A Study on Dabat Woreda, North Gonder Zone, Amhara National Regional State

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Political Science Thesis and Dissertations

2019-12-26 AN ASSESSMENT OF THE ROLE AND PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN CONFLICT RESOLUTION: A STUDY ON DABAT WOREDA, NORTH GONDER ZONE, AMHARA NATIONAL REGIONAL STATE

WORKIE, G/HIWOT http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/10097 Downloaded from DSpace Repository, DSpace Institution's institutional repository

BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

FACULITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE ROLE AND PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN

IN CONFLICT RESOLUTION: A STUDY ON DABAT WOREDA, NORTH

GONDER ZONE, AMHARA NATIONAL REGIONAL STATE

SET BY: WORKIE G/HIWOT

ADVISER: KALEWONGEL MINALE (Dr.)

BDU, ETHIOPIA

AUGUST, 2011

Bahir Dar University

Faculty of Social Sciences

Department of Political Science and International Studies

The Role and Participation of Women in Conflict Resolution:

(A Case Study of Dabat Woreda, North Gondar Zone, Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia)

By: Workie G/hiwot

Approved by: Signature

(Advisor) ______

(Internal examiner) ______

(External examiner)______

Certification

This is to certify that the thesis entitled on “An Assessment of the Role and Participation of

Women in Conflict Resolution: A Case Study of Dabat Woreda, North Gondar Zone,

Amhara National Region State, Ethiopia” Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of MA, Bahir Dar University, Faculty of Social Science through the

Department of Political Science and International Studies, done by Workie G/Hiwot, ID, No,

BDU07053080pk is carried out by her under my guidance.

Advisor: KALEWONGEL MINALE (Dr.)

Signature: ______

Date: ______

III

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First, and foremost, I thank God for giving me the opportunity to pursue my graduate study in the Department of Political Science and International Study, Bahr Dar University.

My special and heartfelt gratitude goes to Dr. Kalewongel Minale, my advisor and instructor, for his excellent scientific guidance, continual help, and tireless efforts to make this work a reality. I am highly indebted to my husband Instructor Yohannes Tadesse; he was the source of strength towards the successful completion of the study.

I acknowledge with appreciation the help rendered by my dear friend Ayelign Bazezew who encouraged me to work hard and editing my paper.

ACRONNOMY CSA ……………………………… Central Statistics Agency

CR ……………………………… Conflict Resolution

UN ……………………………… United Nation

UNSG ………………………………United Nation Secretary General

FGD ……………………………… Focus Group Discussion

SSR ……………………………… Social Science Researcher

DRC ……………………………… Democratic Republic of Congo

FDRE ……………………………… Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

ICRM ……………………………… Indigenous Conflict Resolution Mechanisms

Abstract

Women are half parts of the community. They have their own knowledge, experience, skill and capacity. These features of the women are so essential for conflict resolution. However, in practice except few areas of the world women have been prevented from conflict resolution process, including Ethiopia. This paper explores women's participation in conflict resolution process in the case of Dabat woreda, North Gondar Zone, Amhara national regional state. The study used social constructivism paradigm, qualitative research approach and case study design was employed. The data were obtained from primary source and collected through interview and focus group discussion. The collected data was qualitatively described; interpreting and analyzed systematically. Youth, men, women and institutions are important actors of conflict resolution. However, women have special qualities than men in resolving conflict by serving as a bridge to bring the divided groups through the sense of mother. This paper shows that conflict is so common in the study area because of farm land, family's property distribution during death, common pastoral land, problems related to blood revenge, health and economic problems. In fact, to solve these multi-dimensional problems the community needs both men’s and women’s involvement. But in practice women are not seen participating actively in the study area. Rather men are always appointed to resolve such conflict in the community. women have low participation and have been inhibited from conflict resolution process in the study area because of various preventive factors as obtained from collected data; culture of the community, economic dependency, the perception women developed through time and religious perception of the community are played a positive contribution to prevent women in conflict resolution process in the study area . The paper argues that women's involvement in conflict resolution is significance to use their unique qualities for the community and similarly it helps to improve women's involvement in all important activities.

