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I Jamaican Middle-Class Immigrants in Toronto Jamaican Middle-Class Immigrants in Toronto: Habitus, Capitals and Inclusion by Kay-Ann Simone Williams A thesis submitted to the Graduate Program in Geography in conformity with the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Queen’s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada January, 2014 Copyright © Kay-Ann Simone Williams, 2014 i Abstract This dissertation explores connections between the labour market experiences of skilled middle-class immigrants in Canada, and their civic engagement in both sending and receiving countries. My work expands scholarship by delving into the ways that the criteria of social distinction, such as gender, race, immigrant status, and class, and the internalized roles, values, and norms passed down over generations shape citizenship practice. I argue that there is a link between inclusion and the possibilities offered through civic engagement, in that the struggle for inclusion is also a struggle for the recognition of resources that are valued as markers of valued members of society. This research engaged with a theoretical orientation that required synthesizing various forms of social structures that shape societies. Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of practice offered an alternative perspective on the use of assets in order to retain or improve social positioning, and the use of networks and civic engagement as a form of capital that can also serve to influence one’s place in society. Semi-structured interviews and participant observation were used to gather information regarding the experiences of skilled Jamaican immigrants involved in ethnic- based organizations that support economic, social, and infrastructural development projects in Jamaica and organizations that focus on the socio-economic well-being of the black community in Canada. This research shows that the processes of migration and (re)settlement have implications for the ways ideologies and social relations shift across space. I found that historically-shaped values, ideals, and norms associated with the development of a middle-class identity informed the ways the participants responded to barriers in the labour market, and changes in socio- economic status. Responses to changed socio-economic positioning through civic engagement ii were found to be based on gendered relations, the recognition and experiences of racism, and political attitude towards Jamaica, and relied on familiar strategies of the uses of social and cultural capitals to retain and/or improve their middle-class positions. This process of negotiation revealed the complex ways that middle-class(ness) is produced and reproduced across territories, and the implications for civic participation not only in Canada, but also in support of Jamaican development. iii Acknowledgements There are a number of people and organizations I would like to acknowledge for their support and role in positively contributing to the completion of this dissertation. I am grateful to the Jamaican Consul General to Toronto, Canada, Seth George Ramocan, leaders of diasporic organizations and non-profit, charitable, organizations located in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) and their members who willingly assisted me with my research. To Pastor Hurlock and his congregation, in particular, I also give my gratitude for their time, interest, and support of my work. Sincere thanks to my dissertation committee, Abigail Bakan, Ann Godlewska, Katherine McKittrick, David McDonald, Audrey Kobayashi, Mark Rosenberg and Valerie Preston for their kind support and patience throughout this process. Valerie Preston recommended that I speak with Beverley Mullings when I had just started to contemplate working for a PhD. I would like to say thank you for taking the time to meet with me and providing me with such good advice at that particular time in my life. I would like to offer a special mention to Dr. Beverley Mullings. As a supervisor, Beverley provided sound advice and guidance in the development of my dissertation, spending many hours in dialogue both face to face and online through Skype. Beverley’s interest in me has not stopped at the production of this document, but she continues to enquire into my aspirations and my current circumstances so as to accommodate me in meeting my goals and also advises as to the steps I should take in order to achieve my long-term goals. For all these things and more that I have not mentioned I am grateful. I would also like to mention Angela Pietrobon for her invaluable contribution as an editorial assistant to my work. Angela’s eye for detail and editorial knowledge helped me in the iv final stages of the preparation of this document and I would just like to say thanks to her for her time as well. I would also like to thank members of the Queen’s community, such as Arunima, Claire, Barbara, staff at the Writing Centre at Queen’s University and the Ban Righ Centre who all helped me directly in staying the course. They provided a listening ear, friendly advice, and emotional support, and helped me to keep perspective. Sharon, Joan, Sheila, and Kathy, administrators with the Geography Department, were especially gracious and welcoming. The Geography Department is made a more intimate space because of their genuine interest and support. My peers and students at Queen’s University have also enriched my experience, and the opportunities I received during my time at Queen’s are immeasurable and valuable. Emotional support was also offered by friends in the church community, my parents, and Sethunya, Nel, and Sherine. I am sure there are many more I should recognize for the ways they supported me. Although your names are not mentioned here, trust that I am very grateful for your kindness and prayers. My time at Queen’s University would not have been possible had it not been for the financial support of the Geography Department, the Ban Righ Centre, OSAP, and my employment at Seneca College and Queen’s University. The financial support I received over the years also helped me emotionally to be less anxious. I dedicate this work to my parents, brother, Sherine Brown, and friends, as without you this would not have been possible. v Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iv List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x Chapter 1. Introducing the Skilled Jamaican Immigrant: An Engagement with Diaspora and Transnationalism ............................................................................................................................. 1 Diasporic Transnational Activities and the Complexities of Citizenship Practice ................... 11 Research Methodology and Design .......................................................................................... 17 Method .................................................................................................................................. 21 Research Questions ............................................................................................................ 23 Secondary Data .................................................................................................................. 24 Participant Recruitment ..................................................................................................... 24 Interviews and Participant Observation ................................................................................ 26 Interviews ........................................................................................................................... 28 Participant Observation ...................................................................................................... 30 Gathering Participants ........................................................................................................... 34 Opportunities and Constraints ............................................................................................... 37 Analysis of the Data .............................................................................................................. 39 Outline of Chapters ................................................................................................................... 41 Chapter 2. Bourdieu: Middle-Class(ness), Immigration, and the Possibilities for Inclusion ....... 46 Middle-class(ness): A Bourdieusian Perspective ..................................................................... 52 Gendered Considerations ...................................................................................................... 56 Race as a Cornerstone Identifier ........................................................................................... 59 Symbolic Violence, Suffering, and the Quest for Full Citizenship .......................................... 61 Chapter 3. A Contextualized Discussion of the Jamaican Middle Class ...................................... 68 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 68 Colonialism and the “Roots” of a People
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