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Johnson's focus on patriotism elaborates a spe- the human propensity for deontologica! action, patri- cial case of manipulation of such a mechanism. otism would remain an anomaly for evolutionary Patriotism in large, heterogeneous states is an ideol- biology. One questions whether evolutionary stable ogy propagated by the ruling class to instill false ethical systems would long survive if they led to consciousness, and induce the ruled to behave reductions in the inclusive of those believing against their best interest. It frequently mimicks kin in them. selection because the old evolutionary roots thereof What I am therefore is that make the idiom of especially potent, and suggesting because the unconscious and nonrational com- incline people to construct and learn those ideolo- which increase fitness. The idea that ponent of makes it an effective smokes- gies genetic have such extended ef- creen for deceitful manipulation. Indeed, the ruling genes (and reciprocating) fects the in which consti- class frequently deceives itself, for the most effec- beyond body they reside, tutes a central focus for current in sociobi- tive ideology (and religion) is the one propagated by thinking 1982; Lumsden and self-deceived proponents. The most effective deceit ology (Dawkins, Wilson, 1981, From the of Lumsden and Wilson's is self-deceit, as Trivers insightfully suggested in his 1985). standpoint of for discussion of reciprocity. theory -culture , example, patriotic nationalism, religious zealotry, class con- flict, and other forms of ideological commitment (even 'international socialism') can be seen as genetically influenced cultural choices that individu- als make which in turn influence the replication of their genes. Thus the makeup of a gene pool causally affects the probability of any particular ideology being adopted, and the subsequent ideol- ogy, in turn, causally affects relative gene frequency. Religious, political, and other ideological battles may become as heated as they do because they have implications for genetic fitness; genotypes will thrive more in some ideological cultures than others. GENE-CULTURE COEVOLUTION AND From this perspective, Karl Marx did not take the far serves more than GENETIC SIMILARITY THEORY: argument enough: ideology economic interest; it also serves genetic purpose. IMPLICATIONS FOR IDEOLOGY, For this account to be true, individual and ETHNIC NEPOTISM, AND (a) group differences in ideological preferences must be GEOPOLITICS partly heritable, and (b) ideological practices must confer differential genetic fitness. Evidence exists to support both these propositions. With respect to (a), J. Phillippe Rushton while it has generally been assumed that political attitudes are for the most part environmentally deter- of Department Psychology mined, both twin and adoption studies demonstrate University of Western Ontario London, Ontario, N6A 5C2 moderate to substantial heritabilities (e.g., 0.50) for Canada both specific conservative social and political atti- tudes, as well as stylistic tendencies such as author- itarianism and degree of ideological committment (Eaves and Eysenck, 1974; Eaves, Martin, Heath, Johnson has formulated an insightful theory of patri- Jardine, Feingold, and Eysenck, 1985; Scarr and otism in which socialization and conditioning ex- Weinberg, 1981). pand biologically evolved kin-recognition systems to obligate people to behave toward in-group members With respect to (b), that is, whether the learning of as though they were genetically more similar than in ideologies can increase genetic fitness, obvious fact they are. In this commentary I will broaden his examples are to be found in those religious beliefs thesis by proposing a model in which patriotism is regulating sexual practices, marital custom, infant more than just "manipulated" working to care, and child rearing (Reynolds and Tanner, 1983). the individual's genetic detriment, being instead, a Other evidence derives from cultural proscriptions genetically influenced strategy by which genes more on dietary habits. Amerindian tribes adopting the effectively replicate themselves. While the condition- use of alkali cooking for maize, for example, had ing processes Johnson outlines undoubtedly occur larger population densities and more complex social (Rushton, 1980), as does manipulated altruism organizations than Amerindian tribes who did not, (Dawkins, 1982), if these were sufficient to explain primarily because alkali cooking releases the most 145

nutritious parts of the cereal, enabling more tribal members in which copies of itself are to be members to grow to reproductive maturity (Katz, found. In other words, the tendency to favor relatives Hodiger, and Valleroy, 1974; see also Lumsden and is a special case of a tendency to favor those of Wilson, 1981). The native tribes were unable to similar genotype. explicate the biochemical reasons for the benefits of In order to pursue this general strategy, an organ- alkali cooking, but their cultural beliefs had evolved ism must be able to detect copies of its genes in for good reason. others. Johnson has outlined the main ways in which The above analysis provides a new perspective on degrees of kinship, or genetic similarity, can be the role of religion in economic and political organi- differentiated (recognition al?eles, spatial distribu- zation, a topic that has generated research interest tion, familiarity through association, and phenotypic at least since the proposition that the Protestant matching). He accepts that all might be used, but Reformation was a major influence on the rise of downgrades the first as implausible, while empha- capitalism. One result of this research has been the sizing the latter two. A strong version of genetic view that the emergent "work ethic" led Protestants similarity theory, however, implies the existence of a to reach higher levels of economic attainment than genetic similarity detector ("recognition al?eles"), for Catholics, both within and between nations. From such a mechanism would be maximally efficient. All the perspective of gene-culture coevolution, how- one need postulate is that some phenotypes are ever, it is important to emphasize the reciprocal inherently more attractive to the organism than are cycle between culture and genes; thus it is just as others. The evolutionary origins of such a mecha- likely that the "first cause" was a change in gene nism could be simple: if like appearance is positively frequencies predisposing individuals toward greater correlated with like genes, any mutation toward individualism, industriousness, frugality, and intelli- preference for like phenotype would tend to prolifer- gence which subsequently inclined them to adopt a ate. belief system supportive of their genotypes as well The evidence in favor of an innate genetic similar- as attain a high level of economic success (for a ity detector is best considered by contrasting its partial review of the heritability of individual differ- discriminatory power with that of a phenotype ences in personality, see Rushton, Russell, and matching procedure. As Johnson allows, the human Wells, 1985). The "Protestant Ethic" has never preference for similarity in others is well docu- explained why Jews and Orientals economically mented. Since similarity can be based on either like outperform Protestants; group differences in par- genes or like experiences, which of the two causes tially inherited traits, however, may do so. of similarity is the more important? From a pheno- One objection to the account given so far con- type matching perspective it shouldn't matter cerns the mode of gene-culture transmission. It whether similarity is created by the genes or by the could be argued that while religious ideologies environment. From the perspective of recognition directly benefit the extended family, those such as al?eles, however, it is genetic similarity that is of patriotism would often result in a decrease in fitness prime importance. Evidence that humans can and (hence Johnson's thesis ultimately resting on patrio- do differentiate genetic from environmentally caused tism being a form of manipulated altruism). A recent similarity has been found in the context of human formulation going beyond classical kin-selection the- marriage, where spouses have long been known to ory, however, provides a firmer basis for an evolu- resemble each other. My co-workers and I have tionary understanding of ideological commitment, found that such resemblance is higher for the more for benefited genes do not have to be only those genetically influenced of a variety of anthropom?trie, residing in kin. cognitive, and personological characteristics (e.g., wrist size and nasal breadth rather than bicep or Genetic Similarity Theory waist size). Put another way, there is a positive Kin-selection essentially means that genes may en- correlation between assortative mating coefficients sure their own survival, not only by causing the and heritability estimates (Rushton and Russell, organism of which they form a part to reproduce, but 1985; Russell, Wells, and Rushton, 1985). Similar also by causing it to act in such a way that its processes are predicted to occur in other relation- relatives produce more than they would have done ships, including friendships and even broader social without its action (Hamilton, 1964). Kin-selection groupings. theory, however, can be incorporated into genetic Ethnic similarity theory (Rushton, Russell, and Wells, 1984, Nepotism 1985). Essentially the argument is as follows. If a One implication of the genetic similarity theory gene can ensure its own survival by acting so as to extension to kin-selection theory is that a biological bring about the reproduction of a family member in basis is provided for what van den Berghe (1981) which a copy of itself is to be found, then it can also has referred to as "ethnic nepotism." Two individu- survive by bringing about the reproduction of non- als within an ethnic group will, on average, be 146

genetically more similar than two from different Some may object that these examples include ethnic groups. It is in an individual's genetic inter- "religious," "class," and "linguistic" divides, not est, therefore, to benefit his own group over others, necessarily causally associated with . This, and there is good evidence that altruism does follow however, could be put to the test by calculating such lines. Group members often prefer to congre- genetic distances between people (a variety of gate in the same area and associate with each other genetic markers are possible, the most recent and in clubs and social groupings. Charitable donations sophisticated being based on studies of DNA se- are typically made in greater quantities within ethnic quences). If genetic similarity theory is correct, it groups than between them and empirical studies would be predicted that many of the classic divides have documented that people are more likely to offer are genetic in origin. The recent analyses of Profes- help to members of their own race or country than sor Bonne-Tamir of Tel Aviv University, for example, members of other races or foreigners. Anyone work- (Karlin, Carmelli, and Bonne-Tamir, 1982; Meyers, ing in a university in the United States over the last 1985) show that Jews, even after being scattered 50 years will be personally aware of the changing around the world for two millenia, remain?to a norms concerning "racial" and "religious" quotas, significant degree?genetically distinctive. Jews and attendant ethnic rivalries, and perhaps, too, of from Iraq have more in common from a genetic ethnic differences in abilities, attitudes, and life- viewpoint with Jews in Poland than either group has styles (Rushton, 1985) which, as Johnson notes, can with the non-Jews among whom they have lived for aggravate relations between groups. The American centuries. This is also true of immigrants to Israel university situation is not unique. The Times Higher from such diverse areas as Germany and the Soviet Educational Supplement (August 30, 1985:8) reports Union on the one hand and Libya on the other (the that the Kenyan government has warned lecturers Ethiopian Jews mentioned above, incidentally, do and administrators at the University of Nairobi to not appear to be genetically Jewish). Jews as a stop awarding higher marks to students of their own group can be expected to adopt ideologies that tribe. The same page also carried a story of a 'tribal' work in their genetic self-interest world wide as, of problem in a university in Sri Lanka where members course, can Anglo-Saxons, Japanese, East Indians, of the Tamil minority have had to be given police Africans, and all other "gene pools." protection. Genetic similarity theory also has implications for within-group altruism. The more homogeneous the group, the more likely it is that feelings of in-group The tribal of university populations was first solidarity and patriotism may arise. Many have con- observed by this author in 1981 while spending six sidered the Japanese population to be exemplary in months at the ethnically heterogeneous University of terms of the degree of internal cohesion that has California at Berkeley. The contrast with my more prevailed since Japan was forced to open its doors homogeneously White Anglo-Saxon Protestant to the West. Freedman (1979) has argued that the () home base caused me to attend to the Japanese are one of the most inbred of modern ethnic differences with interest. Not only did fellow industrial nations, there having been little or no ethnics tend to congregate and sit together, but major gene mixing for some 1700 years, and uses they often banded together for direct political action. this fact to explain also the high rate of adoptions of Black newspapers on campus were militantly con- nonrelatives in Japan, a custom going back centu- cerned with the plight of black rioters in London, ries (adoptions are known to be more successful England, 7,000 miles away, as well as the Atlanta when the parents perceive the child as similar to black child murders. Jewish student newspapers, on them). Degree of genetic homogeneity may partially the other hand, were more concerned with what they explain the military tenacity of the German army in saw as the beleaguered State of Israel and the World War II discussed by Johnson, and perhaps, plight of dissident Jews in Russia, and of black Jews too, the lack of morale in the American Army in in Ethiopia even more thousands of miles away. Vietnam. They were appealing for money to help airlift the Ethiopians to Israel, many of whom are now there, Genetic Similarity and Geopolitics paradoxically providing an internal 'tribal' problem of their own. The Ch?canos, to take a final example, The theoretical stance taken so far predicts that the seemed primarily interested in getting bilingualism ease of producing patriotic sentiment and internal adopted at the University Faculty of Education and harmony varies with the genetic homogeneity of the in strengthening the laws aiding migrants from national group. As van den Berghe (1981) puts it: Mexico and Central America. Similar examples will "Ethnicity can be manipulated but not manufac- come readily to many people's minds, and it would tured' (p. 27; van den Berghe's emphasis). It also seem that one of the influences determining which predicts that genetic similarity has important impli- issues become salient and what positions will be cations for group relations both within and between taken on them is the person's group membership. nations. Since ethnic aspirations are rarely justified 147