Key words: Conflict resolution, Women, Participation, Role, community

Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... IV ACRONNOMY ...... V Abstract ...... VI CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 1. Introduction...... 1 1.1 Back ground of the study ...... 1 1. 2 Statement of the problem ...... 4 1.3 Objectives of the study ...... 8 1.3.1 The General Objective ...... 8 1.3.2 Specific Objectives ...... 8 1.4 Significance of the Study ...... 8 1.5 Research Questions ...... 9 1.5.1 Main Research Question ...... 9 1.5.2 Specific Research Questions ...... 9 1.6 Delimitation and Limitation of the Study ...... 9 1.6.1 Delimitation of the Study ...... 9 1.6.2 Limitation of the Study ...... 9 1.7 Rationale for the Study ...... 10 1.8 Organization of the Paper ...... 11 CHAPTER TWO ...... 12 2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITRATURE ...... 12 2.1 Women, Conflict and Conflict Resolution ...... 12 2.2 The Impacts of Conflict on Women ...... 13 2.3 Role of Women in Conflict Prevention and Conflict Resolution ...... 15 2.3.1 The Role of Women in Promoting Conflict or/and in Stabilizing, Searching ...... 15 for Peace and Resolving Conflicts ...... 15 2.4 Women Elders in Conflict Resolution ...... 20 2.5 Key Considerations for Gender‐Responsive Participation in the National ...... 23 Reconciliation Processes...... 23 2.6 Causes of Conflict in Ethiopia ...... 26 2.6.1 Ethnicity as a Cause of Conflict ...... 26

VII

2.6.2 Ethnic Federalism as a Cause of Conflict in Ethiopia ...... 27 2.6.3 Conflicts over Water and Land Resources ...... 28 2.6.4 Power as a Cause of Conflict ...... 29 2.6.5 Political Corruption as a Means of Conflict...... 30 2.7 Preventive Factor of Women in Conflict Resolution Process ...... 34 2.8 The Impact of Exclusion of Women from the Process of Conflict Resolution ...... 34 2.9 Underlying Principles on Various Mechanisms of Conflict Resolution ...... 36 CHAPTER THREE ...... 41 3. Research Methodology ...... 41 3.1 Research Paradigm...... 41 3.2 Research Approach and Design ...... 43 3.2.1 Research Approach: Qualitative Research Approach ...... 43 3.2.2 Research Design: A Case Study Design ...... 44 3.3 Description of the Study Area ...... 45 3.3.1 Location of Dabat Woreda ...... 45 3.3.2 Topography and Soil ...... 46 3.3.3 Socio-Economic Setting ...... 47 3.4 Sampling Procedure ...... 47 3.5 Targeted Population ...... 48 3.6 Sources of Data and Instruments of data Collection ...... 48 3.6.1 Data Collection Instruments...... 48 3.6.2 Method of Data Analysis and Procedures ...... 50 CHAPTER FOUR ...... 51 4 . Data Analysis and Presentation ...... 51 4.1 The Level of Women's Participation in Conflict Resolution Processes ...... 52 4.2. Factors that Prevent Women's Participation in Conflict Resolution Process ...... 56 4.2.1 Cultural Perspectives ...... 56 4.2.2 Economic Dependency ...... 59 4.2.3 The Perception Women Developed Through Time ...... 62 4.3 The Role of the Community to Improve the Contribution of Women in ...... 63 Conflict Resolution Processes ...... 63 CHAPTER FIVE ...... 67

VIII

5. Conclusion and Recommendation ...... 67 5.1 Conclusion ...... 67 5.2 Recommendations ...... 68 Reference ...... 70

An Assessment of the role and participation of women in conflict resolution

CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction

1.1 Back ground of the study

Conflict is a situation in which two or more human beings desire goals which they perceive as being obtainable by one or the other, (Joseph (1999: 42). It is incompatibility of goals or values between two or more parties in relationship, combined with attempts to control each other and antagonistic feelings toward each other, (Fisher (1990). Fisher et al, (2000) again points out that in our day-to-day interaction with others, we either observed or pass through conflicts, which range from the very interpersonal quarrel to the global war. It occurs at all levels of interaction; at work, among friends and within families. When conflict occurs, the relationship may be weakened or strengthened.

The fact that while two sides might be in conflict, based on its degree and intensity mechanisms for solutions to such a conflict also inherently exist between them. Thus, the role of individuals, men elders, women, age groups and socio-cultural institutions and beliefs are resources with indigenous grounding which can be utilized for conflict resolution. Conflict resolution (CR) as a process of attempting to resolve a dispute or a conflict, it can be performed by using community- based conflict mitigation or reconciliation, (Daniel (2016). According to Dacha and Jenner, (1996:14) argument women are extremely important in reducing dispute, conflict and war because they have the capable to deescalating when fighting is occur their singing "songs of peace" can shame the men into stopping the fighting.

Most of the time CR mechanisms are community based which are commonly known as ICRM (Bamlaku (2013). Those mechanisms for social CR like reconciliation which is done through men are not exhaustive and enough which exist still by excluding women. Regarding to this Former UNSG Kofi Annan noted that the promotion of women’s participation in peace building and post CR processes is necessary, because women know the price of peace well and are therefore, better equipped to prevent and resolve conflict, (Chinese ( 2005). Relating to this,

(Haris (1995) argued that, if we'd had women around the table, there would have been no war, women think long and hard before they send their children out to kill other people's children.

According to Laura and Babcock, (2006) peace agreements and reconstructions are more sustainable and effective when women are involved in such process. Similarly,( Rookie (2012) also argued that bringing women to the reconciliation and peace table improves the quality of agreements reached and enhances the likelihood of implementation because of the unique skill sets and experiences that women possess. The other researcher, (Lihamba (2003), described the practical role that women played. According to his study women contributed a pivotal role and crucial one in CR in Kalenjin society. Lihamba A. added that Tanzanian women have always played a critical part in maintaining equilibrium in their society by bringing up the conflicted parties to reach an agreement as a mediator. As such, women have always been active promoters of harmony in the community, (Lihamba (2003:115). Social science researchers (SSR) indicated that women are adept at bridging ethnic, religious, political and cultural divides, generally women are more collaborative than men and thus more inclined toward consensus and compromise, women often use their role as mothers to cut across international borders and internal divides. However, it is not common to assume that women have special qualities which equip them better than men for peace and better for peace than for war. Women however, seem more creative and effective in waging peace, (Mwende 2003: 9) this point is directly supported by (Garcia (1994), that women's emotional strength to transcend pain and suffering and their predisposition to peace resolution is high. The above literature show that how women have special qualities to resolve conflict & they also explained the role that women played to resolve conflict in some areas, yet at Dabat woreda micro level of conflict is so common and constantly occur. Dabat is located 75km from Gondar, 255 km North of Bahir Dar city & 983km from Addis Ababa. It is one of a district in Amhara region of Ethiopia, parts of semen Gondar zone located on the south by Wegera on the west by Tacharmachiho on the North West by Debark. It has 145,509 total populations, (CSA 2007). Inter- personal, inter - family, intra - family, intra & inter group conflict occurred mostly in the form of threats, theft & murdering is seen frequently, these cases always tried to resolve by the men but by excluding women.

Practically, women's role in CR process has a vital one like in areas of central Africa, Tanzania, Somalia and Yemen. But, when we come to the researcher's study area women's participation in CR is ignored and here half of the society’s interest, knowledge and quality are neglected and invaluable in the CR task rather it gives for men elders and religious fathers only.

Here, the researcher understand that women do not get equal opportunity to all parts that they live to participate in CR as they covered half parts of the population in the community. Thus, the major purpose of this study is to assess the participation of women in CR process in the study area. Because in the researcher’s study area conflict is resolved through reconciliation (shimglina) is given for men by excluding women. This is also true in other part of Amhara region ( North shewa), for instance, (Alula et al, (2004), stated that Disputes are brought for resolution for the elders to intervene directly to facilitate resolution of a dispute reaching an agreement was usually delegated to the elders who are drawn from all level of the society. An elder was usually a man who gains religious knowledge and power of oratory. Daniel, (2016) also out lined that Magaa is the traditional dispute resolution institutions in Southern Ethiopia (Gurage Zone) which is essential to reconcile the disputant clans through men. Thus, women can and should be involved in both the informal and formal processes of conflict resolution. The cost of excluding women from the political and public service sphere will come at a high price, impacting not just women but their communities and countries, (McGuiness, supra note 7: 64 and Cassandra, (2015).

Therefore, this paper explores the level of women's participation; identify preventive factors of the women; the role of the community to improve the participation of women in conflict resolution process and the root cause of conflict for the community in the study area.

1. 2 Statement of the problem

Women are half parts of communities and have their own interests, talents, experiences, skill and wisdom weather women get naturally or through experience. All these features of the women can contribute for many significant tasks of their community; like CR, economic development, and building of social institutions, peace building process, preventing and protecting cultural values in their communities.

Not only to have these basic listed activities but also active participation of women have a vital role for the long last changes of development and democracy in the national level. Otherwise, if women are excluded from participating in community based CR, socio-economic decisions, leadership positions or is so busy with household responsibilities that they do not have time to go to community meetings: then the talents, experiences and wisdom of half of the population will not contribute their efforts at the necessary positions. For instance; women are not participating in resolving conflict at Dabat woreda. Here disappointment of the women has its own negative impact. Regarding to this, (McCarthy (2011) argued that the chances of achieving sustainable peace and public order are diminished by under participation of women, yet they form a sizeable part of the population.

The other researcher, (Rookie (2012), stated that women have especial qualities than men to resolve conflict. Similarly the study by Cassandra and Mathey, Explained that women's participation in Colombia, Democratic Republic of Cong (DRC) and Tanzania women played irreplaceable role for peace and CR to have stable life for their community, (Cassandra ,2015, Mathey, 2003). In addition to the above other country of Africa (e.g.; in the case of Somalia) the women played a big role in CR effort to insure the dispute/civil war in their community/country come to an end. In supra level the women were involved in bringing Somalia war lords to place where they could talk. Somalia Peace and Reconciliation Conference (SPRC) held in 2000 in Djibouti involved women in the negotiations, (Daley (2006:290-320).

Besides of the above literature, (UN, Oct, 31, 2000), outlined that women should be participate actively in all aspects of their countries, Specifically UN Security Council Ressolution1325(2000) expected to made greater effort and motivation for world's women to involve actively in different tasks, the notion is explained that "to achieve the women

4 participation in CR, peace and security, peace and development tasks Security Council Resolution 1325 has served as a catalyst for women all over the world to mobilize their efforts to achieve equal participation, (Cassandra k. 2015:65). African societies have their own ways of traditional CR mechanisms. These mechanisms can address some of the proximate factors that help fuel conflict at the local level and can provide appropriate, sustainable and long-term solutions. While local CR processes are not likely to stop a large conflict, but they can help to prevent and resolve small conflicts and disputes from escalating into larger conflicts through religious leaders or/and elders, (ibid). There is a fundamental fact in C/African societies that was the sacred character of the respect given to the elderly in general and to elderly women in particular. According to that study the elderly woman was respected by all and played a key role in CR. Thus, when a conflict degenerated into armed violence, an appeal would usually be made to a third party of mature years to calm the tension and reconcile the combatants. Such an appeal for mediation was usually made by a woman who enjoyed the consideration and respect of all who knew her, (Mathey et al, (2003: 35-46).

In the Ethiopian context especially, in the regional state of Oromo, women have a great role in solving conflicts among Oromo clans by intervene and request for reconciliation by using women's institution which is known as Siqqe institution. Siqqe institution is established by marital woman. Here Siqqe gives during wedding time for the female Oromo only. Siqqe has highly respected in the community. Women of Oromia also have the right and power to reconcile Oromo people to their God called waqa by praying to God for them, (Muche and Bayeh 2015: 3|4). With relating to this idea (Berhane-Selassie, et, al (1994) argued that association of women and the female gender with peace and resolving conflict is essential and policies work with women ought to be fundamental.

