 (2): Ballard,© Jones R. D., &ed. Bartlett2008. Archeological Learning, Oceanography LLC. Ewing, N.J.: 68–71.© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTPrinceton FOR University SALE Press. OR DISTRIBUTION Hambling,NOT J. D. FOR2005. Oceanographers SALE OR andDISTRIBUTION the Cold War. Seattle: Ballard, R. D., with Hively, W. 2000. Th Eternal Darkness. University of Washington Press. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Herbert, S. 1986. Darwin as a geologist. Scientific American Broad, W. J. 1997. The Universe Below: Discovering the Secrets of the 254 (5): 116–23. Deep Sea. New York, N.Y.: Simon and Schuster. Herring, T. A. 1996. The global positioning system. Scientific © Jones & BartlettCarey, S. S.Learning, 1994. A Beginner’s LLC Guide to the Scientific Method© Jones. &American Bartlett 274 (2):Learning, 44–50. LLC Belmont, C.A.: Wadsworth. King, M. D., and Herring, D. D. 2000. Monitoring Earth’s vital NOT FOR SALEChave, OR A. 2004. DISTRIBUTION Seeding the seafl or with observatories. OceanusNOT FOR signs.SALE Scienti ORfic American DISTRIBUTION 275 (4): 88–95. 42 (2): 28–31. © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

26 Chapter 1 The Growth of Oceanography

King, M. D., Parkinson, C. L., Partington, K. C., and Williams, Normile, D., and Kerr, R. A. 2004. A sea change in ocean drilling. © Jones &R. BartlettG., eds. 2007. Learning, Our Changing LLC Planet: The View from Space. © JonesOceanus & 42Bartlett (2): 32–35. Learning, LLC NOT FOR Cambridge,SALE OR U.K.: DISTRIBUTION Cambridge University Press. NOTOceanus FOR. 2000. SALE Ocean ORobservatories. DISTRIBUTION Special issue 42 (1). Koslow, T. 2007. The Silent Deep: The Discovery, Ecology and Schuessler, R. 1984. Ferdinand Magellan: The greatest voyager of Conservation of the Deep Sea. Chicago: University of Chicago them all. Sea Frontiers 30 (5): 299–307. Press. Seeyle, M. 2004. An Introduction to Remote Sensing. Cambridge, Linklater, E. 1972. The Voyage of the Challenger. Garden City, N.Y.: U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Doubleday. © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Simpson, LLC S. 2000. Looking for life © below Jones the bottom. & Bartlett Scientific Learning, LLC Monahan, D., and Leier, M. NOT2001. World FOR Atlas SALE of the Ocean: OR DISTRIBUTIONMore American 282 (6): 94–101. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Than 200 Maps and Charts of the Ocean Floor. Spain: Firefly Thorne-Miller, B. 1998. The Living Ocean: Understanding and Books. Protecting Marine Biodiversity. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. National Geographic. 2001. Atlas of the Ocean: The Deep Frontier. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION