06 Notebooks of the Fundación General CSIC / September 2011 Notebooks of the Fundación General CSIC / Nº 6 / September 2011 / Published quarterly / Price: 9euros /Price: quarterly /Nº6September2011Published CSIC General Fundación the of Notebooks Energy R&D Automotive 4

socio-economic impact Automotive energy: 14

automotive energy Sources of 36

transport Towards electric 62 |||||||||||||||||||| LYCHNOS Notebooks of the Fundación General CSIC

Nº 6 SEPTEMBER 2011 Executive Editor Reyes Sequera

Assistant Editor Sira Laguna

Page layouts DiScript Preimpresión, S. L.

Illustration Lola Gómez Redondo

Translation Duncan Gilson

Published by

President Rafael Rodrigo Montero

Director Javier Rey Campos

Address Príncipe de Vergara, nº 9 - 2ª derecha; Madrid 28001 www.fgcsic.es

© Fundación General CSIC, 2011. All rights reserved. Use by third parties of the contents of this journal without the prior written consent of the copyright holder may constitute a criminal offence under intellectual property law.

Printed by: DiScript Preimpresion, S. L. Legal Deposit: M-33022-2010. ISSN: 2172-0207 CONTENTS LYCHNOS Nº 6 SEPTEMBER 2011

01 Automotive Energy R&D ...... 4 Automotive Energy R&D. José Luis Fernández, Marisa Gordillo, Clara Parapar and Miriam Ruiz Yániz ...... 6

02 Automotive energy: socio-economic impact ...... 14 02.1 Personal mobility patterns and transport-use in cities. Carme Miralles-Guasch ...... 16 02.2 The electric car will only be an option for a relatively small niche market. Javier García Martínez ...... 24 02.3 Optimising transport networks. Emilio Larrodé Pellicer, Jesús Gallego Navarro and Alberto Fraile Del Pozo ...... 30

03 Sources of automotive energy ...... 36 03.1 Production of new automotive biofuels. Cristina Otero ...... 38 03.2 Energy crops and biofuels. Antonio Leyva and Gonzaga Ruiz de Gauna ...... 44 03.3 Hydrogen: production methods. José Luis G. Fierro ...... 50 03.4 Evaluating the impact of the adoption of electric vehicles on electricity distribution grids. Pablo Frías, Carlos Mateo and José Ignacio Pérez-Arriaga ...... 56

04 Towards electric transport ...... 62 04.1 Motor manufacturers give the green light to electric and hybrid cars. Ignacio Coll Tellechea ...... 64 04.2 Automotive energy: solid-state batteries. Ricardo Santamaría Ramírez ...... 70 04.3 A future for transport: sunlight, hydrogen ..., fuel cells. Domingo Guinea ...... 75

05 Forum ...... 80 Towards a paradigm shift in the automotive industry. María Luisa Soria García-Ramos ...... 82

06 News ...... 84

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Automotive Energy R&D

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Automotive Energy R&D

One of society’s major challenges this century is to mitigate the effect of energy consumption, which is responsible for three of the big problems of our time: excessive energy dependence, the exhaustion of the main conventional energy sources and high levels of pollution.

José Luis Fernández, Marisa Gordillo, Clara Parapar and Miriam Ruiz Yániz

Analysis Unit. Fundación General CSIC

he transport of goods accounting for almost 32% the most polluting. For exam- Achieving a balance between and people accounts of total energy consumption. ple, air travel is generally faster measures that are energy T for a considerable share At the same time, the con- than rail, but has a much big- efficient and cost-effective is of the world’s energy con- stant growth in demand for ger environmental impact. therefore one of society’s sumption. In a globally inter- mobility is placing ever Opting for more environmen- challenges today. Conse- connected world like today’s greater strain on transport tally friendly means of trans- quently, it seems inevitable this has become more a mat- systems, with undesirable port often comes at the price that certain consumption ter of necessity than choice. In and inconvenient results, of longer journey times, and habits at both individual and the 27 Member States of the such as air-traffic and road consequently, higher eco- collective level will need to EU (EU-27), the transport sec- congestion, reduced eco- nomic cost. change. And this change in tor generates 10% of GDP nomic efficiency, and habits will involve both social (gross domestic product) and increased pollution and fuel The authorities seem to have awareness and the search provides employment to over consumption. woken up to this reality. In its for new solutions. ten million people. 2020 Strategy, the European The means of transport used to Commission makes trans- Mindful of these issues, the It should come as no sur- move people and goods shape porting people and goods Fundación General CSIC has prise then that total energy how our socio-economic rapidly, efficiently and eco- made promoting R&D in the consumption in the EU-27 in system works and have a nomically a central goal of energy and automotive sec- 2008 was 374.3 toe/million decisive impact on the envi- creating a more dynamic tor one of its areas of action. euros (where toe stands ronment, as the most rapid economy and a more cohe- In view of its impact in terms for tonnes oil equivalent), forms of transport are often sive society. of interactions between

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Fundación General CSIC Analysis Unit

The unit was created in early 2010 with the aim of carrying out a range of tasks including technology watch, scientific foresight, R&D internationalisation and evaluation of research programmes and organisations. It is also responsible for maintaining and developing the institution’s resources, such as the R&D Status Map (a tool which enables research capabilities present in a particular geographic location to be determined), the R&D Search Engine (a search engine based on Google Clara Parapar. technology with information about R&D centres of excellence in our José Luis Fernández. environment (detecting specialised information on the main websites) and the R&D Indicator (a metric exclusive to the Foundation that supports the categorisation of scientific output).

The Fundación General CSIC’s strategic lines determine part of the Analysis Unit’s work, as it is responsible for preparing the reports and studies providing the background knowledge needed to set in motion the calls for Proyectos Cero proposals in these areas.

Miriam Ruiz Yániz. Marisa Gordillo.

humans and their environ- The consumption drop that the FGCSIC’s is consumption (energy availa- ment, this area has been currently conducting a study ble in its natural state before included in the Foundation’s registered in into the state of R&D in the being converted or trans- Human ecology and develop- Europe’s biggest energy and automotive tech- formed) has risen at a rate of ment strategic line. The use nology field. This study, which close to 2.5% in recent years. of energy for transport has a energy consumers is due to be published shortly, Although since 2008 the cur- powerful impact in terms of aims to give an overview of rent global economic crisis “human beings’ dependence (Germany, the the trends and needs existing has led to a drop in world on their environment,” as the United Kingdom, in the sector today, as well as energy demand (it fell by geographical location of per- those that may emerge in the 1.3% in 2009, the biggest sons and/or goods deter- Italy, France, Spain future. decrease since 1980), and mines the extent to which and the after 2010 world energy con- they need transport, and the The energy sector sumption made a strong form of transport used, as Netherlands) To understand the scale of recovery, as the global econ- well an impact as on the accounts for 82% the impact of transport on omy picked up. “environment itself.” The Fun- energy consumption, it is dación General CSIC is pro- of the EU-15 total worth starting by taking a In the EU-15, comprising the moting the search for new look at the overall energy fifteen countries that formed solutions and studies on consumption data in the cur- the European Union up until energy and automotive tech- rent socio-economic context. 2004, the rate of increase in nology. It is against this back- Worldwide, primary energy total primary energy con-

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sumption has slowed, rising sumed energy resource, energy source, accounting The bulk of this increase at 0.4% over the last 10 accounting for 33.6% of for 52% in 2010, 1.7% less involved environmentally- years. world energy consumption, than in 2009. However, in unfriendly means of trans- although the trend has been comparative terms, its port, such as air travel, The consumption registered downward over the last 11 dependence on oil as a which grew by 202%, and in Europe’s biggest energy years. source of energy exceeds road travel (90% in the case consumers (Germany, the the world average by a wide of passenger transport and United Kingdom, Italy, Spain is the fifth biggest margin. close to 83.4% in that of France, Spain and the Neth- energy consumer in the goods). The percentage of erlands) accounts for 82% of European Union, after Ger- The transport sector journeys made by car is the EU-15 total. many, France, the United In Spain the mobility of pas- almost 86%, with an esti- Kingdom and Italy. Petrol­ sengers on all modes of mated number of passenger Fossil fuels remain the eum products remain the transport grew by 99.4% kilometres of more than 405 world’s most widely con- most widely consumed between 1990 and 2009. billion a year, of which almost 350 billion were trav- elled in private cars.

/// Map 1. Total number of vehicles in Spain per thousand inhabitants /////////////////////////////////// By contrast, the most envi- ronmentally-friendly modes of transport –rail and sea– grew by 43% and 57%, respectively, achieving lower annual rates of growth (2.3% and 3%, respectively)

The analysis of the modal split by Autonomous Com- munities (Movilia 2007 sur- vey) highlights significant dif- ferences between Spain’s regions. For example, in 2010 Catalonia and the Madrid Region registered the highest percentage of jour- neys by public transport Up to 639 (26%), while in all the regions, except the islands, From 640 to 684 cars were used for over 80% From 685 to 729 of travel.

Over 729 Among other things, the improved road network is a decisive factor in increased Source: INE (National Statistics Institute). Social Indicators. Physical Environment. 2010 car use, and despite improve-

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ments in public transport, /// Chart 1. Variation in final energy consumption by sectors in Spain and % in 2009 ////////////////////////// the vast majority of passen- ger transport is by private 120,000 car. Map 1 shows how the current stock of cars 100,000 in Spain is distributed. ) The provinces with the Transport 80,000 equivalent

darker shading have the Miscellaneous uses oil most vehicles. 60,000 Industry tonnes

If we analyse the final desti- 40,000 thousand nation of Spain’s energy ( ktoe consumption with official 20,000 data for 2009, the transport sector once again appears 0 as the largest consumer of 1990 2000 2007 2008 2009 final energy, with a share of 38.9%. Industry comes in second place, accounting for approximately 31%, and in third place, miscellaneous uses (around 25%), much of 27.1% which is household con- 33.3% sumption.

The powerful impact of 39.6% transport on national energy consumption is explained by factors such as the high mobility of the stock of ve­hicles, particularly on main Source: Secretary of State for Energy, Spanish Ministry of Industry, Tourism and Trade. roads; the high level of car ownership; the age of the vehicle stock; the use of the car rather than public trans- To get an overview of trans- 14%, breaking the upward the previous year (due to the port; and the geographical port’s impact on energy trend of previous years, contraction in transport position of Spain, away from consumption, it is worth probably due to the higher activity caused by the eco- the centre of gravity of eco- focusing attention on the efficiency of new electricity nomic crisis). Over the nomic activity in the Euro- energy intensity (EI) indica- generating technologies. period studied (1990-2009) pean single market. This lat- tor, which relates energy transport’s energy intensity ter factor turns Spain into a consumption to economic In 2009 Spain’s transport- continued on an upward transit area for both goods activity. Analysing Spain’s EI sector EI stood at 47.03 toe/ trend for the first seven traffic and cars travelling on since 2004 reveals a sus- million euros (constant 2000 years (1990-1996), with its motorways. tained downward trend of prices), a drop of 3.9% on growing energy use, in gen-

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/// Chart 2. Variation in transport energy intensity in Spain ///////////////////////////////////////////////// eral, at rates that outpaced GDP growth. The trend 54 began to stabilise in 1997, 53 although there were subse- 52 quent fluctuations. In 2004 51 the energy intensity of trans- 50 port in Spain started on a 49 downward path. 48 47 46 In order to put this in con- 45 t e x t a n d s o a n a l y s e

toe/million euros, 2000 constant prices toe/million euros, 44 the impact of the automo- 43 tive sector on the energy 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 sector, we have compared

Years the variations in the per- centage demand for pas- Source: IDAE (Institute for Energy Saving and Diversification), 2010 senger transport over the last 17 years (measured in million of passenger kilome- /// Chart 3. Comparison between increase in passenger transport demand, energy intensity and CO2 emissions produced (%) ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// tres), emissions generated (measured in kilotonnes 300 of CO 2 - kt/CO 2) and the energy efficiency of trans-

250 port (measured as the energy consumption in megajoules per vehicle-km, 200 MJ/vkm), according to the type of transport (Chart 3). 150 In this comparison, the per- centage energy consump-

100 tion figures have grown less than transport demand, which has led to the energy 50 consumption, in general, decreasing in proportion, 0 although the net quantities have increased. The most

–50 significant decrease in Interurban roads Domestic railways Domestic air travel Domestic maritime Urban metro Total passengers transport systems (1996-2007) the proportion of energy consumed was in the avia- Demand (million passengers/km) Energy efficiency (MJ/pass-km) CO emissions (ktCO ) 2 2 tion sector (29%), followed by rail (23%), while that Source: La eficiencia energética y ambiental de los modos de transporte en España. Centro de Investigación del Transporte (Madrid of urban metro systems Polytechnic University). increased (5%).

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/// Chart 4. Scientific output by thematic area //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// Automotive energy research output Biomass and biofuels The high level of energy con- 40% sumption in the transport sec- Efficient transport Electric cars tor suggests that scientific 30% research might be able to play

20% a role in providing new solu- Emissions Hydrogen production tions to reduce our currently 10% USA excessive energy depend- China ence. 0% Japan Superconductors Other alternative Spain The FGCSIC’s report on the fuels state of R&D in the automotive energy field examined scientific output from four different view- Eco materials Fuel cells points, to obtain a comprehen- sive view of the science and technology in this field: Distribution Batteries

Source: The authors, based on Web of Science data. 1) Type of fuel: biomass, elec- tric vehicles, other alternative fuels. /// Map 2. Geolocation of research capacities relating to automotive energy by Autonomous Community //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// 2) Fuel storage and distribu-

29.6 tion. 19.8 Location of AE-related 26.7 19.8 33.3 research groups (%) 26.7 3) Materials contributing to 17.6 20.0 17.0 ≥ 20 progress in energy and auto- 10-19.9 motive technogy: environ- 54.2 7-9.9 22.0 mental materials, supercon- 6.8 3-6.9 ductors. 26.1 23.5 26.1 0-2.9 31.3 20.6 26.1 21.4 17.6 4) Social aspects: transport 17.0 Groups’ main thematic areas (%) efficiency, emissions reduc- 35.7 39.1 23.3 Biomass tion. 30.4 28.6 20.0 44.4 13.0 14.3 20.0 Electric cars 22.2 22.2 Fuel cells In the analysis of the scien- 30.7 26.1 Electric batteries tific output from energy and 15.0 26.1 15.0 Alternative fuels automotive research we took 21.7 42.3 Materials a holistic hypothesis-less 23.1 15.4 Social aspects approach in order to avoid biasing the type of conclu- sions that might be reached. Source: The authors, based on scientific output data from the Web of Science. The sections of the analysis

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were therefore divided into automotive energy research, The analysis of which would explain its two main blocks: ahead of Japan, except in reduced weight in public the case of superconduc- Spain’s scientific research. I. Delimiting the field of ana­ tors, where Japan is joint activity shows that lysis, in which we sought to leader in world scientific Map 2 shows the distribution outline the state of play in output, neck and neck with approximately 9% of energy and automotive automotive energy research, the US. research capabilities by Autono­ drawing on a broad qualitative of its research mous Communities, indicating study of R&D and innovation Spain’s scientific output in groups (842 of a the geolocation of the 842 aid, macroeconomic data on this field is between 1% and research groups detected, the sectors, etc. This analysis 4% of world output, accord- total of 8,915 with lines relating to this topic. produced a series of key ing to the topic analysed, groups examined) The regions with the strongest words that were used to per- with particular strengths in presence of research groups form searches in bibliographic biomass and superconduc- are working on relating to energy and trans- databases, so as to identify tors, with 3.9% and 2.15%, lines of relevance port are Madrid, Catalonia and publications on the topic of of world scientific output, Andalusia. automotive energy research respectively. to the field of published since 1990. transport energy In terms of thematic areas, The analysis of Spain’s sci- within each Autonomous II. Analysis of publications and entific activity shows that Community the analysis patents. The results obtained approximately 9% of its focused on the three top were filtered and analysed to research groups (842 of a positions in order of impor- map energy and automotive total of 8,915 groups exam- tance. In almost all the R&D worldwide, with a par­ ined) are working on lines of regions, these three main ticular focus on Spain. relevance to the field of areas of research account transport energy. These for at least 60% of research The analysis of the scientific groups are focused mainly projects, from which it may output on the topic of energy on social aspects (26% of be deduced that activity is automotive research reveals research lines), fuel cells highly focused. It can be the strong leadership of the 819%), materials (17%), bio- observed, for example, that United States in this field in all mass and biofuels (16%), in Galicia, Castile-La Man- the areas studied. The output and technologies with appli- cha, Castile and Leon, Extre- of the United States in cations in the development madura and Murcia, around research into the electric car, of the electric car (12%). A 30% of research work alternative fuels, eco materials smaller proportion relates to groups focus on biomass- and emissions control clearly alternative fuels and electric related aspects. The social stands out, accounting for batteries, although it is also issues cover a significant more than 30% of the world’s noteworthy that these lines part of the research activity scientific output in each field. are more concrete and more of the groups identified in innovation-related, suggest- most of Spain’s regions, Another salient feature was ing that there is a tendency while none of the groups the increasing presence of for businesses to run their identified is dedicating signif- China in most of the catego- RTD projects through this icant research efforts to ries analysed in relation to cluster of research lines, alternative fuels.

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The R&D Status Map is an open-access resource available to R&D FGCSIC-website users. Status The application locates Spanish scientific output geographically in visual form, giving a graphical indication of intensity. It also enables the Map results to be filtered using various indicators of scientific relevance. The FGCSIC envisages the R&D Status Map as being a constantly evolving resource. It currently shows scientific output between 2005 and 2010, but is planned to include the period corresponding to the ten years prior to the query date. In the next phase of development, company data will be added, allowing science/technology needs and demand to be focused according to each area’s technological and industrial profile.

http://mapaestadoid.fgcsic.es 02

Automotive energy: socio-economic impact

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Personal mobility patterns and transport-use in cities

The modal split, or the proportions each of the various transport options represents in urban travel depends on cities’ characteristics and the public transport available. The modal split has a direct impact on cities’ sustainability, given the differences

in energy consumption and CO2 emissions between transport modes.

Carme Miralles-Guasch

Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona

Urban transport, energy the Kyoto accords, con- More than 90% of these million joules per person/kilo­

consumption and CO 2 sumption for transport uses emissions are from road metre. A car uses about 4.5 emissions has increased considerably, transport. Between 1990 and million joules, and trains, Transport is one of the big with the added feature that 2005, emissions of these trams and buses around 2.5 final energy consumers, over- 95% of energy consumed by gases in the EU-15 increased million joules per person/kilo­ taking other sectors such as transport comes from oil (pet- by 26%. metre. It is in this frame­ homes and industry in recent rol, diesel, kerosene, etc.), as work of consumption and years. According to the Min- even if electric motors are Not all means of transport emissions that it is neces- istry of Industry Tourism and used, a large share of the consume the same amount sary to weigh up people’s Trade’s figures for 2006, electricity they use is gener- of energy, however. In fact, urban mobility patterns and transport accounted for 42% ated using fossil fuels. This there are considerable differ- habits in terms of urban sus- of total final energy, whereas source of energy is directly ences between the energy tainability. industry consumed 33% and related to greenhouse gas consumption by the various other activities 25%. And, emissions, which are driving forms of urban transport in Urban characteristics and whereas industry has been climate change. Domestic our cities and consequently energy consumption in able to reduce its levels of transport emissions represent between their emissions. transport consumption, spurred by leg- 21% of the total greenhouse The energy expenditure of a The use of the various differ- islative changes arising out of gas emissions in the EU. bicycle in town is around 0.8 ent forms of transport

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Carme Miralles-Guasch

Carme Miralles-Guasch has a doctorate in Geography (1996), and is a tenured lecturer in Human Geography at the Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB). She has taught on doctoral and post-graduate programmes at various universities in Spain and abroad. She has led numerous projects relating to mobility and transport in urban and metropolitan areas, and is the lead researcher in the UAB’s Mobility, Transport and Territory Studies Group. From 2004 to 2008 she was the director of the Barcelona Institute of Regional and Metropolitan Studies (Instituto de Estudios Regionales y Metropolitanos de Barcelona, IERMB).