Here the researcher understand that women's role in CR task in different areas have a great utility. Yet, at the researcher's study area women have only pre conflict role through habitual and traditional way of life like feeding together during holy days, helping (comforting) grieving persons, drinking different associations (like Sabbath, ST. Merry, ST. George, ...) requesting begetter women, asking sick persons and so on. Mostly these positive activities of the women in the study area may be given up when conflict occurs by her husband or with her father or her brother in different conditions with other groups or persons in the community. Then the women

5 have not the right/opportunity to communicate with opponent group members without their husband or men permission.

Even though the above listed positive activities, features or characters of the women in the community are helpful in pre-conflict time to prevent conflict and to have harmonious relationship among member of the community before conflict occurs but today in my frequent experience such types of positive participations are becoming reduce and people started to eating alone and most of the time people become feuding, conflicting or disagreeing regarding to economic, religious, farm/pastoral land, divorce, revenge related differences or cases and thus, from the day- to- day, relation of the society became harsh. In this situation women do not involve actively as the pre conflict participations to sustain the previous positive trend and relation of the society, rather women inhibited automatically to stop their relation with the disagreed groups or not to be interacting with the disputant groups until women’s husbands or fathers allowed to interact again for the women or women inhibited until reconciliation is made through men elders and religions fathers.

Additionally the process of reconciliation is not including women even women have their own qualities and they cover half parts of the community, rather they denied their opportunity to participate in CR in the study area, but there is the fact that women carried heavy burden than men when conflict occurs, almost all of the responsibilities of the family is under the women’s shoulder, but the issue of reconciliation, negotiation and conflict resolution effort is not participating the women.

When we refer 1995 FDRE constitution of Ethiopia explained that the constitution by itself and other ordinary laws advocated that maintaining of equality, peace and security for all Ethiopian people. Particularly equality of women with men is ensured in the specific article of 35. Yet, gender inequality is occurred seriously in the researcher's study area through various activities which can clearly invited women to play crucial involvements like decision making process, reconciliation process, making or creating awareness for their community for peace and conflict resolution in different coincidences like religious institutions, community meeting, etc rather women have more narrow access and opportunities to express their point of view and feeling to advocate the society especially for the nasty effect of conflict and to make reconciliation even they are pre-victims through the effect of conflict whatever conflict is done by, women

6 shouldering heavy responsibilities after conflict. Even if women have an interest and quality to involve in CR (reconciliation) activities/efforts their participation is almost null. Many (both local and international) researchers explained that the role of women in CR task is so essential. For instance, (Cassandra (2015) stated that the role of women in CR helps to have long term, sustainable and amicable relationships between parties in conflict. Similarly, (Rookie (2012) also argued that women have special qualities to resolve conflict.

Daniel (2016) also outlined that traditional disputes resolution institutions are more effective than legal systems through elders. Especially in Africa there are various indigenous mechanisms of CR. For instance: Gacaca system in Rwanda, The Akan concept of personhood in Ghana, Land wrangles in Kenya, Aunts resolve domestic wrangles in Uganda, Gada system, Gumma System, maaga system and shimglna in Ethiopia are some of the mechanisms of indigenous CR. However, Africans have been rich in means of CR mechanisms, but most of the implementation of those mechanisms is excluded half parts of the community that are the women in practice still today. Since recent years, Indigenous Conflict Resolution Mechanisms (ICRM) received growing attention as evidenced by an increase in research activities, publications, and policy interest as well as a growing attention given by the government, judiciary and the civil society, (Gowok (2008). Especially in the Ethiopian context, several authors & researchers like; (Dejene, (2002); Desalegn, (2005); Kelemework, (2011); Ajanew, (2018); Yonas, (2012); Abebe, Samson and Tessema, (2015); Daniel, 2016, Bamlaku, (2015), studied about ICRM in Ethiopia on various issues such as nature, process, role of ICRM for social solidarity and order, ICRMs and formal justice system.