in terms of naked genetic self-interest, any analysis genetic minorities have the highest birth rates in the will necessarily have to be conducted at a deeper USSR and can ultimately be expected to displace level than surface ideology. Political interests are the currently dominant Russians. In the U.S. power typically couched in the highest of ethical terms, no shifts can be expected as the differential birth rates matter how utilitarian, transparent, or heinous these of Spanish-speaking Americans, black Americans, appear to opponents. Just consider the incompati- and the currently dominant North European Ameri- ble claims from such competing gene pools as the cans continues. Arabs and the Israelis, the Afrikaners and Zulus. Conflicts elsewhere in the world might also be If ideologies are filtered through the calculus of viewed through a genetic perspective. The protago- genetic self-interest, one might examine the genetic nists of the struggle in Northern Ireland between consequences of political action to see who appears Protestants and Catholics could be examined to see to benefit?or lose. Political issues are most likely to if they represent a continuation of a thousand-year generate concern when sexual mores and reproduc- contest between Anglo-Saxons and Celts. The Baby- tion are at stake. It is interesting to examine the lonian and Egyptian captivities may have ended growth of right-wing Christian fundamentalism from over 2,000 years ago but it might be argued that the this perspective. According to a recent article in current Arab-Israeli conflict represents a continua- Time (September 2, 1985), the movement repre- tion of those ancient rivalries. It might also be asked sents, in part, a reaction to the perceived moral whether Israel can hope for a long term solution to breakdown of society. Largely as a result of portray- the Middle-East when adjoining Arab countries are als in the mass media, and changes in the educa- replicating their genes at the rate of the total current tional system, many religious people have appar- population of Israel each year. come to "feel live in a hostile culture" ently they (p. Genetic similarity can thus be expected to be one the issues on which this is most 51). Among group of the many influences operating on political alli- vociferous is . One that, if might speculate ances. Obviously causation is complex, and it is not estimates of could be obtained, genetic similarity intended to reduce relationships between ethnic the fundamentalists would be somewhat homogene- groups to a single cause. Fellow ethnics will not ous and close to the central of the tendency Anglo- always stick together, nor is conflict inevitable be- Saxon One also conjecture that if gene pool. might tween groups anymore than it is between geneti- distance measures were calculated, North genetic cally distinct individuals. As Johnson outlines, peo- American "liberals" on abortion would be found to ple can be manipulated into working for "other be distant from the WASP If significantly average. groups." People also work for other motives, such so, it be of interest to know what might percentage as economic success as well as reproductive suc- of the estimated 16 million women having legal cess (although, as van den Berghe [1981] points in the United States since 1973 were out, from an evolutionary perspective the ultimate The of "white survivalism" Anglo-Saxon? growth measure of human success is not production, but and militant "Christian Identity" such as the groups reproduction). Behavioral outcomes are always me- Aryan Nations, and the Covenant, the Sword, and diated by multiple causes. The Anglo-Saxon world is the Arm of the Lord, a more extreme represent currently aligned primarily against the Russians, response to these perceived threats to the Anglo- their half-cousins, while the more genetically distant Saxon gene pool. If this overall analysis is correct, Japanese are allies. It is an empirical question one might expect similar correlations in deviations though whether it would be easier to manipulate from both genetic and ideological norms in other antipathy in white Americans toward the Japanese the of the groups. Preserving "purity" ideology than toward the Russians, or whether class conflicts be an at the of might attempt preserving "purity" become more intense when there is a racial element the gene pool. Are ideological "conservatives" typi- to them. Thus while "politics make strange bedfel- cally more genetically homogeneous than the same lows" and human alliances are constantly shifting, ideology's "liberals"? stable reciprocities may become more predictable The role of genetic similarity in geopolitics