She has published papers in various prestigious international journals and specialist books, including in particular Ciudad y transporte. El binomio Carme Miralles-Guasch. imperfecto [City and transport. The imperfect binomial], published Ariel and awarded the Joan Sardà prize by the Revista Econòmica de Catalunya. She is on several expert groups, including the Catalonia Mobility Council, the Barcelona Pact for Mobility and the expert group for the Barcelona white paper on housing.

depends on the configura- European cities of over Cities’ energy consumption transport continues to pre- tion of the urban area, which 50,000 inhabitants, densities varies widely depending on dominate in the urban cen- varies according to popula- of between 50 and 47 inhab- the extent to which different tres or the main city within a tion densities and the public itants per hectare declined modes are used. In cities conurbation which are char- transport available. Dis- by 6% between 1995 and where public and non-motor- acterised by more compact persed, low-density settle- 2001, leading to an increase ised transport account for built-up areas and mixed ment patterns encourage the in car use of 11%, with 55% of total journeys, annual uses that have grown up and use of private means of the number of cars rising energy consumption per cap- been added to over time, transport; whereas compact, from 400 to 450 per thou- ita is around 11.9 gigajoules and where public transport mixed-use cities promote sand inhabitants. However, (billion joules). By contrast, has historically been the non-mechanical transport over this same period, the where this share is less than main means of travel. By and increase public transport modal split between the use 25%, the figure rockets up to contrast, the periphery, built supply and demand. of the bicycle, public trans- 55.5 gigajoules. in the second half of the 20th port and private vehicles century and early part of the In the European context, barely changed, with shares Modal splits in city centres 21st century, is defined by however, it seems that set- of 4.5, 26.8 and 68.9 per- and peripheries low density, single-activity tlement patterns are moving cent, respectively. However, The extent to which various areas, whether residential, towards lower densities and if we add walking to these means of transport are used industrial or commercial, and greater dispersion, with the means of transport, some not only differs between cit- public spaces designed result that use of less cities have rates of use of ies, but also within them, i.e. almost exclusively for vehicu­ energy-intensive means of non-motorised transport between different areas, lar traffic. These differences transport is decreasing. By (travel on foot or by bicycle) such as the centre and the between metropolitan cen- way of example, overall, in of over 60%. urban periphery. Thus, public tres and peripheries show up

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in the percentages of use of the use of public transport is example, in the Paris region port-use habits depend to a public and private transport, always greater in the centre (Île de France), the difference large extent on the city’s as shown in Graph 1. In 20 than in the periphery, even in is 36 percentage points, in characteristics. European cities, the relative cities that are very different Athens almost 15 and in Bar- use of these two means of from one another and in celona and Madrid, 13 and The supply of public trans- transport varies between the which these means of trans- 12, respectively. These dif- port in each area is another city centre and the rest of port account for different ferences suggest that the which has a decisive influ- the metropolitan area. Thus, shares of travel. By way of urban population’s trans- ence on its use. As Chart 2

/// Chart 1. Shares of use of public and private transport in the main metropolitan areas and cities (2005) //////////////////////////////////

Metropolitan area Main city

Athens 31.7 68.3 45.0 55.0

Barcelona 43.1 56.9 56.1 43.9

Berlin-Brandenburg 20.0 80.0 28.0 72.0

Bilbao 44.2 55.8 60.0 40.0

Birmingham West-Midlands 31.2 68.8 48.9 51.1

Brussels 7.5 92.5 21.0 79.0

Dublin 36.1 63.9

Frankfurt am Main 19.0 81.0 40.0 60.0

Helsinki 39.0 61.0 54.0 46.0

London 34.0 66.0 55.0 45.0

Madrid 54.0 46.0 66.0 34.0

Manchester 16.6 83.4

Paris - Île de France 29.0 71.0 67.0 33.0

Prague 57.0 43.0

Seville 26.0 74.0 34.2 65.8

Stockholm 38.0 62.0 55.0 45.0

Valencia 24.4 75.6

Vienna – East Austria 30.0 70.0 47.9 52.1

Vilnius 44.8 55.2

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Public Transport Private Transport

Source: International Association of Public Transport

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shows, the ratio between /// Chart 2. Ratio of public transport demand to supply ///////////////////////////////////////////////////// users per km and vehicles per km is directly propor- 3 tional, and the cities with least demand are also those with the most limited supply 2,5 Madrid of public transport. Cities París Ile such as Brussels and Seville de France Zurich Helsinki are at the bottom of the table, 2 in contrast with cities like Vilnius Madrid, Paris or Helsinki, Dublín Berlín-Branderburg where the number of users 1,5 exceeds two million and the Barcelona number of vehicles per kilo- Bilbao metre exceeds 100 units. 1

Modal splits in Spain by Seville reason for journey Million passengers per km travelled / 1,000 inhabitants 0,5 The use of different means of Brussels transport is also related to the 0 reason for the journey. In 0 50 100 190 general, two different constel- lations of reasons for jour- Vehicles per km travelled / inhabitant neys can be distinguished: those related to work, and Source: International Association of Public Transport. those associated with per- sonal activities, such as shopping, leisure, etc. The overall amount of travel is to 46% in Valencia. It can The use of the of travel by private vehicle is similar in both cases, also be seen that the second that much higher. This although personal activities mode of transport in order of various different means that the different account for slightly more importance is the private forms of transport forms of motorised transport travel than work. vehicle, with values of are communicating vessels, between 30% in Barcelona, depends on the competing with one another The data for Spain shows rising to almost 53% in configuration of the rather than non-motorised modal splits based on all Camp de Tarragona. These transport, particularly walk- types of reasons, coinciding values are related to those urban area, which ing. Distance is one of the on some parameters and for public transport. Thus if variables on which the deci- diverging on others. Thus, the share of public transport varies according to sion to use motorised trans- for example, travel by foot is is small, as happens in population densities port or go by foot is based. observed to be the most fre- Cadiz, Tarragona or Gra- After this first choice of quent mode in eleven of the nada, with values of 5.2%, and the public mode of transport, shaped territories observed, ranging 6.4% and 10.4%, respec- transport available by the urban model and from 31% in Madrid to close tively, the percentage share length of journey, comes the

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second decision as to which a minor role, except in the A good system of shopping, trips to school, of the existing motorised two major cities, Madrid and going for a walk or even visit- modes to use. In most of Barcelona, whose size public transport, ing the doctor, are all activi- Spain, this second choice makes walking, although sig- particularly rail, ties which can be travelled to tends to be inclined towards nificant, less important than on foot, as the distances private transport, except in in other towns. and an appropriate involved are relatively short. Madrid and Barcelona, This proximity reflects an where the demand for public These differences in the use urban design, have urban structure and planning and private transport, while of the different modes of a direct influence that views the district as the not the same, is fairly similar. transport according to the basic unit in many Spanish reason for travel hint at differ- on the population’s cities. This means keeping However, the modal split is ences in the characteristics of dependence on car shops on high streets, envis- different in the case of travel urban environments being aging schools and health to work. Car use is much what underlies these percent- use centres as essentially local more significant in the case ages. Firstly, work-related services, and designing them of work-related journeys, val- travel requires motorised on an appropriate scale, ues being over 44% in all transport, as places of work among other things. In large Spain’s regions, with 70% of are often located a long way cities, such as Madrid or Bar- work-related journeys in from residential areas, as a celona, this proximity town being by car in some result of the relocation of exceeds walking distance, as cases. At the same time, the work to the outskirts of the public transport is used, use of public modes of city, where it is concentrated given the availability of ade- transport and walking are in industrial estates or busi- quate supply and an appro- limited, except in the case of ness parks on the edge of the priately dimensioned net- Madrid and Barcelona, city. The increase in the dis- work, making its use practical where public transport use is tance between home and for everyday tasks. over 40% and almost 30%, work makes it necessary to respectively. use a faster means of trans- Use of rail as a share of port than walking. In cities total public transport In the case of non-work- with a good network of pub- Another interesting variable related travel, the modal split lic transport, the use of in the modal split is the share differs considerably, with car motorised transport is divided of rail transport (metro, train use dropping to below 30% between public and private, and tram) as essential mass and even to as low as 20% particularly in Madrid and transport in major cities. in Vizcaya, and with Camp Barcelona. In those were it Moreover, in many urban de Tarragona, where over does not, motorised trans- areas it is the rail system that 50% of travel is by car, at the port is identified solely with gives the structure to the other end of the scale. In the the car. rest of the public transport case of travel for personal network. Its central role in reasons, walking is the most However, journeys made for the urban transport system common mode, accounting personal reasons obey a dif- makes the share of public for over 40% of trips in ferent urban logic based transport depend on it in almost all regions. By con- more on the proximity of the many cities. Spain’s major trast, public transport plays origin and destination. Thus, urban centres, in which the

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/// Chart 3. Ratio of car-dependent population to GDP per capita (2005) //////////////////////////////////

50

Alicante Seville 40 Pamplona

Valencia Zaragoza Vizcaya Madrid Granada 30 Barcelona

20

Percentage of population dependent on the car Percentage 10

0 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000

Per capita gross-domestic product

Source: International Association of Public Transport.

largest share of users travel centage of the population dependent on the car than and by car, as the supply of by rail are Barcelona, Bilbao depending on private trans- Granada, Seville and Ali- public transport is scant. The and Madrid, all of which have port in various different cante, with GDP per capita exceptions are Madrid and a regional railway network Spanish regions with their of between 13,000 and Barcelona, which are cities and metro system. Barce- per capital gross domestic 18,000 euros. whose size, ready availability lona and Bilbao also have product (GDP). This correla- of public transport, and an trams. tion shows how car use is People’s transport-use hab- urban culture, favour the use not a matter of wealth, but its in specific urban areas of public transport. The chal- A good system of public territorial planning and represent a good indicator lenges for the future are to transport, particularly rail, transport. Thus, for exam- with which to observe the maintain the percentages of and an appropriate urban ple, the cities with the high- typology of the urban area foot travel and increase pub- design, have a direct influ- est income levels, such as and evaluate the contribution lic transport use in Spanish ence on the population’s Madrid, Barcelona and Bil- to global sustainability. In cities through appropriate dependence on car use. bao, with a GDP per capita Spain, the models of mobility urban planning and ensuring This can be seen in Graph of between 23,000 and are determined by the per- the availability of public 3, which relates the per- 28,000 euros, are less centages of travel on foot transport.

Notebooks of the Fundación General CSIC | Nº 6 | LYCHNOS | 21 2011 Applications

We promote This year, at ”la Caixa” Welfare Projects we are once more opening the period of applications for accessing our programme of help for social initiatives. Science and society at the CSIC projects that create If you know of any local non-profit organisation that wants to set up a project opportunities to respond to society’s emerging needs, please inform them about this new Get close to science through our outreach activities period for applications. Between us all, we can create opportunities that improve the quality of life of those who most need to do so.

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We promote This year, at ”la Caixa” Welfare Projects we are once more opening the period of applications for accessing our programme of help for social initiatives. projects that create If you know of any local non-profit organisation that wants to set up a project opportunities to respond to society’s emerging needs, please inform them about this new period for applications. Between us all, we can create opportunities that improve the quality of life of those who most need to do so.

At ”la Caixa” Welfare Projects we collaborate with non-profit organisations that, like us, work to achieve a society with greater opportu- nities for everyone. This is why we favour projects that directly tackle those problems that are emerging in our society and we support innovative initiatives that are not covered by other subsidies. We believe that, in an egali- tarian society, everyone must have the right to having

At At ”la Caixa” Welfare ”la Caixa” Projects we collaborate with Welfare Pro- non-profit organisations that, like jects we collabora- us, work to achieve a society with greater oppor- te with non-profit tunities for everyone. This is why we favour projects that directly tackle organisations that, those problems that are emerging in our society and we support innovative initiatives like us, work to that are not covered by other subsidies. We believe that, in an egalitarian society, everyone must achieve a society with have the right to having their basic needs met, such as housing, health and food… At ”la Caixa” Wel- greater opportunities fare Projects we collaborate with non-profit organisations that, like us, work to achieve a society with greater for everyone. This is opportunities for everyone. This is why we favour projects that directly tackle those problems that are emerging why we favour projects in our society and we support innovative initiatives that are not covered by other subsidies. We believe that, in an that directly tackle egalitarian society, everyone must have the right to having their basic needs met, such as housing, health and food… those problems that are At ”la Caixa” Welfare Projects we collaborate with non-profit organisations that, like us, work to achieve a society with emerging in our society greater opportunities for everyone. This is why we favour projects that directly tackle those problems that are emerging and we support innovative in our society and we support innovative initiatives that are not covered by other subsidies. We believe that, in an ega- initiatives that are not litarian society, everyone must have the right to having their basic needs met, such as housing, health and food… covered by other subsidies. At ”la Caixa” Welfare Projects we collaborate with non-profit organisations that, like us, work to achieve a society We believe that, in an ega- with greater opportunities for everyone. This is why we favour projects that directly tackle those problems litarian society, everyone that are emerging in our society and we support innovative initiatives that are not covered by other must have the right to having subsidies. We believe that, in an egalitarian society, everyone must have the right to having their basic needs met, such as their basic needs met, such as housing, health and food… At ”la Caixa” Welfare Projects housing, health and food… we collaborate with non-profit organisations that, like us, work to achieve At ”la Caixa” Welfare Projects a society with greater opportunities for everyone. This is why we we collaborate with non-profit favour projects that directly tackle those problems that organisations that, like us, are emerging in our society and we work to achieve a society with greater opportunities for ever- yone. This is why we favour projects that directly tackle tho- se problems that are emerging in our society and we support innovative initiatives that are not covered by other subsidies. We believe that, in an egalitarian society, everyone must have PROGRAMME OF HELP FOR PROJECTS THAT DRAW SMILES

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| INTERVIEW | Javier García Martínez Universidad de Alicante

“The electric car will only be an option for a relatively small niche market”

From your position as a ons will be taking place in seems set to become a member of the World Eco- Dalian, China. This year’s world power in high technol- nomic Forum, what impact topic, Mastering Quality ogy in the years ahead. It will do you think new technol- Growth, is particularly inter- be interesting to learn more ogies are likely to have esting. In recent years China about the breakneck pace of on the economy of the has enjoyed rapid growth the transformation of China’s future? based on low-quality, low- economy at the meeting next New technologies play a cost products. Today we are In this interview, week in Dalian. major part in improving com- seeing a new situation panies’ competitiveness, emerge in which China is Javier García The preparatory meeting for raising living standards, and exporting high-tech products Martínez discusses Davos is due to take place solving the big problems we at highly competitive prices. in Abu Dhabi this October. face as a society, particularly In fact, China is the world’s topics such as the Various committees under in terms of ensuring safe, second biggest investor in key role of the General Assembly of the secure and sustainable sup- R&D, eclipsing Japan and World Economic Forum will plies of energy, water and the countries of Europe. nanotechnology in be meeting to study the key food. The World Economic Alongside India, it produces socio-economic topics for the next Forum in Forum analyses and pro- more engineering graduates Davos. At the Council of motes innovations with the than any other country in the development, and Emerging Technologies we potential to lead to new busi- world. The quality of their the opportunities it are particularly interested in nesses, more competitive research has also improved nanotechnology and its markets and novel solutions rapidly, making China a offers in energy applications in clean energy to today’s big problems. In a world leader in R&D in stra- production, use production. The topics we few days time, the Annual tegic fields such as solar are due to debate include Summit of the New Champi- energy. In view of this, China and saving the role of new technologies

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Javier García Martínez

Javier García Martínez is a tenured lecturer and head of the Molecular Nanotechnology Laboratory at the University of Alicante, where he works on the production of nanomaterials for energy applications. He is an inventor with 24 patents to his name, most of which are being applied commercially. He has also written numerous papers, books and chapters of scientific works. His recent publications include “Nanotechnology for the Energy Challenge” Wiley-VCH (2010) and “The Chemical Element: Chemistry Contributions to our Global Challenges” Wiley-VCH (2011).

He is the founder of the technology-based company RiveTechnology, which commercialises the technology he developed during a Fulbright postdoctoral scholarship at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). RiveTechnology has attracted 47 million dollars of venture capital investment and employs a workforce of over thirty people.

He is the Vice President of the Emerging Technologies Council of the Davos World Economic Forum, and also participates as a member of the Young Global Leaders Forum and the IUPAC (Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) bureau. He is an advisor for the European Commission on innovation and entrepreneurship, and has been an expert and evaluator for the European Institute of Technology and Innovation (EIT) since 2009. Javier García Martínez.

in overcoming the crisis, the number of potential custom- The challenge today is to find something that seemed consequences of R&D cuts ers, offering simpler, more disruptive solutions to more impossible: that experts in in Europe and the US, and intuitive, more attractive ambitious problems such as new technologies put their tal- the place of emerging econ- products and services. For producing clean energy or ent and resources to the serv- omies in the future of inno- example, thanks to the Wii –a combating climate change. ice of those who most need vation. wireless videogames console Obviously this is a lot more them. that makes it possible to play difficult. On the one hand there In your opinion as an in an intuitive, simple and fun is the technical difficulty, and Over the last few years you expert in the field, which way– Nintendo now sells on the other, the lack of incen- have patented and com- technologies are the most videogames to people who tives for companies and insti- mercialised more than interesting? had never played on a com- tutions to develop these solu- twenty inventions. What The innovations that interest puter before. The more tradi- tions. On top of this, there is are the keys to encourag- us most are disruptive tech- tional solution, that is, improv- the shortage of talent able to ing innovation? nologies, able to create ing the processing capacity find answers to such complex Maximising the value of crea- totally new markets or solve and quality of the graphics, problems. We need people tivity, that is to say, innova- major problems by doing which is the approach taken able to lead these kinds of tion, is –in my opinion– only things in a new way. Doing by Sony with its Play Station efforts. The Bill & Melinda Gates possible if you have the right things better is no longer 3 and Microsoft with the Foundation is an example of talent, strong leadership and enough. True innovation is Xbox 360, only attracted the personal leadership and vision an ambitious vision. The pri- getting ahead of consumer usual customers, who were in this regard. By means of rel- ority for any innovative firm is demand and offering solu- already hooked on video- atively simple technologies, to attract and retain the best tions that will extend the games. this Foundation is realising talent available and foster

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creativity, critical thinking and know that solids change their niques to the production of teamwork in small groups. At properties when their size biofuels, solar cells and cata- the end of the day, ideas is reduced to a few nano­ lysts for the chemicals indus- come from people with the metres. This phenomenon is not try. Working with businesses capacity, time and resources just of considerable scientific and technology centres has necessary to create freely. interest, but also allows us to been important for us, as it The executive team must create new materials with has allowed us to commer- understand and appreciate totally new properties. The cialise some of the discoveries the creative process and not opportunities are enormous: we have patented in the last just the balance sheet. There from solar panels that do not few years. are very few CEOs with R&D need silicon, to nanoparticles experience; in general, their able to detect and treat Nanotechnology undoubt- background tends to be in tumours in the early stages of edly offers huge opportuni- management and finance. cancer more effectively and ties in energy production, The most interesting innova- with fewer side effects. This is use and saving. One of the tion –that which is really another of the most interest- most promising fields in this worthwhile– needs an ambi- ing characteristics of nano­ line is that of new flexible tion that goes beyond short- technology: it produces radi- photovoltaic cells which are term results and conformist cally new solutions whose not based on silicon. These attitudes. application depends, to a offer a cheap and clean large extent, only on our alternative way to convert Nanotechnology is today a imagination. The economic sunlight into electricity. The decisive factor in socio- impact has yet to be seen, use of nanoparticles enables economic development, but if we look at the progress the efficiency of these sys- and according to some of the number of nanotech- tems to be enhanced, which estimates, the global nano­ nology patents it is clear that is undoubtedly the outstand- technology market will be the opportunity is real, as the ing challenge this technology worth a trillion euros in innovations in this field are faces. Another important 2015. Is nanotechnology growing exponentially, a lead- issue for the widespread use going to be the next tech- The priority for ing indicator of new technol- of renewable energy sources nology revolution? ogy waves. is being able to store the Nanotechnology has a any innovative electricity produced when number of factors that make firm is to attract Your work at the University the sun shines or the wind it particularly promising. First of Alicante centres on the blows. Here, nanotechnol- of all, it is a scientific revolu- and retain the best use of nanomaterials in ogy is making significantly tion. Like quantum mechan- talent available energy applications. What lighter batteries with faster ics or the theory of relativity, opportunities exist in this recharging times possible. nanotechnology is changing and foster field? This is a fundamental issue our understanding of reality, creativity, critical At the Molecular Nanotech- for the definitive develop- offering new, non-intuitive nology Laboratory we are ment of the electric car, as explanations and extending thinking and developing a wide range of they need to improve in the horizons of our know­ teamwork in small nanomaterials for energy terms of range, acceleration ledge. Progress in nanotech- applications. We are applying and cost. But one of the nology means that today we groups new nanotechnology tech- clearest opportunities in the

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short term is the use of We are applying ard internal combustion challenges to be overcome, nanomaterials in energy sav- engines with just minor mod- such as the safe and efficient ing and efficiency. The use of new ifications. Unfortunately, transport and storage of nanocomposites can signifi- nanotechnology except in a handful of coun- hydrogen, and logistic chal- cantly reduce the weight of tries such as Brazil, this alter- lenges, as it represents pro- cars, trains and aircraft, techniques to the native has not gained a foot- found changes in the way the while improving their impact hold. Their high cost car works and in the distribu- resistance. Insulating build- production of (particularly, if we take into tion and supply of fuels. ings enables huge amounts biofuels, solar cells account the fact that they are of energy to be saved, and heavily subsidised), their The electric car is undoubt- this increases significantly if and catalysts for impact on food prices, a edly the clearest attempt at coatings preventing leaks the chemicals number of technical prob- achieving carbon-free trans- and facilitating cleaning are lems, such as stability and port. However, it is an option used. In short, there are industry controlling high acidity, are that faces some significant numerous opportunities for against them. Moreover, it is challenges. First of all, lighter, nanotechnology in energy far from clear that they con- cheaper batteries are needed applications. In most cases, tribute to mitigating climate that are able to recharge finding the right solution only change, particularly if you and supply current quickly depends on the power of our take into account the energy (improved battery power). Sig- imagination. needed to produce fertilisers nificant adaptations need to and the huge amounts of be made to cars and the avail- What are the fundamental water needed to grow the ability of sufficient charging pillars for the successful crops from which biofuels are points needs to be ensured. development of new tech- extracted. There are some Lastly, we need to bear in mind nologies for electric pro- alternatives that might help that electric systems are only pulsion? Will carbon-free overcome these problems as clean as the systems used transport be possible? (such as using agricultural to generate the electricity. The liquid fuels we use in our wastes or algae), but significant cars have numerous advan- technical challenges still remain. In my view, in the next few tages that are difficult to sub- years, the electric car will only stitute for with more environ- Fuel cells offer another alter- be an option for a relatively mentally-friendly alternatives. native, and in theory they are small niche market. During First of all, they have a very totally clean as they are fuelled this time the motor industry high energy density (that is to by hydrogen and their only will transform itself to offer say, the amount of energy waste product is water. In more diverse products, aimed they store per unit mass), reality, however, this is only at different types of market they are easy to transport true if the hydrogen (which is segment. and distribute (oil pipelines, not found free in nature) is petrol pumps, tanks), and produced from sources that Your research in the nan- finally, they are very cheap. do not themselves generate otechnology field on con-

Biofuels represent the sim- CO2. Unfortunately, at the trolling the structure of plest alternative, as they can moment hydrogen is mainly catalysts used in the pro- use existing petrol-pump produced from coal. There are duction of petrol and diesel infrastructure and fuel stand- also numerous technological earned you the TR35 prize.