However, they did not gave emphasize to promote the role and participation of women in indigenous efforts. Hence, this study will contribute to fill this gap and contribute to stimulate women in CR processes by using Dabat woreda as a case study. Thus, the researcher has an assumption to assess the following research questions in the study area context: What is the level of women's participation in CR processes in the study area? What are the factors that prevented women in CR processes in the study area? And what looks like the role of the community to improve the participation of women in CR processes at the researcher’s study area?

1.3 Objectives of the study

1.3.1 The General Objective The main objective of this study is to assess the role and participation of women in conflict resolution processes at Dabat Woreda, North Gondar, in the regional state of Amhara.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

This research is intended to address the following specific objectives;

 To explore the level of women's participation in conflict resolution processes in the study area  To identify factors that prevent women in conflict resolution processes in the study area  To examine the role of the community to improve the participation of women in conflict resolution processes

1.4 Significance of the Study

A study on conflict resolution and its role for sustainable socio-economic development is one important area of development research. Therefore, the study would render the following advantages to the study area and other areas which have similar problems.  To create awareness for the women to involve actively in conflict resolution process through varies opportunities that help to transmit the message of conflict resolution to the women like community meeting, religious institutions…

 To Contribute a better understanding about conflict resolution process through women to the community in the study area  To create recognition for the women that they have special qualities than men to resolve conflict  To enable the women to involve in any matters of their community freely especially, in conflict resolution process because, peace is a matter of life and security for all of the community  To enable the researcher to acquire basic experience and knowledge about conflict resolution process

 Serving as an input for policy makers in relation to peace and conflict resolution  Serving as a reference for other researchers to conduct research on similar topic in regional and national level

1.5 Research Questions

1.5.1 Main Research Question

The main research question that should be answered in this study is; what is the role and participation of women in conflict resolution process in the study area?

1.5.2 Specific Research Questions To achieve the research objectives, the following basic research questions were formulated.

1. What is the level of women's participation in conflict resolution processes in the study area?

2. What are the factors that prevented women in conflict resolution processes in the study area?

3. What looks like the role of the community to improve the participation of women in conflict resolution processes in the study area?

1.6 Delimitation and Limitation of the Study

1.6.1 Delimitation of the Study

This study specifically focuses on assessing and analyzing the level of women's participation in conflict resolution process, preventive factors of the women in conflict resolution and the role of the community to improve the participation of women in conflict resolution process in the study area for the sake of peace, security, stability, the practical use of democracy and socio-economic development in the community. In terms of area the scope of the study is Dabat woreda, and the study is focused on four selected kebeles (BENTERO, BENKER, CHARBITA and GINGIR kebele), North Gondar zone, in the regional state of Amhara. Accordingly, any of the analysis and the findings of the study are specific to Dabat Woreda.

1.6.2 Limitation of the Study

For the success of this research various problems were faced. Those were;

 Lack of internet access

 Distance of selected sample kebeles were far from the woreda (center) and especially Gingir and Bentero kebele (lack of transportation)

 Lack of punctuality of the women especially to conduct focus group discussion

1.7 Rationale for the Study

In view of the fact that conflicts have led to grave consequences like deaths, starvation, poverty, social unrest and unquantifiable losses among the citizens of different nations, (Olabade and Ajibade (2010). In the real life the researcher observed that many people involved in to conflict frequently because of various cases and they tried to solve their conflict through either legally in woreda court and kebele social courts based on the situation (if the case is low financial cost and simple kebele social courts might be seen unless high cases and high financial costs seen in woreda courts) here people devote much time specially in woreda court not only time they also vulnerable for economic crises.

Too surprise, mostly the woreda judicial organ sent back the disputant parties to their locality in order to solve their problem through the local elders and religious fathers smoothly, before the judicial decided the decision based on different evidences and identify the winner and loser one before the court. Because, if the decision is made through the court there is the situation that disputants entered to conflict again mostly. It also follows other social instability, has the negative impact on the development of the community, increases worry, dread and cause of poverty for the family members. Thus, to avoid such types of difficulties cooperative participation towards resolution of conflict is so essential.