is likely as genetic distances between groups are added to become increasingly noticeable in both the U.S. into the equation. and USSR as the turn of the century approaches. The Paradox of Differential Both of the superpowers have large ethnic minorities Fertility and, given the differential in birth rates between If the replication of genetically similar genes is as majority and minority populations, the current ruling strong a biological imperative as sociobiological groups are unlikely to maintain their positions much theorizing suggests, why are descendants of North longer. One reason the USSR invaded Afghanistan European populations everywhere in the world cur- was to suppress Moslem fundamentalism which, if rently experiencing negative growth, while concur- spread to the southern socialist republics, could rently allowing extensive immigration from geneti- bring an end to the existing power structure. These cally less similar gene pools? Why, at the same time 148

have North European populations adopted an ideol- increasing knowledge of the deep structure of hu- ogy of secular humanism which discourages racist man nature, of the biological component in gene- attitudes and encourages antipathies toward reli- culture coevolution, and of biotechnology, the time gious sentiment proportional to the degree to which may be reached when human beings can directly, those ideologies combat the new orthodoxy? behaviorally or biochemically, intervene in the evolu- and control the future course of While cultural and organic evolution are tionary process The is: if that time in whose undoubtedly different and yet reciprocally linked in history. question comes, will it be will differ in their extremely complicated ways, they may nonetheless image shaped? People moral The choices make are share certain properties (Dawkins, 1982; Lumsden prescriptions. they to reflect both their and their and Wilson, 1981, 1985). Both appear to strive to likely genetic ideologi- cal interests. replicate their units, if necessary at the expense of the other system's units (al?eles in the case of organic evolution; 'm?mes' or 'culturgens' in the case of ). Their seat of battle is the individual human mind which only dimly perceives the consequences of its choices, based as they are Notes on many competing elements. Thus ideologies can arise which have the paradoxical effect of dramati- The argument advanced here represents a prelimi- cally decreasing fitness. A classic example of such a nary attempt to combine the theory of gene-culture lethal culturgen is to be found among the Shakers, a coevolution proposed by Lumsden and Wilson religious sect which considers sex to be so sinful (1981, 1985), the extension to selfish-gene theory made Dawkins and the work with that it imposes celibacy upon even its married by (1982), my Robin Russell and Pamela Wells on members. This ideology has nonetheless been quite colleagues, genetic similarity theory (e.g., Rushton, Russell, and successful in replicating itself through several gen- Wells, 1984, 1985). Although references exist in the erations; new adherents being recruited, largely via text to these works, I am pleased to more formally The member's of course, fail to adoptions. genes, acknowledge my indebtedness in this note. Any replicate. errors or misapplications, of course, are entirely my own. In fact the fertility paradox goes back centuries. Fisher (1958) raised the issue of why civilizations The preparation of this commentary was facilitated decay, and documented evidence in favor of the by a grant to the author from The Pioneer Fund. It is hypothesis that the ruling groups (often classes, a pleasure to thank Christine Littlefield for her many valuable comments and and for numer- sometimes races) failed to reproduce themselves, suggestions ous hours of discussion on the issues. usually having a much lower fertility than the ruled bearing groups. Fisher (1958) hypothesized a trade off be- tween the capacity for economic success and fertil- ity. There is indeed evidence that this trade off exists at a quite profound level and moreover is related to other characteristics, the whole complex being partly genetic in origin (Rushton, 1985). My own guess is that low fertility may be partly medi- ated by a psychological process in which the desire to be in control of both oneself and one's environ- ment is taken to an extreme. Irrespective of the mechanism, the paradoxical fact remains that suc- cessful cultures often arise whose leading members subsequently limit their own replication, giving less genetically similar others the opportunity to replace them. Such cultures, (e.g., The Graeco-Roman Em- pires), and the gene pools associated with them are presumably, in the main, evolutionary dead ends. If this perspective is accurate, are North Europeans headed for the same fate as the ruling classes of ancient Greece and Rome?

To a highly evolved species such as our own, with a strong desire to know and master the world, the laws that govern gene-culture coevolution and the human mind are highly to-be-prized culturgens. With