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What does this new tech- What measures need to be The electric car is their employees and their nology contribute? taken to encourage entre- employees to create and ben- Obviously, there is a lot of preneurship in Spanish uni- undoubtedly the efit from technology start-ups interest in improving the effi- versities? clearest attempt exploiting their patents com- ciency of petrol and diesel With almost half our young mercially. Today’s overly pro- production, due, on the one people unemployed we can- at achieving tective model reduces the hand, to the huge economic not just carry on educating incentives for those who want benefit any improvement in for employability. Continually carbon-free to take the risk of creating fossil fuels would represent, improving the curriculum by transport. However, new businesses from within and on the other, to the adding courses, qualifica- academia. energy saving and environ- tions, computing, languages it is an option that mental benefits of reducing and anything else that boosts faces some Lecturers who attract private the wastes produced in the our chances of finding a job finance to the university and oil refining process. My dis- is not a viable alternative. significant create technology spin-offs covery consisted of introduc- There is no market to absorb challenges should be compensated for ing porosity in the catalysts the young people coming their technology-transfer used in refining so that the out of the classrooms each efforts in internal selection and heavier crude oil fractions, year and automatically look- promotion processes. At which do not fit inside current ing for work. We need a lot present, risk-takers are at a catalysts, can be trans- more of them also to be job disadvantage against col- formed into petrol and diesel creators. leagues who limit themselves thanks to this added poros- to publishing their findings. ity. In 2005, I founded RiveT- To change this trend we have Only if we create incentives for echnology, an MIT spin-off, to create a new ecosystem the activities we want to pro- to exploit this technology that promotes business crea- mote will we be able to have commercially. My catalysts tion. Teaching students values the professionals available are today in use in a refinery such as risk acceptance, with the characteristics we are in the US, where they are teamwork and the ability to looking for. performing successfully. communicate ideas in public needs to be included as a The measures taken to over- Introducing porosity into cat- cross-cutting feature of curric- come the crisis cannot be lim- alysts is not limited just to ula. Lecturers are a key part of ited merely to cost-cutting. refining. We are currently this process. New teaching We also need to lay the foun- studying the use of these staff with experience in start- dations, and develop the materials for the production ing up and managing technol- ambition and structures to of second-generation biofu- ogy-driven companies need foster the creation of opportu- els, water treatment and gas to be recruited, on a part-time nities, businesses and jobs. separation. This discovery basis if need be. At the same These changes are not easy. opens up huge possibilities in time, lecturers can benefit They mean accepting risks a wide range of fields and is from partnerships with busi- and making long-term com- suitable for large-scale pro- nesses through joint funding mitments. But they are the duction, as it is a simple, of research projects allowing only way of generating cheap and environmentally- universities to commercialise income, spurring innovation friendly process. the findings developed by and creating quality jobs.

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Optimising transport networks

A sustainable transport system is one built on energy efficiency and that avoids harmful effects on the environment and people. According to the authors, achieving this goal entails optimisation of transport networks by planning routes so as to save energy.

Emilio Larrodé Pellicer, Jesús Gallego Navarro and Alberto Fraile Del Pozo

Universidad de Zaragoza

The transport network as a transport goods and people porting goods or people. forms of transport (road-air- uniting infrastructure over both short and long They are usually laid out port, road-rail, road-port, Nowadays, overall transport distances as cheaply and across the territory in such a etc.). capacity is a reflection of a quickly as possible. This way as to connect centres country’s economic power, requires constant upgrading of population or industrial The existence of one or more given that economic devel- and, more importantly, the activity, so that the network transport networks, or the opment no longer depends infrastructure and networks varies in density according varying density of the net- just on the volume of out- necessary to reach any to the amount of traffic gen- work, is shaped by a series put, but also the ease with destination needs to be erated in the zone. The of factors, including histori- which goods can be trans- available. densest networks are there- cal/political hangovers from ported to any point in the fore usually around loca- the past, natural factors, due world to expand consumer A transport network basi- tions where several axes to geographical features; or markets. Means of transport cally comprises the infra- connect or which serve as spatial factors, all depending must be efficient, that is to structure necessary for the an interchange point on the location of the main say, they must be able to circulation of vehicles trans- between various different nuclei of activity.

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Urban and interurban net- Emilio Larrodé Pellicer works Emilio Larrodé Pellicer has a doctorate in Industrial Engineering from the The modes of transport come University of Zaragoza. He is a professor in the Transport Infrastructure under three main headings: and Engineering Area in the Department of Mechanical Engineering of the air, sea and land. It is in the University of Zaragoza. He heads the Transport and Logistics research group (GITEL), is the director of the Sustainable Means of Transport and case of the latter that most Systems and research group (SMITS), director of the masters programme efforts at optimisation are in Mechanical Systems, and director of the chair for Industrial and Techno- focused, as it is the case in logical Diversification at the University of Zaragoza, and Adjunct Professor, which the greatest number of MIT-Zaragoza International Logistics Program in the Zaragoza Logistics Emilio Larrodé Pellicer. overlaps and interactions Center. occur. In Spain, road transport is the most used mode for Jesús Gallego Navarro both passenger and goods Jesús Gallego Navarro has a degree in Industrial Engineering from the Uni- transport, accounting for versity of Zaragoza. He is currently preparing his doctoral thesis in the around 90-80% of all jour- Mechanical Engineering Department. His research centres on the optimisa- tion of the transport system, based on an analysis of the main factors influ- neys. encing electric vehicles and their traction systems. He is a member of the Transport and Logistics Group (GITEL), one of the research groups at the Land transport is that whose Institute of Engineering Research in Aragón (I3A). He also works with the networks extend over the chair for Industrial and Technological Diversification at the University of land surface and whose Zaragoza. Jesús Gallego Navarro. axes are visible as they comprise pre-existing infra- Alberto Fraile Del Pozo structure on which goods Alberto Fraile Del Pozo has a degree in Industrial Engineering from the and people are transported. University of Zaragoza. He is currently preparing his doctoral thesis at the This infrastructure includes Mechanical Engineering Department, researching sustainable mobility, optimisation of urban transport, and new features in vehicle energy systems. roads, railway lines, tracks, He is part of the Transport and Logistics Group (GITEL), one of the research bike lanes, and other special groups at the Institute of Engineering Research in Aragón (I3A). He also networks (electricity grids, works with the chair for Industrial and Technological Diversification at the communications, gas and University of Zaragoza. Alberto Fraile del Pozo. oil pipelines).

Land transport networks can be grouped into three types according to their density: structured networks, which are those with many intercon- be connected to one another, pattern in some thinly popu- are basically of two kinds: nected axes organised hierar- but have no hierarchy (this is lated developed countries not rail and road. There are three chically, facilitating transport the common pattern in reliant on the exploitation of types of railway in Spain: across the whole territory (the underdeveloped countries); natural resources). narrow gauge (1,000 mm), networks that typically exist in and isolated axes, which standard gauge (1,435 mm) developed countries); rela- would be those joining just More technically, it is possi- and –the commonest type– tively unstructured networks, two points in the territory, ble to distinguish between Iberian gauge (1,668 mm). in which there are several such as the points of produc- interurban and urban net- Within these three types of axes, which may or may not tion and consumption (the works. Interurban networks railway line it is also neces-

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/// Modal split – domestic passenger transport in Spain /// Modal split – domestic goods transport in Spain (% passengers/kilometre) 1985-2006 //////////////////////////////// (%) 1985-2006 ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

100% 100% 90% 90% 80% 80% 70% 70% 60% 60% 50% 50% 40% 40% 30% 30% 20% 20% 10% 10% 0% 0% 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Million passengers/km (road) Million passengers/km (rail) Million tonnes/km (road) Million tonnes/km (sea) Million passengers/km (air) Million passengers/km (sea) Million tonnes/km (rail) Million tonnes/km (pipe) Air freight transport in Spain is negligible

Source: Observatorio de la Sostenibilidad en España (OSE).

sary to distinguish single The interurban road network Transport within ies, particularly large ones, and double track lines, and needs traffic to be fluid and and is lighter in less densely electrified and unelectrified continuous, so traffic lights cities involves a populated towns. lines. tend to be avoided. variety of systems, Urban transport networks are Worldwide, road is the most This network is very hierarchi- some of which are one of the most complex common form of interurban cal. At the top are motorways, issues any city’s authorities transport. It enables people followed by national trunk highly specialised, have to deal with. Transport and goods to access most roads, and at the bottom, as it is necessary to within cities involves a variety points in the territory. It con- local roads. Traffic densities of systems, some of which are nects cities and towns and is on interurban routes vary. Traf- ensure the mobility highly specialised, given the fundamental in the transport fic can be heavy around major of goods and people need to ensure the mobility of of bulk goods and people in cities, where there is some- people and goods. The fact large groups, although most times congestion and traffic that there are several trans- vehicles travelling on the jams due to the bottlenecks in port systems in a city means roads are small private cars. access routes into some cit- that there are also various net-

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works that cross over and are In general, terms of travel times, the routes that connect points of superimposed, such as roads reduced cost of environmen- origin and destinations (be- and pavements – two of the optimising a tal pollution and the reduction tween which the flows may most important. transport network, in road traffic. not always be bidirectional) so that vehicles consume the All cities have a basic road whether land, rail Intermodality, which today is least energy possible. Ideally, network for various types of crucial to the development of the route involving least vehicles, with roads with one or air, involves commercial activities and energy consumption would or more lanes, in one or two planning the routes passenger transport, takes follow a straight line. Never- directions, flanked by pave- place at various connection theless, there are times when ments for pedestrians. In that connect points points, such as bus and rail- the shortest route is not the large cities the basic road of origin and way stations, interurban optimal choice. This may network is backed up with access routes into the city, depend on the type of road, bypasses making it easy to destinations so that and, of course airports and the terrain and other factors reach outlying districts of the vehicles consume sea ports, which are usually that influence the energy con- city quickly. located in the outskirts of sumption of the propulsion the least energy cities. This interaction means system of the vehicle making A number of other networks possible full coverage of urban and the journey. exist superimposed on the interurban networks can be road network. The most sig- ensured. However, in practice planning nificant of these are the net- has to take into account a works of bus, tram and cycle Optimising transport series of economic and oper- lanes, which are reserved for routes as a means of sav- ational factors as well as these modes of transport, to ing energy energy consumption. For the exclusion of general traf- Once the transport networks example, in the specific case fic. They represent parallel have been defined, the prob- of a road transport network, infrastructure, and some- lem that arises is that of opti- when planning the road net- times involve major invest- mising them. This is a process work, as well as deciding the ments, such as in the case of based on route planning optimal route (least energy trams, but bring benefits tasks, obtaining energy sav- consumption, which means particularly in terms of reduc- ings as a result, which con- least economic expenditure ing traffic congestion in city tribute to the sustainability of on fuel or electricity), it is also centres. the transport system. It is necessary to take into worth recalling that a sustain- account the payment of pos- Additionally, some cities also able transport system has to sible tolls if the route entailing have a metro and regional rail be built on energy efficiency lower energy consumption network, which are rail net- and the avoidance of harmful involved toll roads, and this works exclusively for these impacts on the environment might lead to the search for forms of public transport, and and people from the activities alternative routes with a lower in underground tunnels at it involves. total cost. To this end, various depths. These net- aspects such as reducing the works are extremely costly to In general, optimising a trans- kilometres driven empty, build, but this investment is port network, whether land, combining deliveries, cus- repaid by efficiency gains in rail or air, involves planning the tomer-defined time slots for

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pick-up and delivery, the rithms are search algorithms A genetic algorithm fuels, natural gas and LPG), requirements of the delivery based on the mechanics of electric (pluggable or fuel firm or the standards in force, natural selection and natural is an approximate cell) and hybrid (internal the characteristics and genetics. They combine sur- means of search combustion/electric). restrictions on the products vival of the fittest among to deliver or collect, the type structures of sequences with and optimisation The incorporation of new of vehicle, or the maximum an exchange of information traction systems is linked to cargo volume, have to be that is structured but ran- based on the new efficient design systems considered. domised so as to construct a evolutional process in which it will be essential to search algorithm that has know how much energy the Given the complexity of tack- some of the genius of human in living creatures, vehicle will require to oper- ling the transport problem searches.” Using genetic following Darwin’s ate. It will be necessary to (due to the fact that it is algorithms is no guarantee of reach a compromise between often necessary to tackle obtaining the optimal solu- principles of the best possible features cases in which the alterna- tion. However, good results natural selection and the least energy expend- tives are extremely numer- are usually obtained in inter- iture that this allows. To do ous) so-called route optimis- vals of time that are compet- and survival of the so, specific demand studies ers exist to help in the task itive compared to other fittest are required depending vehi- of planning transport net- types of optimisation algo- cle type and what it will be works. A route optimiser is a rithm. used for. What this ultimately tool that uses quantitative allows is selection of the methods or techniques These route optimisers have vehicle fleet: type, number based on mathematical been implemented success- and function of the routes to models to automate the fully to determine routes in cover. process of planning routes various sectors, including fuel and optimising the available distribution, transporting tour- In this context it is worth dif- resources. One of the most ists, scheduled and ad hoc ferentiating between the urban widely used approaches is to passenger transport, delivery setting, which is characterised use genetic algorithms. of goods to large and small by short-distance transport retail outlets, or collecting networks, and the interurban A genetic algorithm is an household waste. environment, characterised by approximate means of longer-distance transport net- search and optimisation New technologies applied works. based on the evolutionary to mobility: energy effi- process in living creatures, ciency The efficiency of transport is following Darwin’s principles The current framework is an essential requirement in of natural selection and sur- marked by the impending order to guarantee medium vival of the fittest. By imitat- emergence of new vehicles and long term mobility in cit- ing this process, genetic with alternative propulsion ies. Studies have shown that algorithms are able to create systems to replace the pet- today in Europe, 30% of solutions to real-world prob- rol- or diesel-powered inter- journeys by car cover dis- lems. More strictly, following nal combustion engine. tances of under 3 km, and the definition put forward by These new traction systems 50% are shorter than 5 km. Goldberg, “genetic algo- are divided into thermal (bio- They also report 40% of daily

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journeys to be for travel to /// Comparison of journey speeds by different modes of transport in town /////////////////////////////// work or school.

Based on these results a series of measures are being 35 taken to reduce energy con- 30 sumption. These include:

25 • Implementing urban mobil- ity plans in cities, changing 20 mobility habits and car dependency. Minutes 15

• Implementing transport 10 plans for shopping and leisure centres and areas where peo- 5 ple work (industrial estates, offices). 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 • Giving priority to public Kilometres transport and raising its qual- ity. Installing bus lanes, giving Source: European Commission buses priority at traffic lights.

• Adoption of electric vehicles for daily activities in town: cleaning, goods delivery, post, parcels, private trips. the use of the rail network and The efficiency of At the same time, hybrid vehi- sea, rather than the road net- cles would enable the perform- • Encouraging mobility on work. Secondly, it involves transport is an ance of traditional combustion foot and by bicycle, recover- more use of hybrid traction essential engine vehicles to be main- ing urban spaces for non­ systems. tained or even improved while motorised mobility. Even requirement in reducing fuel consumption. The encouraging motorbikes Encouraging rail and sea order to guarantee basic principle is the existence rather than cars. In town a transport means improving of electric and combustion- bicycle is a means of trans- the multimodal chain, as by medium and long engine systems complementing port that is as rapid as a car, themselves these modes do each other to propel the vehicle. or more so, if the door-to- not enable door-to-door term mobility in Two cases are possible: door journey time is meas- transport, making road trans- cities ured. port the complementary mode • Hybridisation of the traction for these alternatives. This system. In long-distance transport net- would enable a more rational works the quest for energy use of the available transport • Hybridisation of the energy efficiency involves above all capacity. supply system.

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Sources of automotive energy

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Production of new automotive biofuels

In developed countries, rising living standards and GDP growth have led to increased energy consumption. Traditionally, fossil fuels have been used, but with oil reserves running out, one of the biggest challenges today is to find new sources of energy.

Cristina Otero

Instituto de Catálisis y Petroleoquímica (CSIC)

o n e o f t h e n e w ing, derive from biodegrada- sector which, along with trade house-gas emissions. Trans- sources of energy ble sources, produce fewer and services, has accounted port is currently 98% based N (solar, wind, nuclear, atmospheric emissions, do for the largest share of energy on fossil fuels. The oil prod- biomass, etc.) will be able to not damage the ozone layer, consumption growth over the ucts consumed are diesel replace fossil fuels entirely. and are generally more envir­ last twenty years. In the past (53%), petrol (31%), kerosene Nevertheless, efforts are being onmentally-friendly. The aim is few decades, more than 50% (13%) and others (3%). made to develop new produc- also to eliminate or reduce of the increase in energy con- tion methods for various dependency on oil-producing sumption has been due to Directive 2009/28/EC, of the energy sources so as to make countries and reduce the cost transport, both of passengers European Parliament and of it possible to meet growing of fuel imports. The quest for and goods, by road, rail, air the Council, 23 April 2009, on energy demand –to which sources of renewable energy and sea. Increases in house- the promotion of the use of emerging economies are con- is therefore based on tech­ hold incomes have stimulated energy from renewable tributing in particular. The goal nical, environmental and poli­ the propensity to travel using sources, establishes that each is to break the link between tical reasons. both public and private trans- Member State must take GDP and energy depend- port. In the EU more than steps to ensure that this ence, with an energy model According to Spain’s National 30% of energy consumption source of energy account for based on a diversity of energy Energy Commission, trans- is due to transport, which is at least 10% of the total by types, which are less pollut- port has traditionally been the responsible for 21% of green- 2020. In Spain, on 4 March

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Cristina Otero The goal is to break Cristina Otero has an honours degree in Chemistry and a doctorate in Sciences. She has done research at the Department of Physical Chemistry at the Sciences the link between Faculty of the University of Alcalá de Henares, at the Laboratoire de Spectro- scopie hertzienne at the CNRS École Normale Supérieure (Paris), the Depart- GDP and energy ment of Molecular Biology of the University of Kent (Canterbury, UK), and the Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering at the University of Madi- dependence, with son (Wisconsin, US). Since 1986 she has worked as a scientific researcher at the Biocatalysis and Bioenergy Laboratory of the CSIC’s Institute of Catalysis an energy model and Petrochemistry. based on a In 1990 she became head of the Biocatalysis and Bioenergy laboratory (Bioca- talysis & Bioenergy Group, BBG), belonging to the Madri+d laboratories net- diversity of energy work, which uses various analytical techniques certified by AENOR (UNE-EN ISO 9001). types, which are She leads applied research projects for businesses and national and less polluting, international government bodies, and also runs the CSIC’s postgraduate course on “Biodiesel: synthesis and characterisation.” derive from Cristina Otero. biodegradable sources, produce 2011 the Council of Ministers ural gas. To a lesser extent emit fewer particulates, heavy fewer atmospheric raised the targets for biofuels ethyl (or methyl) tert-butyl metals, less carbon monox- to 6.4%, 6.5% and 6.5% for ether –which is obtained from ide, hydrocarbons and other emissions, do not 2011, 2012 and 2013, bioethanol or biomethanol volatile substances. In Spain, damage the ozone respectively. and isobutylene– is also used, under the National Renewa- primarily as a substitute for bles Plan (PER 2005-2010), layer, and are Biofuel is the collective term lead in petrol. Under certain 1.3 million hectares of land generally more applied to any type of fuel of conditions some types of was set aside for biofuel pro- biological origin used in inter- engine can also be run on duction, of which 30% pro- environmentally- nal-combustion engines. Bio- untransformed vegetable oil. duced rapeseed for diesel, friendly fuels are obtained renewably Biodimethylether, along with and the remainder, cereals for from organic material and can synthetic biofuels, can also be bioethanol production. be used in Otto-cycle (four- used. Biohydrogen, which is stroke) or diesel internal-com- obtained by subjecting water The scientific community and bustion engines. The two to various biological treat- modern industry is sparing no main biofuels are bioethanol ments, is another potential effort to achieve more effi- and biodiesel. However, under fuel. However, yields are cur- cient, economic and environ- article 2.2 of Directive rently too low to be useful. mentally-friendly biodiesel and 2003/30/EC, other renewable bioethanol production meth- biofuels can also be used. The use of biodiesel and ods. The implementation of