The logic behind is that almost all of the conflict resolution activities and /or efforts are done through male elders and religious fathers only by excluding half parts of the community that is the women who are an adept to give the constructive ideas to reconcile the disputants with the sense of mother and the special qualities women have through nature that is women are non- aggressive than men and they have the capable to continue or to stop something and either initiating or shaming their men. Thus, social cohesion of the community become harsh and

10 development cannot sustain without peace, security and organization or cooperation of the people (cooperativeness of women with men).

Especially farmers lose vital economic and social advantages more than the benefits they get from the judicial decision when they expend their time in the court. This is not only affecting the personal income but also the cause to lags the entire development of the country slowly. Therefore, an effort to address the role and participation of women in conflict resolution process in the community is fundamental for socio-economic development as well as to sustain harmonious social cohesion.

1.8 Organization of the Paper This paper is organized in to five chapters. Chapter one introduces the study by describing the background, statement of the problem, objectives, significance for the study, research question limitation and delimitation of the study and rationality of the study.

The second chapter covers review of related literature dealing with; women, conflict and CR, the impact of conflict on women, the role of women in conflict prevention and conflict resolution, The role of women elders in conflict resolution, Key considerations for gender‐responsive participations in the national reconciliation processes, Causes of conflict in Ethiopia, preventive factors of the women to participate in CR processes, the impact of exclusion of women in CR processes and Underlying principles on various mechanisms of conflict resolution.

The third chapter incorporates the methodology part; research paradigm, research approach and design, description of the study area, sample procedures, targeted population and sampling, sources of data and instruments of data collection, method of data analysis and procedures. The fourth chapter incorporates the results and discussion of the study. The last chapter includes conclusion and recommendation of the study.

CHAPTER TWO 2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITRATURE 2.1 Women, Conflict and Conflict Resolution

Local conflicts have been a common phenomenon since time immemorial. For instance; in pastoral areas conflicts are often characterized by competition over grazing land and water resources and by livestock raiding and looting, (Bamlaku et al (2007). Such kinds of conflicts were further intensified with the declining nature of the pastoral mode of life and the type of state responses, (Kandagor (2005).

Women have minimal direct participation in indigenous institutions of conflict resolution for a variety of reasons. Because women lack formal political platforms, they often draw credibility and strength from a wider social base and promote their agenda at the grassroots level, (Manchanda (1999).The absence or minority presence of women in discussions about conflict resolution efforts or the implementation of outcomes of such about unfortunate results. Peace agreements in which their concerns and priorities have not been well addressed may be unjust and ineffective, and may lack long-term viability, (Bates 2000; Burton and Dukes 1990).

The invisibility of women in social, cultural, economical and political affairs, the widespread acceptance of religious and cultural justifications for the unequal treatment of women, and the lack of regional and national significance attached to women’s lives explain the marginalization of women in all affairs. Women experience conflicts differently and in ways that men do not experience at all. Their experience must be considered in all conflict-resolving efforts of reconciliation, negotiations and discussions. Otherwise the peace process will only be obtained for half the population who are more victims through the impact of conflict, (Resembled (2007).

Indigenous conflict resolution mechanisms (ICRM) help to resolve conflict and are established by the communities who have common understandings of their norms, values, rules, sanctions and principles, (Hodgson (2006). Conflict affected the women and children differently compared to that of the men, (Catriona (2012); Chinese (2005); Daley (2006).