These include biogas, which bioethanol reduces CO2 emis- biofuels is being approached is obtained from the anaerobic sions by between 40% and from all possible angles, from fermentation of damp bio- 80% compared with fossil raw materials through to the mass, and which, once puri- fuels. Also, biofuels do not most advanced methods for fied is of similar quality to nat- produce sulphur dioxide, they obtaining biofuels. The quest

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is for crops that are compat­ available. In the US starch ible with the food chain, i.e. The use of biodiesel from maize is fermented, and rapid-growing energy crops and bioethanol in Brazil sugar from sugar with high biomass yields and cane is used. In Spain, cereals positive energy and economic reduces carbon- (barley and wheat) are grown balances. They need to be dioxide emissions for this purpose. The use of perennial, pest and weed maize (corn) is widespread in resistant, with a long growing by between 40% the US but is more limited in cycle and high efficiency photo­ and 80% compared Spain due to the lack of water synthesis. The European Envi- and irrigated land. ronment Agency (EEA) pre- with fossil fuels dicts that in the EU energy The simplest and oldest tech- crops could produce 142 mil- nique is to obtain ethanol from lion tonnes oil equivalent (toe) the anaerobic fermentation of in 2030 with 85% of produc- sugars (such as sucrose). The tion concentrated in seven biomass is first collected, countries, including Spain. crushed, filtered, fermented Used cooking oil collection system. / and distilled. It is fermented in Otto-cycle engines use petrol, Photo: Cristina Otero. yeast or bacteria in water for to which bioalcohol produced 24 hours. The amount of by fermentation of sugar can sugar fed into the fermenter be added. Standard vehicles needs to be set beforehand can tolerate up to 15% bioeth- lulose from plant matter of any by dilution with water. anol, but require modifications kind (waste from agricultural to be made to their carbure- processes, forestry or indus- Starch needs to undergo a tion system and fuel injection try, such as firewood, wood- preliminary hydrolysis stage regulation to work with larger land clearing and pruning during which its sugars are amounts (up to 85% bioetha- waste, horticultural wastes, broken down. The grains of nol in flexible-fuel vehicles). stems and other unused parts the cereal are first cleaned The US, Brazil, and Colombia, of maize plants, municipal and crushed. To obtain sugar and in Europe, Germany and solid waste, etc.). Cellulosic the crushed mass is first lique- Spain, are currently running material comprises cellulose, fied and cooked. It is then large-scale programmes to hemicellulose and lignin, broken down in water with an produce bioethanol as a fuel. which are chains of sugar enzyme (malt or malt extract molecules that need to be enzymes) or an acid at 120- The raw materials can be rich broken into their constituent 150ºC. The resulting mass is in either sucrose (sugar cane, sugars by specific enzymes sieved (scarification) and beet, molasses, sweet sor- so they can be fermented to transferred to the fermentation ghum), rich in start (maize, produce bioalcohol. reactors. Once fermented the potato, cassava) or in cellu- result is distilled. lose (wood and farming The raw materials from which waste, including citrus waste). bioethanol is obtained vary Cellulose requires an even The best potential source of from country to country more laborious process, bioethanol is the unused cel- depending on the resources including prior treatment

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stages in which it is subjected water and ethanol the purity to hydrolysing enzymes. To of ethanol produced by sim- degrade the cellulose it is first ple distillation is limited to conditioned and crushed, 96%. Thus, water-free etha- subjected to pyrolysis, and nol has to be obtained by then attacked with acids, azeotropic distillation with enzymes or other substances. benzene or cyclohexane. Obtaining the sugar requires Alternatively, the water can several hydrolysis stages, fol- be extracted by physical lowed by liquid/solid separa- absorption with molecular tion. sieves. Other desiccants, such as magnesium, are only The ethanol-production proc- used on a laboratory scale. ess produces high yields in Diesel cycle engines are the case of sugar cane, but designed to use diesel but performance is lower with will also run on a mixture maize and lower still in the including 10% biodiesel or Recyoil centre. Biodiesel plant in Alcalá de Henares (Madrid). case of wood. Work is cur- certain vegetable oils such as rently underway to obtain soya or sunflower oil. Due to genetically modified micro- the problems of freezing in organisms able to turn any cold climates and the high having to be disposed of as a from recycled oils, which is ligno-cellulose material into viscosity of vegetable oils, waste. The Spanish Environ- used to supply Madrid’s bus bioethanol at a competitive diesel engines need to be ment Ministry and a number fleet. The best suited vegeta- price. modified to work on pure of town councils in Spain ble oils as energy crops are vegetable oil. The standard have set up three-stage col- those from Camelina sativa, Industrial ethanol can also be approach is to use the fatty lection system for frying oil, Crambe abyssinica and Jat- obtained by chemical synthe- acids that make up these oleins and fats: industry, ropha curcas. Brassica cari- sis using ethylene from ethane vegetable oils or animal fats catering and domestic. This nata and Cynara cardunculus extracted from natural gas or and transform them into alkyl oil is recycled by a number of adapt best to conditions in naphtha from petroleum. In esters (biodiesel). The com- firms that turn it into biodiesel Spain and give the highest this case, the ethylene is sub- monest biodiesels are methyl and sell it to petrol compa- yields. A hectare of jatrophas jected to a catalytic hydration or ethyl esters of long-chain nies as an additive to auto- produces 2,800 litres of oil, process in which it is cata- fatty acids, with a viscosity motive petrodiesel. In some around five to seven times lysed by sulphuric acid. This ten times lower than that of towns the fleet of urban more than a hectare of soya. process is cheaper than fer- oil. Rapeseed oils (northern buses uses biodiesel from The fastest-growing energy mentation, but only accounts Europe), sunflower oil (Medi- recycled oils as a biofuel. crops are algae and micro- for 5% of total ethanol pro- terranean Europe), soya (the Production facilities include algae. Each hectare of rape- duction. US), coconut (the Philippines) the industrial plant built seed produces a tonne of oil, and palm oil (Malaysia and between 2002 and 2003 in but the productivity of a hec- The purity of ethanol used as Indonesia) are the first gener- Alcalá de Henares (Madrid), tare of marine algae is 30 a biofuel has to be between ation feedstocks used to pro- in a project led by the Insti- times that. 99.5 and 99.9%, depending duce biodiesel. Second gen- tuto para la Diversificación y on the temperature. Due to eration feedstocks include el Ahorro de la Energía The chemical process of the azeotrope formed by used oil, which avoids its (IDAE), to produce biodiesel transforming oil into biodiesel

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involves three consecutive oil in a basic medium. The minimises mass transfer stages of transesterification The scientific acid catalysts most widely problems, homogenises and of the three fatty acids of the community and used are Brönsted (sulphuric reduces viscosity of the rea- triglyceride molecule. Each or sulphonic acid at 2.25 M – gent mixture, thereby increas- molecule of triglyceride yields modern industry molar concentration: number ing reagent diffusion velocity. three molecules of biodiesel is sparing no effort of moles of solute per litre of The enzymes are also inhib- and one of glycerol. The cata­ solution) and at high tempera­ ited by the phospholipids lysts may be homogeneous to achieve tures (100ºC) for relatively contained in certain oils. This or heterogeneous (acids or more efficient, long periods (over three can be overcome by degum- bases) or enzymatic. For oils hours). Transesterification of ming this type of feedstock with a small quantity of water economy and oil can normally be carried beforehand. and free acidity, the most environmentally- out with methanol or ethanol, commonly used catalysts are but biodiesel can also be The glycerine and biodiesel NaOH, NaOMe or KOH in friendly biodiesel obtained from higher alcohols are separated in two phases, proportions of 0.3% to 1.5%. and bioethanol such as butanol. Scientists decanted and washed to These produce yields of are currently trying to find obtain the necessary quality. 85-94% at temperatures of production low-cost heterogeneous cata- The glycerine obtained is between 25-85ºC (normally lysts with acid and/or base industrial quality but can be 65ºC) and with a slight molar methods centres (zeolites and others purified to obtain pharmaco- excess of water. These proc- designed in the laboratory), logical grade. The excess esses are faster (taking less which can be used packaged alcohol and washing water than an hour) and more eco- in fixed-bed reactors, be (0.2 tonnes of water per tonne nomical. But the catalyst is reused in successive cycles of biodiesel) must be recycled disabled in the presence of and do not contaminate the for economic and environ- water and free acids present product obtained (continuous mental reasons. The process in the cheaper and recycled system). These and other is approached from an integral oils used as feedstocks. enzymatic catalysts are too refining perspective, where These form soaps which con- slow and expensive, but the glycerine produced can be siderably complicate the given their significant advan- used for esterification of the process of extracting and tages, work is underway to free fatty acids in the process purifying biodiesel, pushing obtain improved low cost by with an acid catalyst, or com- up the cost. In the presence high catalytic efficiency cata- mercialised for the pharma- of soaps, up to 60% of the lysts designed in the labora- ceuticals industry, making the installation can be devoted to tory. Enzymes do not form biodiesel plant considerably purifying the biodiesel and soaps and produce top qual- more competitive. glycerine, which increases ity glycerol. The inhibition of the initial investment and the the biocatalyst by alcohol is A wide variety of reactors is plant’s running costs. In these solved by sequential addition used for these processes. cases, an acid catalyst is of alcohol as the reagent is The most common type for used during an early stage of used up, and the accumu- recycled and first-generation the process to reduce the lated glycerine is withdrawn oils is a stirred tank, which levels of free acids to below from the catalyst’s environ- involves a discontinuous 1%. This is then followed by ment with a cosolvent or by process in which the mixture the transesterification of the decanting. The cosolvent of products is separated into

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/// Biodiesel emissions compared with those of petrodiesel //////////////////////////////////////////////// ture range, and thermophylic bacteria at over 40ºC. The Emission reductions sources of carbon and nitro-

20 gen must be in the right pro- portion in the digestor in relation to the mineral salts. 0 The pH of the process has to be monitored to keep it sta- –20 ble. The process consists of three phases: (i) hydrolysis, –40 to convert organic matter into organic acids, hydrogen Percentage (%) Percentage and carbon dioxide; (ii) acid- –60 ification, in which acetogenic bacteria degrade the acids –80 to acetate; and (iii) methano- genesis, where the achae- –100 bacteria turn the acetic and Hydrocarbons Carbon Microparticles Nitrogen Sulphur Polyaromatic Non-polyaromatic Photochemical monoxide oxides oxides hydrocarbons hydrocarbons smog other short-chain organic acids into methane and car- Pollutants bon dioxide.

Despite the environmental advantages and potential two phases (biodiesel and Biogas is a mixture of meth- economic benefits for rural glycerine). Alternatively, Despite the ane (55-75%) and carbon areas, biogas remains under- instead of a discontinuous environmental dioxide (25-45%). It is pro- developed in Spain. process, continuous stirred duced by anaerobic fermen- tank reactors (CSTR) can be advantages and tation of a variety of organic In 2010 the production capac- used in large plants, with potential economic wastes, such as residues ity exceeded 4 million toe in yields of 98%. Another type from the agrofoods industry, four bioethanol plants of reactor is the plug flow benefits for rural refuse and animal or human (464,000 tonnes) and 47 reactor (PFR) in which the areas, biogas excrement. It is an environ- biodiesel plants (4,318,400 mixture is moved longitudin­ mentally beneficially energy tonnes). The PER 2011-2020 ally. A PFR, which is equiva- remains sources as it reduces the sets targets of an increase in lent to several CSTR reactors underdeveloped volume of polluting wastes production on the 2010 level in series, reduces residence and is obtained cleanly. The of 56.5% for bioethanol and times to 6-10 minutes and in Spain wastes have to be stored in 52.6% for biodiesel. The plan can operate at high pressures tanks (digesters). Fermenta- also envisages the creation of and temperatures. Other tion in the absence of oxy- a National Plan for the Tech- reactors that use supercritical gen is achieved with psicro- nological Development of Bio-

CO2, microwaves or ultra- phylic bacteria at under fuels to foster their develop- sound are too expensive for 20ºC, mesophylic bacteria in ment over the coming use on an industrial scale. the 20ºC to 40ºC tempera- decade.

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Energy crops and biofuels

By 2020 the Member States of the European Union are supposed to have cut their greenhouse gas emissions by 20%, raised the share of total energy consumption met from renewable sources to 20%, and increased energy efficiency by 20%.

Antonio Leyva (1) Gonzaga Ruiz de Gauna (2)

(1) Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CSIC) (2) Plataforma Tecnológica de Biotecnología Vegetal (BIOVEGEN)

he threats of climate through the Strategic Energy achieve these ambitious or biogas, plays a fundamen- change, the worldwide Technology Plan, SET-Plan) goals it will be necessary to tal role as it accounts for over T g ro w t h i n e n e r g y known as 20-20-20. This triple the current level of two thirds (68%) of the total demand and the growing dif- resolution committed Mem- renewable energy output renewable energy produced ficulty of extracting oil at ber States to reducing and multiply biofuel produc- in the European Union. This competitive prices, due to its greenhouse gas emissions tion by a factor of ten. There- article will try to give an out- increasing scarcity, have led by 20%, increasing the share fore, obtaining competitively- line of the current state of industrialised countries to of renewables in the mix of priced biofuels has become development of energy promote the development of total energy consumed to a priority for all industrialised crops, plants in particular technologies enabling new 20%, and achieving a 20% countries. (leaving to one side the pro- renewable sources of energy increase in energy efficiency duction of algae, which would to be identified. Against this by 2020. This resolution also Although just one of the pos- require a chapter of its own). backdrop, in December sets a target of 10% for the sible renewable sources of We will therefore focus on 2008 the European Union share of European trans- energy (along with wind, geo- biofuels obtained from photo- adopted a long-term strat- port’s total fuel consumption thermal, solar, hydro), bio­ synthetic organisms able to

egy (the Renewable Energy that is to be met using bio­ energy, whether obtained from fix CO2 and so produce bio­ Road Map, implemented fuels. For Member States to solid biomass, liquid biofuels fuels renewably. This article

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aims to give an overview of Antonio Leyva their potential and the chal- Antonio Leyva has a doctorate in Biology and is a researcher at the CSIC, where lenges the technology faces he currently leads a research group at the National Biology Centre (CNB-CSIC). in order to meet the energy He has run various research lines during his scientific career, all relating gene demands of a society that is expression signalling and regulation in plants. His current research includes a line concerning the effect of carbon fertilisation on energy crops. He has taken increasingly concerned about part in 28 research projects and published over 40 scientific articles in high the environment. impact journals. He has promoted a number of business initiatives relating to biotechnology, participated as executive secretary in the creation and consoli- First-generation biofuels dation of the Association for Plant Genomics R&D (INVEGEN) and the Plant Bio- Liquid biofuels are used as technology Technology Platform (BIOVEGEN). Antonio Leyva. substitutes for petrol and die- Gonzaga Ruiz de Gauna sel used in transport and industry, given that in princi- Gonzaga Ruiz de Gauna is an agronomist and has a master’s degree in Biotechnology Business Management. He is currently the manager of the ple, with the right design an Association for Plant Genomics R&D (INVEGEN) and coordinator of the Plant internal combustion engine Biotechnology Technology Platform (BIOVEGEN), institutions that bring together can be run on almost any companies and scientists in the sector. His activities include the creation and organic liquid or gasifiable coordination of R&D projects, consulting on issues relating to R&D management (intellectual property and protection of research results, R&D funding fuel, either alone or in combi- mechanisms), preparation of reports and studies on the organisation of various nation. The substitutes for forums to promote technology transfer. He previously worked as a technology fossil fuels are bioethanol and transfer agent at the Spanish Genome Foundation (Fundación Genoma biodiesel, which are obtained España). Gonzaga Ruiz de Gauna. from farmed crops. Bioetha- nol (an alcohol fuel which was used in the first Otto-cycle engines instead of petrol) is a product obtained from fer- menting sugars (which in turn materials for the manufacture raw material used to make This has led to a degree of are obtained from crops with of biofuels (the so-called first tortillas, which are the coun- rejection by society of the a high sucrose content, such generation biofuels) has been try’s staple food). This rise in use of these crops to pro- as sugar cane, sugar beet, controversial in recent years, cereal prices was largely duce bioenergy. On this point molasses or sweet sorghum) as in some cases they have attributable to the use of it is worth highlighting that or starches (grains such as led to land being turned maize to produce ethanol. although first generation bio- wheat, barley and maize, away from food crop produc- This led to widespread dem- fuels are not the solution, tubers such as potatoes or tion. In conjunction with the onstrations against the gov- they have attracted the roots such as cassava). For its growing demand for cereal in ernment. Moreover, these attention of large companies part, biodiesel is a substitute Asia, this led to a dramatic fuels have also been blamed and led to an industrial base for diesel and is obtained from rise in cereal prices, which for deforestation in the trop- developing that will ultimately the transesterification of oils went so far as to threaten ics, where trees are cleared enable second generation and fats of vegetable origin supplies in some countries. to make way for land on crops to be processed. (soya, rapeseed, sunflower, The so-called “Tortilla Wars” which to grow biofuel crops, Thanks to these efforts, there palm, etc.). in Mexico (2006) are a case fed with massive quantities of has been a strong rise in the in point. This conflict was fertiliser and worked with financing of research projects However, the use of starches caused by a rise in the price machinery, with the attend- to identify and domesticate and oils as sources of raw (by over 50%) of maize (the ant environmental damage. energy crops that do not

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used for food, and secondly the identification and domes- tication of new crops reduc-

ing the net CO2 balance and which are easily processed at competitive prices. At the same time, the availability of cultivatable land is becoming ever more limited, as high- lighted by the fact that some countries, like China, are cul- tivating land in Africa and elsewhere. Therefore, an essential requirement for these new crops will be their ability to grow on nutrient- poor or polluted marginal land with a limited water sup- ply, making it unfeasible for food production. That is to say, so-called “second gener- ation biofuels” need to resolve all these challenges and overcome the associated The next generation of crops for biofuel production must be able to grow on nutrient-poor or polluted marginal land with a limited production and processing water supply making it unfeasible for food production. technology problems.

Second-generation biofuel is obtained from the break- compete with food produc- respectful to society and the The use of starches down of lignocellulose or tion and which can be grown, environment. lignocellulosic material harvested and processed and oils as raw obtained form agricultural using a small enough quan- Second-generation biofu- wastes produced during har- tity of energy to ensure they els: a step forward materials for the vesting, or from herbaceous are carbon neutral, so as to The technology for the next production of or woody plants. Lignocellu- make them genuinely renew- generation of crops for bio- lose is highly abundant in able. All new technologies fuel production aims to biofuels has been nature (it is estimated that start out inefficient, but that ensure that the raw materials very controversial approximately 200 billion should not put us off. We do not compete with food tonnes are synthesised need to trust that the tech- production. The routes to in recent years annually worldwide), as it is nology, on which our future resolving this challenge present in vegetable matter development relies, will be involve, firstly, the use of as the main component of able to provide solutions to food-crop wastes, i.e. vege- plants’ cell walls. In fact, it is the problem of energy that is table matter not currently not the substance that gives

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plant tissues their rigidity. is not used for food. This seek increased yields of American plains which is able This material comprises a means vegetable wastes higher quality crops, the aim to adapt to a wide range of mixture of lignin, hemicellu- produced during the cultiva- is to produce large quantities climatic conditions. Or Mis- lose and cellulose, and in tion of food crops can be uti- of biomass –and therefore canthus giganteus, a peren- turn, the cellulose comprises lised. These wastes stand cellulose– quickly. In other nial hybrid from East Asia a long chain of sugar mole- out as the optimal source of words, the aim is to achieve which is related to sugar cules, which means that raw material for sustainable rapid vascular plant growth cane. Its average biomass almost any vegetable waste biofuel production. with little or no addition of production is twice that of would be suitable for conver- agricultural inputs (water, fer- Panicum virgatum and it sion into sugar and subse- Agronomists are therefore tiliser, use of machinery, etc.). exceeds that of maize by quent fermentation by yeast working on improving energy Promising plant species such 50%. It can also be grown on to produce the desired crops, but rather than take as switchgrass (Panicum vir- land that is not suitable for bioethanol. Cellulose has the their traditional approach, gatum), a fast-growing her- food crops. Other woody additional advantage that it which has tended to be to baceous plant native to the species that are also of inter- est include Paulownia, a deciduous tree native to East Asia which is widely used in reforestation and as a source of timber. This tree is begin- ning to be introduced in Spain on account of its rapid growth and versatility, as it can also be used to remedi- ate degraded soils.

As regards the production of second-generation biodiesel, as mentioned above, it is obtained from a chemical process (transesterification) using vegetable oils. Work is currently underway to identify and improve other oil-pro- ducing species whose seeds can be used to extract better quality oils to substitute for those traditionally used as raw materials such as soya, rape, sunflower, palm, etc. which have clear food-use applications. One of the energy crops that has raised The rise in maize prices in Mexico (2006), which led to the so-called “Tortilla Wars,” is largely attributed to the use of maize to greatest hopes in this regard produce ethanol. is Jatropha curcas. This

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shrub, originally from Central ropha is appropriate for cul- America and Africa, is a tivation on non-productive member of the Euphorbia land. It is a good fallow crop, family and its seeds have as its root system has been long been used as a source found to slow soil erosion of oil for soap and candle- and enhance water storage making. One of its advan- capacity. This all leads to tages, apart from the oil con- greater biomass growth and tent of its seeds (over 40%), increased organic carbon is the fact that it grows in storage in the soil. However, non-cultivatable or eroded the crop faces a number of soils, so does not compete drawbacks deriving from the with food crops. Countries fact that it has never been such as India (with between domesticated and its agron- 500 and 600 thousand hec- omy is not well developed: tares) and China (with its yield is unknown, its seed around 2 million hectares, production depends on envi- according to 2007 data) ronmental conditions (it have embarked on the mass requires vernalisation) and its production of this crop, cultivation has not been which can live for over 50 mechanised. Its optimal years and produce fruit for growing conditions have also 30 of them, even during not yet been determined, and droughts. The Philippines the possible adverse envi- and a number of African ronmental impacts its large- countries have also begun scale production might have planting this crop on a large are unknown. As regards scale. The research being yields, the estimates vary carried out (for instance at widely: from 700 to 1,300 the Central Salt and Marine litres of biodiesel per hectare. Biotechnology will become an essential tool in the development of efficient and Chemicals Research Insti- Research is underway into the sustainable biofuel production. tute–CSMCRI) shows that optimal conditions for Jat- obtaining biodiesel from Jat- ropha growth as a source of ropha is more advantageous, biodiesel, but its cultivation in terms of energy efficiency, has not yet developed. More- ogy on an industrial scale. enzymes is very expensive,

energy use and CO2 emis- over, it is not a crop that is The main problem is not the however, meaning that they sions, than from other feed- well suited to Spain’s climate. fermentation process itself, have to be ten times more stocks, such as oilseed but obtaining sugar from efficient at breaking down rape, sunflower and soya. Second-generation crops cellulose more efficiently. lignocellulose biomass than Researchers in India (where clearly still need big technol- Here the cellulases, which starch. This is due to the fact research into the use of this ogy development efforts to are enzymes that cut the that cellulose is surrounded plant as a source of oil for be made. Indeed, there is as cellulose polymer chains by lignin, making it inacces- biodiesel is possibly furthest yet still no cellulose-based to release sugar, play a cru- sible to the cellulase. From advanced) agree that Jat- ethanol production technol- cial role. Obtaining these the point of view of the

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crops, improvements in plant The technology for ther development work is and polymers with potential biotechnology may contrib- needed include: for biofuel production. ute to solving the problem by the next generation means of the identification of of crops for biofuel • Better lignocellulose crops R&D on plant biotechnology species and molecular tools (second generation crops has developed spectacularly enabling crops to be gener- production aims to that do not compete with in recent years, and this tech- ated in which the cellulose is food crops) dedicated to the nology can now contribute its more readily accessible to ensure that the raw generation of energy for tools to successfully meet the the enzymes, yielding a materials do not combustion and as a source challenges the sector faces. lignocellulose that is more of sugar for bioethanol pro- amenable to saccharification compete with food duction. To achieve this it is Genomics and molecular biol- so as to allow sugar to be production important to deepen our ogy in general will enable the obtained more efficiently. understanding of and con- applied potential of new previ- This technological effort is trol over the biochemical ously unutilized species to be crucial to consolidating bio- pathways for the synthesis determined efficiently and fuels, as it will enable agricul- and degradation of the existing varieties to be used tural wastes to be used sus- lignocellulose material, and for the production of biofuels tainably without competing identify and improve new more efficiently, in an environ- with food production. species, in order to make mentally friendly way that them easier to process and avoids compromising food The major challenges for transform into fuel. production. energy crops As mentioned above, the • New and better oil crops Latest generation plant biol- production of biofuels in the (which do not compete with ogy will enhance our know­ form of both bioethanol and oil-based food crops), whose ledge of basic aspects of biodiesel faces four chal- lipid profile is ideal for biodie- plant growth and metabol­ lenges: (1) its cultivation must sel and even biolubricant pro- ism, leading to crops that not compete with food pro- duction. increase their biomass, fix duction and (2) must be CO2 CO2 effectively and whose neutral; (3) production must • New and better biofactory sugar extraction from cellu- be homogeneous to ensure products which can be used lose is more efficient and supplies for industrial plants as a direct source of hydro- which may even accumulate (extraction facilities, biorefin- carbons (“third-generation feedstocks for the generation eries, fermenters); and (4) the biofuels”) obtained from sec- of biofuels directly. extraction methods must be ondary metabolites accumu- competitive from the energy lated in new as yet unutilised Biotechnology will undoubt- and economic point of view species. edly become an essential tool to compete over the long for the development of sus- term with the price of other • New approaches to the cul- tainable and efficient produc- non-renewable energy tivation of biomass in confine- tion of biofuels, which will sources. ment (micro-organisms, cell allow us to confront the cultures, microalgae, urban or energy and environment chal- The main issues where signifi- industrial wastes), producing lenges of the coming dec- cant barriers remain and fur- biomolecules rich in energy ades.

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Hydrogen: production methods

Like electricity, hydrogen is an excellent energy carrier as it can be produced from a variety of abundant precursors, such as natural gas, coal, water and renewable energy sources. The use of hydrogen in fuel cells, particularly in the transport sector, will enable future diversification of the energy supply, with greater utilisation of domestic resources, and so reduce dependence on oil imports.

José Luis G. Fierro

Instituto de Catálisis y Petroleoquímica (CSIC)

General points ideal candidate to replace nat- Hydrogen various precursors by means Hydrogen (H2) is considered ural gas in the medium-to- of chemical or biochemical the most attractive form of long term. does not produce processes. energy for the near future greenhouse gases because its combustion is Given that it does not produce The chemicals industry pro- non-polluting. When hydrogen greenhouse gases during during combustion, ducing ammonia, methanol is combined with oxygen from combustion, hydrogen has and refined petroleum con- the air, it releases the chemical huge potential to reduce the meaning it has sumes approximately 66% of

energy stored in the H-H CO2 emissions produced by considerable annual H2 output, which is bond, producing just water combustion of its fossil fuel estimated at 35 million metric vapour as the combustion precursors. In its free form, potential to reduce tonnes (MTm). The rest is product. It can be stored as a hydrogen is almost non-exist- CO emissions consumed in other industrial pressurised gas or liquid, or ent on the Earth, so is not a 2 processes. Hydrogen is con- distributed over gas pipelines. primary energy source. How- sidered an ideal fuel, as it These features make it an ever, it can be produced from does not emit greenhouse

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gases during combustion. José Luis G. Fierro This feature becomes even José Luis G. Fierro has a Doctorate in Chemical Sciences from the Madrid more attractive when fuel cells Complutense University and made various foreign study visits before joining the are used. These devices turn CSIC’s Institute of Catalysis and Petrochemistry in 1978, where he has been a the chemical energy stored in research professor since 1989. His lines of research include heterogeneous catalysis, hydrogen production, petrochemistry, natural gas conversion, chem- the H-H bond into electrical ical technology, environmental catalysis, clean production technologies and power by means of a process materials chemistry. A large share of his scientific work has been carried out in that does not rely on the Car- collaboration with the private sector. not cycle. This means the He has written and co-authored 920 publications in specialist scientific journals, energy efficiency is two or he is the author of 30 patents and has edited and co-authored eight books, and three times that of a combus- he has supervised 30 doctoral theses, sat on Repsol’s International Technology tion engine. These arguments Advisory Committee, been elected a representative of the Spanish Catalysis leave no doubt as to the Society at the International Catalysis Council, coordinator of the CSIC’s Chem- istry and Chemical Technologies Area, and Member of the CSIC’s Scientific importance of the role hydro- Advisory Committee. José Luis G. Fierro. gen will play in developed His numerous prizes and accolades include the Iberoamerican Catalysis countries’ energy arrange- Federations’ prize, the “Miguel Catalán” senior research prize from the ments in the medium-to-long Community of Madrid, the Renewable Energy Prize, and an honorary doctorate term. Large-scale hydrogen from the University of Patras (Greece). production would not only alleviate dependence on oil, but also reduce environmental pollution when fuel cells are adopted for both mobile and is currently used to produce contains a proportion of car- carbons such as ethane, pro- stationary applications. hydrogen industrially, as it is bon monoxide, which is in pane and butane, which the most economic technol- turn transformed in a second break down easily to produce Industrial processes ogy. The chemical reaction or third reactor to produce carbon residues during meth-

Although H2 can be produced involved is: extra hydrogen through a ane reforming (methane by reforming natural gas, reaction with water vapour. being the main component), → naphtha, heavy fuel oil or CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2 The resulting gas is mostly a prior reforming stage is coal, the higher H/C (hydro- hydrogen, but also contains needed (pre-reforming) to gen-carbon) atomic ratio in The natural gas reacts with carbon dioxide and small transform part of the hydro-

CH4 compared to other mol- the steam over a nickel cata- quantities of unconverted carbons present in natural ecules suggests that natural lyst in the primary reformer at methane and traces of carbon gas into a CO/H2 mixture. gas –of which the main com- temperatures of 1,200ºK and monoxide (usually 1% by vol- This process is incorporated ponent is CH4– is the best at a total pressure of 20-30 ume). Current H2 production upstream of the reforming suited precursor for hydrogen atmospheres. Given that nat- plans incorporate compres- unit and makes it possible to production. ural gas contains sulphurous sion/absorption/desorption work with a variety of feed- impurities, a preliminary clean- purification units enabling high stocks, ensuring a constant Reforming hydrocarbons and ing stage is needed to avoid purity hydrogen to be supply to all reforming units. methanol degrading the catalyst. The obtained (99.999% by vol- Pre-reforming has a powerful Steam reforming of methane clean methane flow is then ume). impact on the composition of

(CH4) is a process that has reacted in a reactor containing the gas feeding the steam been used to produce H2 for a nickel catalyst. The gas pro- As natural gas contains a reforming unit. Thus, the several decades. This process duced is high in hydrogen but small fraction of other hydro- longer-chain hydrocarbons

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are completely eliminated at bon-air mixture. Sulphur is moisture. The hydrogen the same time as a fraction of eliminated at the reactor out- stream is dried over an

the methane is converted. let as H2S and then steam is absorbent and the oxygen Given that these long-chain injected before the gas impurities are eliminated with hydrocarbons tend to form passes to the water-gas-shift a Deoxo converter. The elec- carbon, this pre-reforming reactor. For polymer mem- trolysis process also pro- process minimises the pro- brane fuel cells the CO levels duces oxygen at the anode. duction of carbon residues are kept below 10 ppm, The volume is half that of the during the methane reform- which is achieved by passing hydrogen produced, as ing. This results in longer life- the flow over highly active defined by the molecular times of the catalyst systems and selective catalysts, able composition of water. Most used. to oxidise the CO impurities electrolysers are of the tank Modern steam natural-gas reforming to CO at room temperature. type with parallel electrodes. plant. 2 The steam used in the steam The reformer works satisfac- The heat released during the reforming reaction can be torily with various types of process is eliminated by replaced with carbon dioxide, fuel. However, the problems recirculating the water oxygen or a mixture of the simple as it does not take deriving from the presence of around the cells. It is worth two. These advanced reform- into account the formation of sulphur compounds and the noting that the fact that the ing designs are similar to clas- intermediate oxygenated deposition of coke on the hydrogen produced by costs sic steam reforming but are compounds, although for catalyst have not been around 4.9-5.6 kWh per m3, only used in specific cases. In economic reasons it is only entirely solved. Bearing in which makes it at least twice particular, this alternative is used where an excess of mind the impact of this tech- as expensive as hydrogen used when wishing to use the methanol is available. nology on the environment, obtained from reforming nat-

C/H 2 mixture to produce car manufacturers consider it ural gas. hydrocarbons or methanol The availability of liquefied to be one of the possible

rather than produce only petroleum gas (LPG) and dis- options for on-board H2 gen- Given that conventional elec-

hydrogen. tillates and the good distribu- eration to feed fuel cells gen- trolysers deliver H2 at high tion network for them make erating the electricity to drive cost, other electrolytic proc- It is also possible to use these fractions ideal candi- the electric motor. esses have been developed.

methanol for industrial hydro- dates for H 2 production. One of these is steam phase gen production instead of However, very little attention Electrolysis of water electrolysis. The reversible methane. In this process the has been paid to the devel- When the volumes of hydro- potential of the cell decreases methanol is reacted with the opment of a process based gen required for a particular as the temperature rises. As steam over a catalyst to pro- on these fuels. The main rea- application are not large, it the cost of the electricity

duce H2. This is an endother- son why this approach has can be obtained by electroly- required for electrolysis to

mic reaction, so the heat not been more widely stud- sis of water. The electrolytic produce H2 from H2O is pro- required is obtained from the ied is that carbon is depos- reaction takes place in an portional to the electromotive combustion of the tail gas ited on the catalyst surface alkaline medium as this force of the cell, the cost together with a small fraction relatively easily. The process increases electrical conduct­ decreases with temperature. of methanol. The hydrogen basically entails the partial ivity. The hydrogen produced The cell is cooled by the fact stream is purified in an oxidation of the hydrocar- at the cathode has to be that the process is endother- absorption/desorption unit, bons. The reactor is sur- purified as it contains impuri- mic and kept at a constant as in the case of methane rounded by an electric oven ties in the form of oxygen temperature by supplying reforming. This reaction is which heats the hydrocar- and a certain amount of external heat. This means

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tion can be minimised by an produce the sulphate again appropriate design of gasifier, and release hydrogen. The incorporating catalytic addi- big advantage of this proc- tives, and by controlling the ess is that it does not pro-

operating parameters. The duce CO2 emissions and it is catalysts reduce the tar con- highly efficiency (85%), how- tent, but are particularly ever, it has not yet been effective at improving the implemented on an industrial quality and enhance conver- scale. sion of the gas fraction pro- duced. Another problem Photochemical processes inherent in the gasification of One extremely attractive way biomass is the formation of of producing hydrogen is by ash, which can cause a build dissociating water on a semi- up of solids, plugging and conductor substrate using 3 Commercial plant producing H2 (150 m /h) by electrolysis of water. deactivation. These problems sunlight. The efficiency of this can be minimised by extrac- process is mainly determined tion and fractioning. by the photo-physical proper- ties and morphology of the that heat is turned into H2 chemical processes such as Thermal processes semiconductor material used. electrochemically without an combustion, liquefaction, Other renewable processes In the current state of the art intermediate Carnot cycle. pyrolysis and gasification. use heat energy to produce of this technology, the com- Thus, at 1,500ºK the amount Ligno-cellulose material is hydrogen. These processes mercial application of hydro- of heat energy used for partially oxidised at tempera- are not catalytic and include gen production by means of thermo-chemical decompos­ tures of over 1,000ºK, pro- thermal dissociation of water, visible spectrum photon ition is 50% of the total. ducing a gaseous fraction using heat from a high tem- energy requires significant Under these conditions the together with a carbon resi- perature energy source, development of the science cost of production is 50% due that is subsequently such as nuclear reactors and and engineering involved to lower than in the conventional reduced to form H2, CO, CO2 solar furnaces. The heat can achieve active and stable process. Another economic and CH4. Gasification of bio- be used to produce a series photocatalysts in the dissoci- alternative for H2 production mass in the presence of O2 of chemical reactions yield- ation reaction. Issues such as is offered by new types of generates a gas stream rich ing net production of H2 and the transfer of charge electro-catalysts able to work in hydrogen which is O 2 at temperatures over between the semiconductor at lower voltages, thereby reformed with water vapour 950ºK. One such process is and the co-catalyst and its reducing the cost. at the exit from the gasifier to based on the decomposition dependence on structural and produce additional hydrogen. of a metal sulphate. The first electronic factors in the inter- The option of renewable The main drawback of the stage in this process is the face remain unresolved. precursors gasification of biomass is tar thermal decomposition of These areas represent excel- Cellulose biomass formation. The heavy resi- the sulphate at temperatures lent opportunities to improve Hydrogen can be obtained dues polymerise and form of close to 1,100ºK, generat- the photocatalysts used in the from a renewable source more complex structures that ing metal oxide and gases photochemical dissociation of such as cellulose biomass. are not suitable for the pro- (SO2 and O2). In a second water. Innovative processes to The cellulose can be turned duction of hydrogen by stage, the metal oxide is oxi- control the morphology of the into H2 via various thermo- steam reforming. Tar forma- dised with steam and SO2 to catalyst at the nanometric

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scale represent another Hydrogen allows building up, which makes it The production of hydrogen avenue of research that will difficult to put this technol- by means of biological sys- enable modulation of photo- the use of a wide ogy into practice. The chal- tems represents one of the catalyst morphology and range of precursors, lenge is to develop catalytic most important challenges reactivity. systems that operate at for biotechnology applied to such as fossil fuels, lower temperatures in order environmental problems. The Reforming ethanol and to minimise deactivation efficiency with which solar sugars nuclear power and processes. energy is converted to chem- A simple way of transporting an increasing share ical energy by biological sys- hydrogen is to use renewa- Water biophotolysis tems is currently quite low, ble precursors, such as eth- of renewable Hydrogen can also be pro- although this is offset some-

anol (C2H5OH) and sugars energy sources duced by biological systems. what by the low investment

(C6H12O6) in the liquid phase. Some photosynthetic micro- costs required to implement These precursors are then (wind, solar, organisms are able to break this type of approach. More- transformed into hydrogen biomass) water molecules down into over, experiments on a labo- by means of reforming proc- their components (H2 and O2). ratory scale have shown that esses with steam or under Certain algae, such as the using photo-heterotrophic pressure in the liquid phase Scenedesmus green algae, systems a conversion effi-

at the point of hydrogen con- produce H2 when they are illu- ciency of solar energy of up sumption. The process of minated with visible light or to 7% can be achieved.

releasing H2 from C2H5OH or kept in anaerobic conditions

C6H12O6 takes place in the in the dark. Green algae are Concluding remarks presence of specific cata- also employed in another The route taken to produce

lysts in reaction systems method of H2 production. The H2 is dictated by the eco- designed to operate either in Secenedesmus species pro- nomics of the process, mar- the gaseous phase or liquid duces hydrogen not only ket needs and environmental phase. The advantage that under irradiation with light but regulations. Hydrogen allows both processes have is that also by fermentation under the use of a wide range of

the raw material (C2H5OH anaerobic conditions, using precursors, such as fossil

and C6H12O6) can be consid- starch as a reducing source. fuels, nuclear power and

ered neutral in terms of CO2 Although the rate of produc- increasingly from renewable

emissions. The main difficulty tion of H2 per unit weight by energy sources (wind, solar, these reactions face is that fermentation is lower than that biomass). Using all these they are not selective, given obtained by irradiation with alternatives, the cost of that the reaction conditions light, the output is kept stable hydrogen as a non-polluting encourage other side reac- by the absence of oxygen. energy carrier will be more tions that give rise to unde- Cyanobacteria also produce stable than any other source. sirable by-products (carbon hydrogen by fermentation in The introduction of hydrogen monoxide, methane, acetyla- the absence of light under and electricity as energy car- dehyde) and therefore, a anaerobic conditions. Of the riers will enable domestic

reduction in the H2 selectivity. various cyanobacteria tested, resources to be exploited Moreover, the catalysts used the Spirulina species has and thereby reduce our suffer deactivation as a shown the highest level of excessive dependence on oil result of carbon deposits activity. imports.

54 | LYCHNOS | Nº 6 | Notebooks of the Fundación General CSIC Science and the Humanities The central goal of the BBVA Foundation’s activity is to support world-class scientific research, music, artistic and literary creation, and the humanities. Science, technology, music and art, and their academic study in the framework of the humanities, form a continuum that acts to shape the culture and sensibility of our time.

The BBVA Foundation promotes knowledge through managed programs that take in research projects, advanced training, and the relaying to society of the products of these research and creative endeavors. Its focus areas are the environment (biodiversity, climate change), biomedicine, basic sciences and technology, economy and society, classical and contemporary music, literature, plastic arts and the humanities.

The BBVA Foundation also recognizes the achievements of researchers and artists through a series of award schemes. The BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Awards, run in collaboration with the CSIC and currently into their third year, honor outstanding contributions at international level that have significantly enlarged the sphere of knowledge in the following eight fields. Basic Sciences (Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics), Biomedicine, Ecology and Conservation Biology, Information and Communication Technologies, Economics, Finance and Management, Contemporary Music, Climate Change, and Development Cooperation.

Through these varied activities, the BBVA Foundation puts into practice one of the BBVA Group’s core principles: to work for a better future for people through the ongoing promotion of knowledge and innovation. www.fbbva.es 03.4 SOURCES OF AUTOMOTIVE ENERGY ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||

Evaluating the impact of the adoption of electric vehicles on electricity distribution grids

The widespread connection of electric vehicles to electricity grids will have technical and economic impacts on the electricity system. The authors analyse the effect on the grid in a region on the Spanish Mediterranean coast, covering approximately 400 km2 and with 170,000 household and business consumers.

Pablo Frías, Carlos Mateo and José Ignacio Pérez-Arriaga

Universidad Pontificia Comillas (ICAI)

Although the forecasts for the combustion engine), in the terms of the operation of the how EVs are charged. In prin- future penetration of electric medium term EVs will be plug- system and possible need to ciple, the batteries would be vehicles (EV) are uncertain, in hybrids or purely electric. upgrade the electricity infra- charged while the EV is not some scientific studies point These will have a larger bat- structure. Various research being used, thus charging it to exponential growth. The tery, depending on the EV’s projects at national and inter- ready for the next round of scenarios for penetration in range, and will need to be national level are trying to transport. This would typically Spain estimate that by 2020 charged from the electricity evaluate this impact and put be the case when the user there could be almost grid. forward solutions. These returns home after a day at 250,000 EVs, rising to 2.5 mil- include the European MERGE work. The location of charging lion by 2030. Although cur- The large-scale charging of project, from which the data in would depend on the infra- rently most EV are hybrid EV batteries will have a techni- this article are drawn. The structure existing at the time. non–plug-in (powered by cal and economic impact on scale of the impact will This could be the user’s a petrol or diesel internal the electricity system, both in depend on when, where and home, public or private car

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parks, or charging stations Pablo Frías Marín (filling stations with an electric Pablo Frías Marín has a doctorate in industrial engineering from the ICAI, Comil- charging service). Finally, the las Pontifical University, where he is a researcher in the Institute of Technology EV battery could be charged Research (IIT). He is currently the coordinator of the Sustainable Smart Grids Area, either quickly or slowly, over which focuses on the analysis and development of models to simulate and opti- mise the electricity grids of the future. He is also a lecturer in the ICAI Department periods that range from sev- of Electrical Engineering and Systems and head of the Electrical Machines Labo- eral hours to just half an hour. ratory. His research work has involved him in a number of Spanish and European The type of charge deter- projects on the impact of integrating generation from renewable sources, distrib- mines the amount of instant uted generation and electric vehicles on the electricity system. Pablo Frías Marín. power used. Carlos Mateo Domingo For example, with currently Carlos Mateo Domingo has a doctorate in industrial engineering from the ICAI, electric energy storage, the Comillas Pontifical University, and a degree in information systems engineering from the Spanish Distance Learning University (UNED). He is currently a capacity of a battery for a researcher in the Institute of Technology Research in the Sustainable Smart plug-in four-seater is gener- Grids Area and the Electronics and Automation Group. He has taken part in the ally between 10 and 50 kWh. development of tools for the modelling and planning of electricity distribution During EV charging the elec- grids over many years. tricity consumed would vary José Ignacio Pérez Arriaga Carlos Mateo Domingo. between 3 kW and 100 kW, depending on whether José Ignacio Pérez Arriaga has a degree in Engineering from ICAI, a doctorate charging is slow or fast. EV and a master in Electrical Engineering (MIT), and is professor and director of the BP chair of Energy and Sustainability, Comillas Pontifical University (ICAI). The users will tend to plug their numerous posts he has held include: founder and director of the Institute of vehicles in as soon as they Technology Research (IIT), head of energy training at the Florence School of get home after a day’s work. Regulation, member of the National Commission of the Electric System, Electricity grids are designed member of the Royal Spanish Academy of Engineering, and independent board to withstand demand peaks, member on the Irish electricity market’s regulatory board. He is currently a permanent visiting professor at MIT, editor of the IPCC report, and a member of which generally occur in the the European Commission’s advisory group on the 2050 energy roadmap. early evening, when large José Ignacio Pérez Arriaga. numbers of consumers return home. This means that peak EV charging will coincide with the existing integration essential in order various different strategies. existing grid as its starting peak in electricity consump- to make more efficient use of Instead it is necessary to point, calculates the invest- tion. In this situation, elec- existing electricity distribu- work with a detailed model ments necessary to supply tricity distribution grid capac- tion network infrastructure. of the electricity distribution new customers and guaran- ity will be insufficient to Possible strategies for opti- grid that includes everything tee legally mandated levels of support the mass adoption mising the management of from the links to the trunk electricity supply quality. The of EV if there are no controls EV charging include the abil- grid and the details of low- investments to meet new on charging. ity to decide the time at voltage connection points for power demand are usually which charging is to take EV charging. required so as to build new Therefore, the forecast high place, and the location of lines to serve consumers not penetration rates for EVs in charging points. A simplified To perform this analysis, the located at available supply the medium term make an analysis would be unable to authors of this article have points, changes in conductor analysis of strategies of EV explore the impact of the used program that, taking an diameter to carry more current

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or to reduce voltage drop trip length. On average, the • Charging during off-peak This calls for implementation over the grid section, or to power consumed during EV times, i.e. from 4 to 6 in the of a sophisticated system of increase substation trans- battery charging is 3 kW and morning. This would require coordinated control, able to former power. the charging time ranges some form of EV charging distribute charging orders between one and eight hours control, for example using a between EVs so as to ensure In what follows, a typical case a day. simple timer. This system they are charged in time ready is presented which aims to could be linked to lower for use. be representative of the To assess the impact of the prices for EV charging at impact of EVs on distribution timing of battery charging, times when there is less The aggregate consumption grids, and which could be three EV charging manage- power consumption, such as on the distribution grid exam- used to extrapolate the ment strategies were consid- the new “super off-peak” ined is shown in Figure 2, impact on other grids nation- ered: rate recently established in including domestic and ally or internationally. The Spain. industrial consumption, objective of the analysis of • Charging at peak times, i.e. together with the three EV the example case is to quan- between 8 and 10 p.m. This • Smart charging. This sys- charging strategies just tify the impact of different EV would be the case of uncon- tem requires coordinated con- described. The graph shows charging strategies (where trolled charging, where EV trol over EV charging so that how charging at peak and and when EVs are charged) users all charge their vehicles the grid’s electricity consump- off-peak times produces two on electricity distribution grid as soon as they get home tion curve during off-peak peaks in consumption. investments. from work. times is as flat as possible. Charging at peak times

The example case examines the impact on a region on the Spanish Mediterranean /// Figure 1. Close-up of the distribution grid analysed ////////////////////////////////////////////////////// coast, covering approxi- mately 400 km 2 and with 170,000 household and business consumers. Figure 1 shows a close-up of the distribution grid, including the medium and low voltage grids, which are shown in thick and fine lines, respec- tively. A scenario associated with a high degree of EV penetration, corresponding to forecasts for 2030 has been studied, based on a fleet of 30,000 EVs in the zone. Dif- ferent types of EVs with their varying characteristics have been considered, such as dif- ferent battery capacities, aver- age consumption and daily

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causes a considerable /// Figure 2. Aggregate daily electricity demand curve for three charging types: uncontrolled charging during increase in the daily peak, peak times, uncontrolled charging during off-peak times, smart charging during off peak times ////////////// exceeding the existing mid- day peak. Finally, smart Industrial Consumption charging produces a flatter 400,000 Household consumption consumption curve at off- 350,000 Charging at peak times peak times, enabling electric- Charging at off-peak times ity system operation to be 300,000 Smart charging managed more efficiently.

250,000 The cost of building the elec- tricity distribution grid in the 200,000 area studied was initially cal- culated, before taking EVs 150,000 into account. Charging Electricity consumption (kW) points on the low-voltage 100,000 network were then located in places where there were 50,000 already domestic consum- 0 ers, and the cost of increas- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 ing network capacity for the Times three charging strategies was calculated. Figure 3 shows the increase in distri- bution grid costs for each strategy, taking the distribu- tion grid without EV as the be little difference between The massive amounting to 31% and 13% baseline. This cost is distrib- the two charging models. in transformer substations uted across the cost of the charging of electric and medium-voltage installa- medium voltage grid, the If a coordinated charging vehicles’ batteries tions, respectively. medium-to-low voltage strategy is not adopted, it transformer substation and would also be necessary to will have a The adoption of a simple EV the low-voltage grid. In the increase the power of the charging control that shifts the case of uncontrolled charg- medium/low voltage substa- technical and load on to these off-peak ing at peak times, the cost of tions and increase the economic impact times practically cancels out upgrading the low-voltage capacity of the medium volt- the need for upgrading of the grid is estimated to be age grid. This upgrading on the electricity medium voltage grid, although around 13% of the cost of would enable the new peak system more power capacity would the grid. The cost of upgrad- in power that appears in the need to be added to the ing the grid in the case of a system to be met. As Figure transformer substations. controlled charging strategy 2 shows, this peak is higher Finally, the smart charging would be much lower, at than that existing in the non- system enables EV charging around 2% in each case. EV case. The extra cost of to be integrated without Moreover, there appears to these upgrades is significant, increasing the need for grid

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/// Figure 3. Increased investment costs for example be made to the medium- distribution grid due to EV adoption, including the cost voltage grid would be If a coordinated for the low-voltage grid, substations, and upgrading the located at large charging charging strategy is medium-voltage grid /////////////////////////////////////////////////// centres and so not affect the whole distribution grid, as not adopted, it 35 34.1% would be the case if vehicles would also be are charged from the low- 30 voltage grid. Therefore, necessary to capacity would need to be 25 increase the power increased much less in the 20 case of uncontrolled EV of the medium/low 12.8% 13.4% charging. And the upgrades voltage substations 15 needed to the medium-volt- and increase the 10 age grid would be minimal if Increased investment costs (%) Increased there were some form of capacity of the 5 1.7% 1.0% control. 0.9% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% medium voltage 0 From the results of the Peak Off-peak Smart Peak Off-peak Smart Peak Off-peak Smart grid Low-voltage grid Low-voltage grid Medium-voltage grid example case looking at the various different EV charging strategies, certain general conclusions may be drawn which might be applicable to improvements upstream of nodes of the electric grid, other zones. First of all, the the low-voltage grid. such as large public or pri- penetration of a large vate car parks, shopping number of EVs, as is pre- The second point to evaluate centres, railway stations, air- dicted in the long term, is the influence of the location ports, etc. could require multiple grid of the EV-battery charging upgrades so the vehicles points associated with each of The results of the increase can be charged. Adopting a the two charging models: in the total cost of the strategy of charging sched- upgrades (including the cost uling management could Distributed low-voltage of the medium-voltage grid, therefore minimise the efforts charging, as analysed in the medium-low voltage and needed. In the example case previous case, where charg- low-voltage transformer sub- analysed, we can observe ing points are located at stations) for the two models that even a simple control some of the domestic con- is shown in Figure 4. Firstly, system that shifts charging sumption points on the low- concentrating charging in onto off-peak times signifi- voltage grid. the medium-voltage range cantly reduces the need to eliminates the need to upgrade the grid. The cost of Charging concentrated in upgrade the low-voltage grid implementing this control the medium-voltage grid, and the medium-to-low-volt- model would be minor, as it where charging points would age transformer substations. would be sufficient to fit a be concentrated at a few The upgrades that need to timer in the EV itself. This

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outcome depends on the more renewable generating /// Figure 4. Increased cost for the example distribution grid simplifications adopted, as capacity (during times of low associated with the adoption of EVs in the case of distributed or average charging profiles demand and high renewable localised charging points /////////////////////////////////////////////// have been used for consum- generation output) and maxi- ers and EV charging, and in mise operational security by 18 16.8% practice, local issues with limiting EV charging (for the distribution grid could example, at times of low 16 make additional upgrading renewable generating output 14 necessary. and the non-availability of 12 one or more thermal power 10 The use of a more sophisti- stations). Therefore, the cated control strategy would sophisticated control of EV 8 reduce yet further the need to charging would have add- 6 increase the capacity of the itional benefits beyond reduc- Increased investment costs (%) Increased 4 distribution grid, enabling ing the need for distribution 1.8% 1.0% more efficient use to be made grid infrastructure. 2 0.0% 0.4% 0.0% of the electricity grid as a 0 whole. However, this control Aggregate charging on the Peak Off-peak Smart model requires significant medium-voltage grid requires investments in control and less investment in the elec- Distributed charging connected Distributed charging connected to low-voltage grid to medium-voltage grid communications which have tric grid than distributed not been included in the pre- medium-voltage charging. ceding analysis. The hier­ This solution would be archical system of sending EV cheaper to implement, as charging control signals the medium-voltage grid would require bidirectional already has greater visibility important to address the Although the need for new communication between the and is easier to control, as issue of the appropriate regu­ grid upgrading would emerge medium-low voltage sub­ operated by a single owner latory measures for the vari­ in the medium and long term, stations and EVs in real time, and has fewer control points. ous different agents involved it is necessary to put meas- which would be a major Nevertheless, for both mod- to be able to share the cost ures in place in the short advance on the present situ- els of location of charging of their development and the term. In this regard, it is nec- ation. Upstream, the trans- points it would be necessary possible benefits to be essary to consider the devel- former centre would receive to solve some of the regula- derived. This new regulation opment of smart grids for the orders from the substation tory issues, such as supply- is complex as it involves distribution of electricity as connected to the trunk grid, ing and deciding the owner- numerous agents, such as an opportunity to optimise as defined by the despatch ship of new meters for EV electricity distribution com- the management of the dis- centre of the electricity distri- charging or the ownership of panies, energy utilities, zone- tribution grid of the future, bution company based on the charging grid. level load managers, town which would allow the opti- overall grid optimization cri­ halls and the owners of EVs. mal management of not just teria. Finally, the trunk grid Given that in the scenario of These measures should aim EVs but other distributed operator would manage the high levels of penetration to encourage the adoption of resources, such as gener­ electricity grid in an aggre- benefits are to be obtained EVs by eliminating possible ation from renewables or the gate way, using the EV’s con- from the improved manage- barriers to their develop- management of industrial trol capacity to integrate ment of EV charging it is ment. and domestic demand.

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Towards electric transport

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Motor manufacturers give the green light to electric and hybrid cars

Innovation is a constant feature of the automotive industry, and while the electric car dreams of becoming a reality and hybrids are trying to wrest market share away from petrol and diesel engine vehicles, motor manufacturers continue to explore new avenues of technology.

Ignacio Coll Tellechea

Specialist journalist

nnovation is a constant being debated and reviewed, tion, cut costs, improve serv- dollar rise in the cost of a bar- feature of the automotive there seem to be points of ice provision and enable rel of crude oil increases I industry, and while the agreement between govern- alternative energy sources to annual spending by seven bil- electric car dreams of ments, businesses, social replace fossil fuels. All these lion euros. And this is hap- becoming a reality and actors and citizens as a whole vectors point in the same pening in a scenario in which hybrids are trying to wrest sometimes seem emerge, direction: hybrid (combining the middle classes in emerg- market share away from pet- outside the general instability, internal combustion engines ing countries such as China, rol and diesel engine vehi- which can be taken advan- and batteries) and electric Brazil, Russia, Mexico or cles, motor manufacturers tage of as the tools with which vehicles. India have only just started continue to explore new ave- to build the future. buying cars. nues of technology. Motor vehicles are responsi-

Thus, in the field of energy ble for 14% of CO2 emissions. It should therefore come as no In times of rising uncertainty and transport there is a In non-producer countries surprise that electric and when economic and even broad consensus about the such as Spain, dependence hybrid vehicles have moved political models seem to be need to develop technolo- on oil as an energy source for from research centres to pro- teetering on the brink and are gies that help reduce pollu- transport means that a 10 duction lines.

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Firms in the industry, which Ignacio Coll Tellechea have just gone through a Ignacio Coll Tellechea is a journalist specialising in universities and science. After round of international take- taking an honours degree in Information Science from the Madrid Complutense overs, mergers and alliances, University and a master in Marketing and Communication from UOC, he worked are now facing the challenge as press and protocol officer at the University of Salamanca. In 2003 he set up the agency DICYT, which specialises in science and technology news, and has with the general conviction acted as a communications advisor to the Ministry of Education and Science that the technology jump can- and Ministry of Science and Innovation, and the Education, Science and Culture not be delayed much longer. Department of the Castile-La Mancha regional government. However, there are nuances in their approaches that expose differences in both strategies and goals. Ignacio Coll Tellechea. Thus, the Renault-Nissan alli- ance is firmly backing pure electric vehicles (identifiable by the initials EV, for electric late 2011, followed by the In the field of hybrid, the Prius. This was vehicles, or ZE, for zero emis- Renault ZOE sports car in joined in 2010 by a hybrid sions), which are not pro- 2012. energy and version of the Auris, and next pelled by fuels of any kind. In transport there is a year there will also be a Spain their management’s Betting on hybrids hybrid version of the Yaris. vision is clear: “hybrid vehicles However, most car manufac- broad consensus The Japanese manufacturer’s do not meet our goal of zero turers have opted to put the about the need to strategy for the next decade CO2 emissions or sustainable emphasis on developing is to offer hybrid versions of emissions.” hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), develop all its models. According to which combine the use of bat- their communications unit in For this reason the French teries with internal combus- technologies that Spain, “progress towards multinational has invested four tion engines. This type of vehi- help reduce developing all electric ve-­ billion euros over the last few cle has now reached its hicles is being held back by years in developing electric second generation, with the pollution, cut costs, the weight, bulk and cost of vehicles, and the batteries, so-called plug-in hybrids improve service the large capacity batteries which are their key compo- (PHEV), whose batteries can necessary to provide a range nent. As a result of these be charged by plugging them provision and that is even minimally satis- efforts, in 2012 Renault will be in to the mains. This approach enable alternative factory, together with the the first manufacturer to offer now accounts for the majority absence of adequate charg- a range of four models of of vehicles on the market that energy sources to ing infrastructure. For this electric vehicle: the Fluence ZE are not solely petrol or diesel replace fossil fuels reason, Toyota’s focus in the family car, and the Kangoo ZE powered. short to medium term is on van, both available as of Octo- plug-in hybrid electric vehi- ber, to which will be added a Toyota is the manufacturer cles.” two-seater called the Twizy, that has spent most time which will be produced at the working along these lines. SEAT, which is leading the company’s Valladolid factory, Indeed, it pioneered the CENIT Verde project, is work- and is due to be launched in world’s first commercial ing along similar lines. This

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project, jointly funded by the kilometres), but with the these vehicles compared to Ministry of Science and Inno- security of having a combus- petrol and diesel versions, the However, most vation, and in which 15 other tion engine for longer jour- general lack of awareness of manufacturers businesses and 13 technol- neys.” this type of technology, and ogy centres are taking part, the limited range, mean elec- have opted to put aims to stimulate the manu- Both these cases highlight tric cars are almost unknown the emphasis on facture and marketing of two of the factors holding in Spain. plug-in hybrids and electric back the take-off of pure developing hybrid vehicles in Spain. The electric vehicles: battery life To this long list of problems electric vehicles Volkswagen Group company and the difficulties charging holding back their expan- is also working on producing them. sion, Alfredo Vila, general that combine the hybrids. The management of manager of Citroën in Spain, use of batteries its electric-mobility depart- Although the use of lithium-ion adds that “the major invest- ment describe it thus: “we batteries extends electric ments manufacturers need with internal are working on the concept cars’ range to 160 kilometres, to make to develop new combustion of the plug-in hybrid, which in the best of cases, there is technologies at a time of cri- meets the needs of those strong reluctance among sis; the need to develop the engines customers for whom a pure users to make long journeys requisite large-scale infra- electric car is not feasible but in cars for which there is cur- structure, and customer allows normal trips to be rently not even a minimal acceptance, as in the short- made under electric power (in charging network. This, to medium-term, people will Spain the daily average is 34 together with the high cost of prefer to continue using more competitively priced combustion engine vehicles models running on conven- registered between January tional fuels.” and July.

It is for these reasons that the One of the keys to improving sales figures are so low: 181 sales in the next few years will units sold in Spain in the first be for commercial operators seven months of 2011, to include vehicles of this kind despite direct aid from the in their fleets. However, the government, which in May short-term outlook is not passed a package of incen- promising: according to the tives as part of its Electric latest edition of the company Vehicle Action Plan, with a vehicle barometer by Arval, budget of 72 million euros, BNP Paribas’ vehicle renting and which gives buyers a sub- company, in 2011 Spanish sidy of up to 6,000 euros. companies’ interest in electric vehicles dropped by 90% The panorama is completed compared to the previous with the figures for the year. Thus, just 2% of compa- hybrids sold over the same nies asked planned to opt for period: 6,467, compared with this kind of vehicle for their Image of the Toyota Prius, the first mass-produced hybrid vehicle over half a million internal- fleets before 2014, while the

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vehicles, such as by creating ELECTRICITY UTILITIES HAVE A KEY ROLE TO PLAY charging infrastructure, reserving parking places or Electricity utilities are designing their strategies in conjunction with manufacturers and allowing them to be driven on distributors, as they have a key role to play in the electric vehicle’s take-off. bus/taxi lanes.”

For instance, Endesa has reached agreements with Renault and Peugeot to install charg- To these possible incentives ing points at the two manufacturers’ facilities, and Cepsa and Telefónica have followed the people in charge at suit, in this case developing the necessary technology to retrofit charging points in tele- Renault España add that phone booths. other useful measures would include a road tax rebate, In conjunction with Mitsubishi, Endesa presented the Zero Emissions Mobility for All exemption from parking project in March of this year, which aims to introduce a fleet of 200 electric vehicles and charges, guarantees that over 220 charging points in Málaga, as a test bed for the roll-out of these vehicles across energy costs for electric ve­- the country. hicles remain stable, harmon­ ised legislation across all Iberdrola has also made its moves in the electric vehicles game, with its Plan Movilidad Spain’s autonomous regions, Verde, which will enable buyers to set up a charging and energy supply point, having and standardisation of charg- recently struck a bilateral agreement with Peugeot to support the launch of its iOn model, ing modes. a pure electric vehicle that is now on the market.

Elsewhere in Europe, other major players in the sector are taking decisive steps to set up The challenge for the electric charging infrastructure. Thus, the German utility E.ON announced in late August that it is car also involves information: installing rapid charging stations for electric vehicles on German motorways. With a manufacturers, dealers and charging capacity of up to 50 kilowatts, electric service stations will allow batteries to be government are all making an charged in less than 30 minutes. effort to publicise the advan- tages these vehicles offer their users. For Víctor Piccione, manager of Product Commu- nication and Competition at previous year, this percentage electric and hybrid vehicles on C-Zero (a pure electric vehicle Ford España, “the main advan- was 21%. At European level the road through agreements that is already on the market) tage is their low running cost, this percentage also fell with companies and institu- model to the company FCC for which is approximately a tenth sharply during the year, drop- tions able to raise their profile its construction area. of that of an internal-combus- ping from 21% to 4%. And and stimulate demand. In tion engine vehicle.” Mainte- there is a similar trend in the Spain the latest examples are Another of the keys to their nance is cheap and they are case of hybrids: whereas in to be found at SEAT, which taking root is institutional sup- quiet. In the future they may 2010 30% of companies has provided several León port. This does not mean just also be allowed to access stated that they intended to Twin Drive Ecomotive vehicles direct subsidies to purchas- zones and parking spaces that adopt these vehicles in their (a plug-in hybrid that is not ers. In this regard, the general conventional vehicles may be fleets, this year the figure was available on the market) to the manager of Citroën España prevented from using.” just 16%. Catalonia regional government points to town councils, who and the city councils of Madrid he suggests could “develop The US multinational intends To reverse these trends manu- and Barcelona. Likewise, in plans and measures to pro- to market up two three facturers are hoping to put July Citroën provided six of its mote the uptake of these hybrids and two all-electric

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specialised service station, and takes just three minutes.

Renault also offers car owners the option of leasing the bat- teries, so that the manufac- turer remains in charge of maintenance and possible improvements. This over- comes drivers’ concern about being left in the lurch if they run out of power on a journey, as it includes a 24-hour recov- ery service to tow the vehicle to the nearest charging point. From left to right, Renault’s Twizy, Zoe, Fluence ZE and Kangoo ZE. Innovation is happening all the vehicles in Spain over the next tenance and recycling are also ZOE to travel up to 160 kilo- time, and while the electric car 24 months. Two of them, the issues. In hybrid vehicles the metres. is dreaming of becoming a C-MAX Energi and the C-MAX internal combustion engine reality and hybrids are trying Hybrid, will be produced at ensures that the vehicle still What is more, these batteries to wrest market share away Ford’s Almussafes plant keeps moving when the bat- are maintenance-free, con- from petrol and diesel engine (Valencia). tery goes flat. But what hap- serving between 80% and vehicles, motor manufacturers pens in the case of electric 10% of their capacity after six are continuing to explore new The battery: the touch- vehicles? years. When they need to be avenues of technology. Thus, stone replaced they are recycled, Opel is about to launch an The key component in electric Renault believe they have which avoids their compo- extended-range electric ve- vehicle technology is the bat- solved the problem by replac- nents (which include lithium, hicle called the Ampera, which tery. This supplies clean ing nickel-hydride batteries manganese oxide, iron phos- backs up its 16 kilowatt bat- power able to move the ve­- with lithium-ion alternatives, phate and graphite) polluting tery with a 1.4 litre petrol hicle at the desired speed. The with 48 power modules the environment. engine that works as a gener- Renault Twizy has a power of arranged in two adjacent ator, supplying electricity to 15 kilowatts, equivalent to 20 rows. Each of these modules To charge its batteries, top up the battery. b.h.p.; the Mitsubishi i-MIEV, –the size of a laptop com­ Renault has established three already on sale in Spain, has puter– includes four basic cells. different modes for its vehi- The way forward is clear and 47 kw (64 b.h.p.); and the Inside the cells a series of cles: standard charging from in some cases big steps have Renault Fluence and Kangoo electrochemical reactions take the mains, which takes about already been made: engines have 70 kw. place that either produce cur- six to eight hours; fast charg- running on biofuels, liquefied rent or allow energy to be ing, using a 32 amp three- gas and natural gas, the use Having solved the question of stored. This enables the Twizy phase plug, charging at 400 of fuel cells and hydrogen- power, manufacturers’ and to travel 100 kilometres with- volts in 30 minutes; and so- powered engines. Time, users’ attention has turned to out needing a charge, and the called instant charging or research, costs, and users will range and charging times, electric models of the Flu- Quickdrop, which entails shape the future of the energy and places. But lifetime, main- ence, Kangoo and Renault replacing the battery pack at a that powers cars.

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Automotive energy: solid-state batteries

The first vehicles built at the end of the 19th century were electric. It was only in the early 20th century that they were totally displaced by the emergence of the flourishing and powerful oil industry, which supplied a cheap and abundant fuel. The big question is what will move these cars in the immediate future.

Ricardo Santamaría Ramírez

Instituto Nacional del Carbón (CSIC)

ndividualised personal increased the importance of the search into ever riskier Although most people might mobility (where everybody advances in the use of more and more inaccessible loca- find it surprising, it is not Ihas their own vehicle) is efficient vehicles running on tions, such as the Arctic, really a completely new considered a symbol of our less polluting fuels (elimina- where a spill would cause development, but rather a society’s standard of living, tion of lead or reducing sul- irreversible damage. It is clear return to the origins of the and is something many peo- phur content, for example). that, despite the inertia that it car. The first vehicles built at ple would feel unable to do Nevertheless, the problems holding back the process, the end of the 19th century without. However, we are all are far from having been our society needs to make an were in fact electric. It was aware that our model of resolved. What is more, oil is effort to progressively give up only in the early 20th century development is associated a finite resource, and vehicles powered by fossil that they were totally dis- with problems such as air although we can argue about fuels and switch to vehicles placed by the emergence of pollution, the emission of how many decades reserves powered from non-polluting the flourishing and powerful large quantities of green- will last, it is clear that the sources. The electric car is oil industry, which supplied a house gases and the conges- days of cheap oil are over undoubtedly our best hope in cheap and abundant fuel. tion of our cities. This has once and for all. This drives this regard. The big question is what will

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Ricardo Santamaría Most people will be Ricardo Santamaría has a doctorate in Science from the University of Alicante. familiar with After a three-year stint at REPSOL he joined the National Coal Institute (INCAR- CSIC), where he is currently a scientific researcher. His research focuses on the Li-ion batteries field of carbon materials for energy and environmental applications, and the optimisation of coal and petrol conversion processes. He has filed several from their uses in patents and is in charge of a number of projects linked to the energy and carbon-chemistry sector. His current activities centre on developing various consumer energy storage systems with possible uses in electric vehicles, or on a larger scale, for storage systems in distribution grids. electronics, where they enjoy a virtual

Ricardo Santamaría. monopoly

propel these vehicles in the the automotive market monopoly. The reason for their A first problem, which could immediate future. There are as the main source of power winning out over competing be considered strategic two main candidates: hydro- for vehicle propulsion. Many battery types (such as nickel- in nature, is the need for gen-powered fuel-cells and types of batteries have been metal hydride) include their large quantities of lithium. batteries (or a combination developed in the last few energy and power density, Although the metal is rela- of the two). Both systems years, but as the data in storage capacity, and the fact tively abundant in the earth‘s have their pros and cons, Table 1 clearly show, Li-ion that they do not contain metal crust, the reserves are not and both still need further technology is currently pollutants. But the jump from well known as it has never development in order for the best suited to this appli- a small battery used in an been used in large quanti- electric vehicles to become cation. electronic device to the big ties. At present it is esti- widespread. There are a lot batteries needed to move a mated that half the world‘s of problems associated with Most people will be familiar vehicle is not easy. This reserves are found in Salar hydrogen (production, distri- with Li-ion batteries from their demanding market has vari- de Uyuni, Bolivia, at an alti- bution, storage, safety, etc.) use in consumer electronics, ous specific requirements that tude of 4,500 metres. The and with the use of fuel cells where they enjoy a virtual have to be met. prospects of its use in large (durability, price, use of rare quantities have triggered an catalysts, such as platinum), escalation in prices on the which makes it likely that /// Table 1. Features of various batteries tested in prototypes //// world market and the search solid-state batteries, and for new reserves (apparently most probably lithium-ion Nickel-Cadmium Nickel-metal Lithium-Ion there are also significant Battery type (Ni-Cd) hydride (Ni-MH) (Li-Ion) batteries (Li-ion) will become reserves in Afghanistan). The the first to power mass- Battery weight (kg) 360 260 180 same problem affects other market electric vehicles, metals such as cobalt –cur- Specific energy (Wh/kg) 50 70 140 possibly before the end of rently used in battery cath- the decade. Energy (Kwh) 18 18,2 25 odes– which is a rare and expensive metal. However, batteries still have Range (km) 128 145 205 some way to go before they From the technical view- Maximum speed (km/h) 95 110 120 become firmly established in point, there are six funda-

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mental characteristics we temperature. It is difficult to A first problem, €175 per kWh by 2020, need to take into account: imagine today’s batteries which is approximately the safety, durability, perform- giving the same performance which could be cost of the batteries used in ance, cost, energy density, on a hot summer’s day in considered consumer electronics. How- and current density. Safety Seville or in mid-winter in ever, the batteries required undoubtedly an essential Ávila (or Moscow, for that strategic in nature, are much more complex to factor for a technology’s suc- matter). Batteries can be build and the cost currently cess and everyone associ- optimised for best perform- is the need for large exceeds the target by a fac- ates Li-ion technology with ance under particular tem- quantities of tor of four. Of course, mass the risk of the batteries’ perature conditions, but a lot production of batteries will exploding, which can hap- of improvements need to be lithium. Although bring significant cost reduc- pen under certain circum- made to ensure they can the metal is tions with it, but even so it is stances and is an issue give the same level of per- difficult to see how this goal which becomes more seri- formance across the whole relatively abundant can be met. ous in the case of large bat- range of temperatures the in the earth’s crust, teries, such as those vehicle is likely to confront. The chemistry underlying required for an electric vehi- The energy density and the reserves are not how batteries work plays an cle. A relatively small number power are parameters that well known as it important role in enhancing of accidents might be also need to improve consid- many of the battery charac- enough for the technology to erably, as the values offered has never been teristics that need to be be rejected by users. In any by today’s batteries are a used in large improved, particularly in event, a 60 litre petrol tank of long way short of those of terms of finding the most full of a highly inflammable petrol (just over 1%), which quantities suitable materials with which liquid also poses safety limits the range of electric to optimise functioning. A issues, although petrol no vehicle to just a few hundred wide range of composite longer tends to be perceived kilometres at most. And the materials have been tried out as a risk by society. Durabil- other bad news is that which are able to reversibly ity is no less of an issue for charging times, due to the intercalate lithium ions in their today’s batteries. Manufac- low specific power, are long. structure, such as various turers aim for batteries to For many urban driving types of carbon materials, last approximately ten years, applications, where daily cobalt-nickel-aluminium which is considered to be trips are short and the car oxides, spinel-type manga- the average lifetime of a can be left charging over- nese compounds, iron phos- vehicle. However, they pro- night, current batteries are phates, titanium and lithium gressively lose capacity with adequate, but for long-dis- oxides and many more, but each charging cycle, requir- tance motorway driving, a lot n o n e h a s m a n a g e d t o ing the batteries to initially be of improvements are still improve all the features nec- larger than necessary, thus needed. All these parame- essary for the battery to increasing their weight, bulk ters need to be optimised stand out over the rest, and and price. Performance is without an excessive penalty generally there are trade-offs, another aspect that has to in terms of battery –and such that when safety is be taken into account. And it therefore vehicle– cost. The improved, for example, it is at depends on a number of fac- battery manufacturing indus- the expense of energy den- tors, such as the ambient try has set itself the goal of sity or power.

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/// Figure 1. Schematic diagram of a lithium-air battery during discharging ////////////////////////////// Avoiding the build-up of lith- ium oxides on the carbon pores that prevent the free e circulation of air through the channels and keeping two semi-cells efficiently sepa- rated, one in an organic medium and the other in an aqueous one, with a mem- - OH brane that allows rapid diffu- Li sion of the lithium through it, O2 are significant challenges that need to be overcome OH- Air reliably. Major corporations like IBM and GE are intent on Li O2 developing these cells and Anode: are investing huge sums to - Metallic Li OH bring the goal closer.

Catalyst Whatever the technology or technologies that ultimately prevail, there will be a series Cathode: of intermediate hybrid tech- Organic Aqueous nologies along the way. In Membrane Porous C electrolyte electrolyte reality the first steps have already been made (although in Europe we are quite a long way behind Japan and the US), as there are a number of hybrid vehicles already on the For this reason it is necessary which air from outside the cell Whatever the market. There are various to wait for a breakthrough to flows. ways in which a combustion revolutionise the technology, technology or engine and an electric motor such as lithium-air batteries The combination of ultra- technologies that can be combined, and (also known as lithium-oxygen), light materials and the fact depending on the share of shown schematically in Figure that the reactive part (air) is ultimately prevail, the work done by electric 1. Although these operate external to the cell allow for a there will be a series motors, vehicles can be along the same lines as lith- significant increase in energy classed as micro-hybrids ium-ion batteries, their com- density (between three and of intermediate or electric-drive hybrids. ponents do not include any ten-fold). However, these Micro-hybrids use relatively heavy metals: the anode is cells currently only exist in hybrid technologies low-power motors (4-8 kW) made of metallic lithium and the laboratory and it will take along the way enabling them to run on elec- the cathode of a porous car- several years to bring them tricity alone while being bon-based material through to the commercial scale. driven in town, in start-stop

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mode, or to provide extra Alongside this hall, has teamed up with tric vehicle is not just a tech- power during acceleration or Samsung and Bosch; and nological problem. The com- to smooth out gear changes. change, electricity some of the European manu­ mitment of governments and Full hybrids need to be able generation needs to facturers have formed alli- citizens to international trea- to run solely on electrical ances, such as Renault with ties to reduce greenhouse power for a time, without move towards Nissan or BMW with Saft. gas emissions and the polit­ drawing on the internal com- These collaborative efforts ical will or ambition to bring bustion engine. This requires greater use of have already produced sig- these changes about both more power to be delivered renewable nificant results, such as the play a fundamental role in (50-100 kW) and stored (10- recent launch of the Chevro- making the necessary social 20 kWh). The architectures resources to ensure let Volt, a hybrid that can be changes happen. In the spe- also vary, with motors that the electricity driven on electric power cific case of the automotive directly connected to the alone for up to 50 km, which industry, its considerable drive-train in series or paral- used to charge is sufficient to meet most political and economic mus- lel, or with sophisticated vehicles’ batteries is people’s day-to-day travel cle has put a brake on electronic systems optimis- needs. The auxiliary petrol changes, particularly in ing the amount of power 100% free of CO2 engine gives it a range of up Europe, and it is necessary to provided by each of the to 500 km, enabling the vehi- involve it in order for the tran- motors while the vehicle is cle to be used for longer sition from internal combus- being driven so as to mini- journeys. One of the biggest tion vehicles to electric ones mise consumption. However, steps forward offered by the to take place as quickly as hybrid vehicles are a test Chevrolet vehicle is the bat- possible. The new European bed on which to try out bat- tery guarantee. The manu- legislation makes it obligatory teries, and as the technology facturer, LG, offers a war- for new vehicles sold in 2015 matures, they will play an ranty for eight years or to have average emissions of

increasingly important role in 150,000 km, which is a less than 130 g CO2/km, and vehicle propulsion. major achievement and a big moves are afoot to limit this

challenge for all its competi- even further, to 95 g CO2/km A lot of companies are posi- tors. The Li-ion battery, with (some sectors are even call-

tioning themselves to com- a power storage of 16 kWh, ing for a cut to 80 g CO2/km). pete in the electric vehicle is considered one of the This will force manufacturers market of the future, a fact most advanced on the mar- to introduce vehicles with that is reflected in the part- ket and a firm step towards very low emission levels and nerships that have formed the future. Electric-mode here the role of battery-­ between major car, battery driving yields a cost per kilo- powered electric vehicles and electric motor manufac- metre well below that of pet- (whether pure or hybrid) is turers. Thus, the Korean rol, with a saving varying vital. Alongside this change, manufacturer Hyundai has b e t w e e n 5 0 a n d 7 5 % , electricity generation needs teamed up with LG Chem, depending on local prices of to move towards greater use Chevron Corp and UTC electricity and petrol, which of renewable resources to Power (active in the fuel-cells are always fluctuating. ensure that the electricity business); Ford Motor has used to charge vehicles’ bat- joined forces with Saft; Gen- However, the development teries is generated in 100%

eral Motors, through Vaux- and penetration of the elec- CO2-free ways.

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A future for transport: sunlight, hydrogen ..., fuel cells

As the author points out, in 1900 there were more electric cars than internal-combustion engine ones. Compared with their electric rivals, early petrol engine vehicles were noisy, dirty, smelly, difficult to start and unreliable. What happened that caused electric cars to disappear? Petrol engine vehicles had a longer range, were easy to refuel and ran on a product that was cheap and abundant. Thus, over the last 100 years they have steadily increased the amount of noise, dirt, smell and global warming in our environment. However, it looks as though this is all about to change in the not-too-distant future.

Domingo Guinea

Instituto de Automática Industrial (CSIC)

Never before ... never after lasted until our times. This tial demand growth for long. gally, and where products The idea of continuous devel- contrasts today with life on a Until now the air, water, have to be recycled at the opment, associated with planet known as the “global energy and food have been least possible cost, does not indefinitely growing con- village,” where everything is considered abundant and vir- seem easy. sumption, has been part of brought into reach by the tually unlimited, and their our culture over the last few internet and transoceanic accessibility has depended The use of fossil fuels on a centuries. The notion of there flights. only our technical capacity massive scale since the being a vast and unexplored to extract and use them. industrial revolution has world of immeasurable riches Our planet obviously consti- From this perspective, the boosted both manufacturing that guided Western explor- tutes an almost closed envi- necessary transition to a output and transport. How- ers, merchants and colonists ronment with finite resources, “zero growth” society, which ever, it has also brought radi- since the 15th century has unable to support exponen- resources are used more fru- cal change to the primary

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Domingo Guinea The sun’s daily, seasonal and Domingo Guinea has a doctorate in Physics. He has been a tenured university multi-annual variations are lecturer since 1979 and a research professor at the CSIC’s Industrial Automation what drive the Earth’s water, Institute since 1989. He was a guest lecturer at the University of Drexel, air and carbon chemistry. The Philadelphia (USA) in 1992, were he did research on artificial perception action of chlorophyll, the basis mechanisms and control hierarchy architectures. He has taken part in and directed numerous European, national and regional research projects. He is currently of this process of solar syn- head of the Renewable Energy and Fuel Cells Laboratory at the Institute of thesis of organic matter, is a Industrial Automation (at the CSIC campus in Arganda, Madrid). His work has complex process with a very been published in various professional journals, books and conferences, and he low yield. This energy cap- has a number of patents to his name. He was a reviewer on the Interministerial tured by green plants is Science and Technology Commission and is a member of various professional associations, such the Hydrogen Platform, where he coordinates the stationary passed to herbivores and applications group. He is also President of the Foundation for the Research and from them to carnivores and, Development of Alternative Energies (Fundación para la Investigación y on a secondary level, to car- Domingo Guinea. Desarrollo de las Energías Alternativas) and Vice President of the European rion animals and organisms TSW Foundation for solar construction, based in Switzerland. involved in decomposition, returning it to the soil and water and basic compounds, leaving perhaps a tiny part of its energy as residual organic sector, the exploitation of the Earth. And the time before accumulate them, which is matter which time turns into a water resources, health and these reserves run out, at estimated at several billion carbon-based fossil fuel. But, services in general. This cre- most a couple of centuries years. in each step over 90% of the ated the conditions for a from now, is much less. This energy is lost, just as each kilo­ demographic explosion on a represents an insignificant Life in general, including the gram of mass of a carnivore scale never before seen by time in comparison with that human species, has devel- or scavenger requires about a the human species. which nature has needed to oped thanks to solar radiation. hundred times as much vege-

This technology development /// Growth of the world’s population //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// begun in the industrial revolu- tion enabled a huge capacity to modify or harm the environ- 6 ment. Thus the danger for the 5 ecological niche that enabled ? humankind to develop over 4 First oil well hundreds of thousands of years has increased dramati- 3

cally. Population in billions 2

The two centuries during 1 which we have systematically used fossil fuels could be con- 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 sidered but an instant com- pared with the two million Years years hominids have lived on

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table matter, requiring the /// Energy efficiency of each step from crude oil to driving a car ////////////////////////////////////////// capture of a huge flow of solar energy and huge volume of water to create it.

The organic wastes accumu- lated in fossil fuel reserves are thus the condensed product of solar radiation over time. These energy residues, accessible as coal, oil and gas are the foundations of the Efficiency of oil use industrial revolution, with its spectacular achievements in Source: National Energy Foundation “Energy, Technology and Society.” terms of human development and its enormous impact on the global ecosystem. More­ energy is also used in the port sector. This fact, which is 41,868,000,000 joules = over, the massive and indis- process of cultivation and well-known and accepted as 11,630 kWh). criminate use of these fuels in industrial transformation. This something “normal” in the just a few human generations, yield, which may even result in usual modes of consumption The high level of consumption a mere instant in geological its requiring more energy than s h o w s t h e h u g e j u m p by transport contrasts with time, is the waste of the it produces, contrasts with the between the technical possi- the theoretical limits imposed energy accumulated by living direct capture of solar energy, bilities for savings and the by the principles of physics creatures over the course of which in the case of thermal social, industrial and commer- when moving across the the history of the Earth. energy, both in nature and in cial factors which shape the earth’s surface. The gravita- technology, easily exceeds current state of affairs. tional field is conservative. The Organic wastes contain an 50% and can reach 90% theoretical limit on consump- energy content (the methane absorption of the incident The most significant losses tion for any closed journey, for produced during their decom- energy in deep water, and are thermal losses in the inter- example, Madrid-Seville- position, the hydrogen pro- even the direct photovoltaic nal combustion engine, the Madrid, is ideally zero. Thus duced by assisted electroly- conversion of around 16% for efficiency of which is always the energy necessary to climb sis, etc.) complementing their monocrystalline silicon. limited by the efficiency of its a slope could be recovered traditional use as manure. Carnot cycle. In practice only when going back down, so as Apart from biofuel crop’s Transport: needs and a tiny part of the energy used to achieve this minimum con- demand for resources for their resources for transport is actually used sumption determined by the cultivation or their driving up Inefficient energy manage- to move the vehicle (measured efficiency of the system. The the price of staple foods, the ment plain in the widespread in terms of brake horsepower). actual consumption of a ve- positive energy balance profligate use of energy for hicle on the road or railway is achieved from the primary transport. The schematic dia- According to document difficult to justify only in terms solar energy incident on the gram from the “National 11/2007 by Fundación Alter- of the inevitable friction losses. green plant for conversion to Energy Foundation” shows nativas, energy consumption The movement of each pas- biofuel is tiny, and as well as the typical energy flow, from in Spain is basically split three senger is associated with a the efficiency of photosynthe- “well to wheel,” corroborating ways, with transport taking much greater load mass, with sis being intrinsically limited, the inefficiency of the trans- the lion’s share (1 toe = legacy procedures from tech-

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niques, costs and interests dirt, smell and global warming created by limitations and cir- Final Energy Consumption in Spain in our environment. However, cumstances from the past. 100 million toe it looks as though this is all about to change in the not- The dependence of transport too-distant future. on a limited energy source, namely oil, has meant the We expect a vehicle that is Industry and Stationary: possibility of its replacement Transport able to fill its tank with fuel in Agriculture residential and other by hydrogen –a “clean” fuel– 38 million toe a garage with energy from has been discussed. Over the 32 million toe 30 million toe solar panels on our roof, or a last decade the mighty auto- nearby wind farm, that offers motive industry has focused acceleration of 0-100 km in part of its research on electric power density that is greater absorb and store energy from under five seconds, a reason- propulsion prototypes that are in relation to its mass, but a variety of sources around able cruising speed and often powered by PEM (pro- lower in relation to its volume. them and modulate their which is safe and pleasant to ton-exchange membrane) fuel This fact represents a clear activity according to their drive. Its accelerator responds cells. If the concepts, materi- disadvantage for its use in a energy reserves and needs. In instantly, it is slowed by recu- als and designs of current vehicle, as it significantly limits this imaginary world we would perating brakes, is highly effi- vehicles are retained, the the range. The outlook for not demand of the fuel cells of cient, has zero emissions, is range of power required, hydrogen and fuel cells today the future much more than silent, easy to maintain, is together with the manufactur- are in many ways similar to electric technologies have built with recyclable compo- ing costs and use have so far those of electricity in the sec- achieved over the course of nents, is easy to use and excluded this technology from ond half of the 19th century, the past century. powered from renewable the market. when Edison and his contem- energy resources and it has a poraries took it from a labora- The electric vehicle and direct drive train with instant A fuel cell is a generator able tory curiosity to an everyday hydrogen traction on each wheel. to turn hydrogen, methanol, reality. In 1900 there were lots more natural gas or other fuels into electric cars than internal Hydrogen is a non-toxic gas, electrical power efficiently. In both cases it is still neces- combustion engine ones (pet- although its is flammable and Although the principles by sary to find an external energy rol or diesel). They were faster, extremely volatile. Its use as which fuel cells work have source, a considerable share more comfortable and more the main component of “town long been understood, the of which will inevitably be lost relaxing. Compared with elec- gas” or in industry has gone development of the technol- when it is turned into electric- tric vehicles, their early petrol hand in hand with our soci­ ogy came with aerospace ity or hydrogen. The advan- engine counterparts were ety’s technological develop- applications, where limitations tages for its subsequent appli- noisy, dirty, smelly, difficult to ment over the last two cen­ on the oxidising product, the cation, transport, storage or start and unreliable. What turies without great difficulties. reversibility of the process and other processes need to be happened to those early elec- However, the ever stricter and the energy yield are much able to reasonably justify the tric cars? Petrol engine vehi- more costly security mech­ more important features than greater complexity, cost and cles had a longer range, were anisms make it difficult to the cost or durability of its losses inherent in the process. easy to refuel, and ran on a transpose its use to the trans- components. Today we can glimpse, as product that was cheap and port sector. Jules Verne did in his day, abundant. Thus, over the last Compared with other chemi- power units embedded in the 100 years they have steadily Current PEM fuel cells, with a cal fuels, hydrogen offers a structure of equipment able to increased the amount of noise, working temperature in the

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60-70ºC range, require high • Hydrogen production. • Voltage across the cells. At least 90% of our daily purity hydrogen fuel with a Hydrogen can be produced in journeys cover distances CO content of less than a a variety of ways. These need • Flow of fuel at the anode. of less than 50 kilometres. thousandth of a percent. This to use renewable energy For these purposes the fuel means it is a fuel whose price sources and avoid green- • Heat produced, local tem- that can be stored easily in would today be between four house gas emissions. perature, cooling require- an electric battery or a and ten times that of petrol or ments. hydrogen tank will, in most diesel. The inevitable and • Distribution infrastructure: cases, be sufficient. The progressive rise in the price there is currently no global • Water produced and the remaining 10% of occasional of oil, along with the develop- system for hydrogen delivery cathode flow for regulation. journeys that require a gen- ment of high temperature from production facilities to erator and different fuel, for membranes that accept low service stations. However, the average power example a micro-turbine, in purity hydrogen may have a required by the vehicle is con- an efficient compact hybrid marked influence in the near siderably lower than its maxi- system. • Vehicle prices: they will tend future. At the same time, it is mum power. An electrochem- to improve in terms of cost, necessary to create a hydro- ical store –a battery– with a Vehicles with fuel cells may performance and durability. gen generation and distribu- sufficiently rapid response and be the solution for the chal- tion infrastructure in order for relatively small capacity can lenge of low CO -emission • Safety and public accept- 2 these vehicles to become smooth out the demand curve transport, and are the priority ance. widespread. dramatically. Thus, the cell focus for medium-to-long- can deliver average power term research. In 2010 they Driving in town involves sharp The main obstacles and chal- continuously, making its oper- are not yet available commer- variations in power demand. If lenges for fuel cell technology ation that much easier and cially, but manufacturers are the vehicle is powered directly in transport include: reducing its cost and size. If producing small fleets of from the internal-combustion the motor is able to act as a demonstration vehicles. engine or the fuel cell then generator during braking, a Honda and Mercedes cur- • Achieving significant these need to be dimensioned significant share of the ve- rently have models for lease, improvements in fuel-cell to meet peak demand. In this hicle’s kinetic energy –which is although their distribution is durability and cost. They are case, the peak fuel cell power usually dissipated from the limited. The spread of this limited by the catalysts and must be greater than or equal brakes in the form of heat­– transport technology will membrane materials available. to that of the electric motor. can also be recovered. require substantial develop- The targets set by the industry This means a weight, cost ment of hydrogen in terms of aim for a lifetime of 5,000- and volume that is out of Any power delivery arrange- generation, storage and refu- 5,500 hours and 17,000 start/ reach to current technology in ment in which there are at elling infrastructure, along stop cycles. a vehicle of these characteris- least two sources or flows of with improvements in per- tics. Moreover, brusque accel- traction power is referred to formance and cost reduc- • New hydrogen storage eration requires sudden as hybrid and this approach is tions. The projections of the technology. As although its changes in fuel-cell power, used in a wide variety of ve- Massachusetts Institute of has three times as much which drastically affects some hicles of different types and Technology (MIT) point to its energy per unit weight as of its operating parameters, powers. It is also effective in being commercially available petrol, with currently availa- such as: other applications, such as in 2020, with significant tech- ble tanks it contains a third domestic consumption where nological progress and cost of the energy per unit vol- • Current density on its elec- the demand profiles present reductions between now and ume. trodes and membrane. similar characteristics. then.

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Towards a paradigm shift in the automotive industry

María Luisa Soria García-Ramos General Secretary of SERNAUTO

It is an indisputable fact that there is strategic imperative. This calls for the use growing demand for mobility worldwide, of new energy carriers for transport, such and an increasing tendency for the popu­ as electricity and hydrogen, as they can lation to be concentrated in urban areas. be obtained from a wide range of primary According to a 2009 study by the Inter- energy sources. national Energy Agency, “Transport,

Energy and CO2,” the transport sector is • Climate change, global warming and

responsible for 19% of energy consump- legislation on CO2 emissions. In the tion globally and 23% of energy-related European Union, cars are responsible

CO2 emissions. According to mobility for 12% of the collective carbon foot- demand predictions, energy consump- print, and although the EU reduced tion will grow by 50% between now and greenhouse gas emissions by almost

2030 and by more than 80% by 2050. To 5% between 1990 and 2004, CO2 emis- María Luisa Soría García-Ramos. achieve the CO2-reduction targets set at sions from road transport grew by 26%, climate-change summits a new paradigm to account for 85% of total transport is therefore necessary in the transport/ emissions. energy binomial. fuels. And the number of vehicles is fore- cast to rise to 1,100 million by 2020. • The negative effects of congestion in The challenges the transport sector as a Europe’s urban areas cost an esti- whole –and the automotive industry in • Stability and energy security. In the mated 1% of European GDP: it is the particular– has to face in order to achieve European Union the transport sector main cause of pollution and wasted this include. accounts for 73% of oil consumption and time and energy, and a threat to public 30% of primary energy consumption. health. • Increasing global energy demand. Rising oil prices and the fact that it is pro- There are 900 million vehicles on the duced in specific areas of the planet All these factors were taken into account road, over 95% of which run on fossil make promoting energy diversification a in the definition of the EU’s 2020 Strat-

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egy, two of the objectives of which for The search for alternative Electric vehicles represent another of this decade have a direct bearing on the technology options that will be transport and energy. These are a 20% technologies is an available in the future. The development cut in CO emissions and that 20% of of vehicles with varying degrees of 2 important factor in energy be obtained from renewable hybridisation, as the option enabling sources. To achieve these targets, the ensuring the automotive vehicles to be used in electrically- EU has a series of measures in place, sector’s competitiveness powered mode in town and assisted by including the directives on vehicle emis- an internal-combustion engine on sions and the use of biofuels in trans- longer journeys, opens up new avenues port, along with the Green Cars initiative for the development of components to promote the development of technol- adapted to these applications. This ogies for vehicles and mobility, one of also offers opportunities for the devel- the areas of which is the electrification of opment of vehicle management and road transport. energy recovery systems, more efficient auxiliary systems and communications In January of this year the European There is a wide variety of technology with the electricity network, and new Commission published a study on solutions available for both vehicle propul- concepts and technologies for urban future alternative energy sources for sion systems and the energy carriers vehicles. transport (Future Transport Fuels), with suitable for road transport. International recommendations on policies, legisla- Energy Agency’s 2009 report concludes The search for alternative technologies is tive measures, incentives and R&D that the new vehicle and fuel technolo- also an important factor in ensuring the support, which contribute to achieving gies and transport policies promoting a automotive sector’s competitiveness in the objective of reducing the levels of change to more efficient modes of trans- Europe, where 20 million vehicles are the EU’s total emissions by 80-95% by port could lead to a reduction in CO2 lev- produced –almost a quarter of the 2050 compared to 1990 levels. The els necessary to enable the sustainability world’s output– and the industry employs report cites electricity, hydrogen and of the global economy and a reduced 12 million people, directly and indirectly, liquid biofuels as the main options, syn- carbon footprint. and in Spain, Europe’s second largest thetic fuels as a bridging option producer of vehicles. between fossil fuels and biomass- To achieve these goals it is necessary based fuels, methane (natural gas or to work on issues relating to improving In today’s global market, survival of the biomethane) as a complementary energy efficiency, “decarbonising” the Spanish automotive sector depends on option, supplemented with LPG. This energy carriers used in transport, and its technological competitiveness and its report is the basis of the work in optimising the management of both ability to offer higher value-added prod- progress in the area of the European personal mobility and goods transport, ucts and services. There is therefore a CARS 21 initiative. in a broad range of technology fields, need to promote technology projects such as the production, storage and with the participation of agents along the At national level a number of European distribution of energy, the efficient glo- whole value chain, from vehicle manufac- countries have defined electromobility bal use of energy carriers in vehicles, turers and suppliers on various levels, strategies, including various short-, new vehicle concepts and architec- with the cooperation of technology cen- medium- and long-term programmes tures, the application of solutions and tres, universities and research centres, and action plans to stimulate the take- services based on information and and agents in the sectors involved with off of electric vehicles. The US, Japan communications technologies (ICTs) vehicles, such as new materials, ICTs, and China also have equivalent pro- and the management of mobility and energy and power companies and infra- grammes. logistics. structure.

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FGCSIC Surveys 2010 Annual The Fundación General CSIC Report has launched two on-line surveys, one on R&D relating to ageing and the other on R&D in the field of automo- ing input on the topic in The data obtained will comple- tive energy. question is invited to offer ment the studies being carried their viewpoint. The Foun- out at the FGCSIC’s Analysis

Both surveys are aimed pri- dation has also made an Unit to prepare the FGCSIC’s REPORT. FUNDACIÓN2010 GENERAL CSIC marily at researchers and effort to ensure that both report on R&D into automotive experts, but also anyone surveys are widely publi- energy, and the publication of CSIC a l 0. Fundación Gener Fundación 0. 1 else whose experience ena- cised both in Spain and the second edition of the 0 emoria 2 emoria bles them to offer interest- abroad. report into R&D on ageing. M

Memoria 2010 Fundación General CSIC

2010 REPORT. FUNDACIÓN GENERAL CSIC

cubierta_memoriaFGCSIC_FINAL3.indd 1 13/07/11 18:54

European TrendChart project The Fundación General CSIC has recently published its The Fundación General CSIC October, in Madrid, focused on 2010 annual report, describ- has organised one of six a review of the information com- ing the Foundation’s activities workshops envisaged in the piled and analysed on research and projects centred on its framework of the European and innovation policies. The At the workshop experts on lines of action and programs TrendChart project to monitor session was entitled: “Monitor- science policy from Greece, during the year. According to innovation policies. ing the Innovation Union: review- Italy, Malta, Portugal, Ireland, the Foundation’s Director, ing the collection and analysis of Luxembourg and Spain dis- Javier Rey, during the year the The working meeting, held at information on national research cussed new options for infor- FGCSIC made significant the Real Jardín Botánico on 25 and innovation policies”. mation collection and analysis. progress on the strategy planned to achieve the Foun- dation’s fundamental purpose: promoting public-private part- FGCSIC Workshop on strategic planning nerships for public R&D. applied to R&D

The Fundación General CSIC experience in the public and As it has shown through its thinking in R&D related institu- held its third FGCSIC Work- private fields, and to propose experience developing and tions can bring significant bene- shop on 14 November, dis- an exercise of reflection on helping implement strategic fits both for research centres cussing the topic of strategic possible applications in plans in some of Spain’s main themselves, their immediate sur- planning of R&D. The aim of areas in which this type of research organisations, the roundings, and society at large. the event was to offer a activity is somewhat infre- FGCSIC believes that the appli- More information forum for the exchange of quent. cation of this type of strategic http://www.fgcsic.es/workshops

86 | LYCHNOS | Nº 6 | Notebooks of the Fundación General CSIC ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| NEWS 06

The FGCSIC teams up with MIT’s Technology The FGCSIC Review at the EmTech Conference presents its report on automotive

Technology Review, the The award ceremony is taking energy at Green Massachusetts Institute of place at the EmTech confer- Technology (MIT)’s flagship ence on emerging technolo- Cars 2011 publication, in collaboration gies, held on 26-27 October in On 5 October Fundación with a group of institutions Málaga. The Fundación Gen- General CSIC took part in including Fundación General eral CSIC will have an informa- the “Green Cars 2011: CSIC, is extending the tr35 tion stand, alongside those of proyectos en marcha” Prizes to Spain for the first the event’s other sponsors. [projects in progress] semi- time, to identify the country’s nar in Valladolid where it pre- More information best talent in the innovation sented the FGCSIC Analysis http://www.tr35spain.com field. Unit’s report on R&D into automotive energy in the posters section.

The objective of the seminar was to demonstrate activities in the clean technologies and sustainable mobility areas and, in particular, activities taking place within the Euro- Report on R&D on automotive energy pean “Green Cars” Initiative, making it a forum and meeting One of the challenges society ficha_prod_15.pdf 1 13/09/11 12:57 of action. In view of its impact place for all Spain’s technol- faces today is to achieve a in terms of interactions ogy players involved in www.fgcsic.es balance between measures between humans and their projects at European, national that are energy efficient and environment, this area has and regional level. cost-effective. It therefore been included in the Founda- seems inevitable that certain tion’s Human ecology and The European Green Cars Ini- consumption habits at both development strategic line. tiative is one of three activities

C individual and collective level M being run by the European Y

CM will need to change. And this MY It is in this context that the Commission as part of its CY

CMY change in habits will involve K FGCSIC’s study currently under- Economic Recovery Plan, both social awareness and way on the state of R&D in the with the backing of Member the search for new solutions. Informes energy and automotive technol- States at the end of 2008, to FGCSIC

Los Informes FGCSIC son estudios sobre la I+D en ogy field is set. This study aims support “intelligent invest- las temáticas relacionadas con las líneas estratégicas de la Fundación (Especies The Fundación General CSIC amenazadas; Envejecimiento, discapacidad y to get an overview of the trends ments” in research in the enfermedad; Ecología humana y desarrollo; y Fronteras),Patrocinio y se realizan siguiendo una has therefore made promoting metodologíay mecenazgo propia a la que denominamos and needs existing in the sector automotive sector, one of the «aproximación holística sin hipótesis previa». R&D in the energy and auto- today, as well as those that may mainstays of the European motive sector one of its areas emerge in the future. economy.

Notebooks of the Fundación General CSIC | Nº 6 | LYCHNOS | 87 Anuncio Networking_EN_FINAL_T.pdf 1 26/04/11 13:48

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K 06 Notebooks of the Fundación General CSIC / September 2011 Notebooks of the Fundación General CSIC / Nº 6 / September 2011 / Published quarterly / Price: 9euros /Price: quarterly /Nº6September2011Published CSIC General Fundación the of Notebooks Energy R&D Automotive 4

socio-economic impact Automotive energy: 14

automotive energy Sources of 36

transport Towards electric 62 ||||||||||||||||||||