2.2 The Impacts of Conflict on Women

Women and men have different access to resources, power and decision making before, during and after conflicts. The experience of women and of men in conflict situations is significantly different. While entire communities suffer the consequences of conflict, women and girls are particularly affected because of their status in society and their sex. Women are thus caught in a vicious paradox: while they are the main civilian victims of conflicts, they are often powerless to defend themselves, they are excluded from the negotiations during the conflict resolution process, and they are confined to a marginal role in the conflict resolution and reconciliation efforts, (Bamlaku et al (2007: 89-90) The general exclusion of women from decision-making positions prior to during and following conflicts reinforces their victimization. Empowering women in conflict and conflict resolution situations would help prevent gender-based violence. For instance, the terrible crimes of rape, forced pregnancy, sexual slavery and others, (Bamlaku et al (2007) cited in (Naraghi-Anderlini (2006). It is increasingly recognized that conflict affects men and women differently. It has a wide range of economical, social, and psychological effects which are influenced by gender, (Byrne (1996). A. Economic Impact of Conflict on Women’s Life Conflict has its own economic impact particularly on women. For instance; Loss of livestock through raids has a significant economic impact on pastoral households, (Devereux (2006). Loss of like cows and camels through conflict follows a negative impact on women’s economic life especially when milk is as a means of income for the women.

Women in conflict and indigenous conflict resolution in Ethiopia is not active. For instance; according to (Bamlaku et al (2007) a study in Eastern Ethiopia stated that “a death of camels and cows through the conflict of two clans (Gurgura and Erer) followed a negative impact on women’s economy.” This practice is a continuing process that results in some form of retaliation or revenge, cattle raiding/killing of animals/ affects the milk supply for which women are responsible. Fear of raids and conflicts also restricts pastoral movements to less fertile areas, which has an impact on stock productivity. This fear of insecurity has a negative impact on the whole community’s development efforts, especially with regard to basic services like schools,

13 health facilities and water resource development. Trade (in chat, milk, eggs, and other petty trade) is largely carried out by women in these areas.

A study by Bamlaku et al (2007) also stated that the women in Erer and Gurgura who have been engaged in chat and charcoal trading as an income for more than 15 years were victim of theft. Their families are totally dependent on this trading. Currently, as the conflict is in process, women have no alternative to continuing with the trading; because of insecurities their movements are restricted. Moreover, widows will have a high economic burden when they have lost their partners, as well as the socio-psychological impact.

When there is insecurity, women lose their trade opportunities. With regarding to the above idea International Alert in Burundi (2012: 37) stated that women’s political participation and economic empowerment is essential. Because, the issue of economic power is central to the analysis of women’s participation like in issues of politics and other related affairs. The lack of access to resources and control thereof has been identified as one of the major obstacles to the political participation of women and it is often argued that an increased empowerment of women from an economic perspective would play a role in increasing their participation.

B. Social and Psychological Impact of Conflict on Women’s Life According to Bamlaku et al, (2007) study ” if women do not participate and are not directly involved in conflicts for e.g. related to raiding, women are not armed and they are not able to defend themselves when they are attacked by their enemies. They suffer more in terms of death and injury than other community members”. Women also lose their husbands, sons or other family members due to conflict. Loss of a husband usually means that the woman either has to leave the pastoral sector or be inherited by her husband’s brother or close relatives. Inherited wives are often of lower social status than full wives.

Women are usually vulnerable to abduction and rape in times of conflict. For instance, in the current conflict between the Nolle Oromos and the Gurgura and Issa clans of Somali, those women who are engaged in chat trading are exposed to theft as well as rape. Because of security problems, women’s movements are restricted, and that has both economic and social consequences on their lives. Their limited movement because of insecurity limits their ability to maintain their social relationships within their community and their neighboring ethnic groups.

Thus, even though women’s involves is restricted because of various reasons but they can play a pivotal role in different area to resolve dispute and/or conflict in the community/country. 2.3 Role of Women in Conflict Prevention and Conflict Resolution

2.3.1 The Role of Women in Promoting Conflict or/and in Stabilizing, Searching for Peace and Resolving Conflicts

Women play double roles before, during and after conflicts. They have special skills in instigating conflicts as well as in stabilizing and searching for peace, for instance a study in Somali stated that women have positive contribution to resolve conflict, according to (Bamlaku et al, 2007) outlined that the effort of women in conflict resolution before, during and after conflict to bring together the disputant parties/groups especially the women who are living in eastern part of Ethiopia, (ibid) page: 92-95). A. The Role of Women before Conflict Women praise victory and success as fruits of peace in order to promote peace and stability instead of enmity. Their ideological propaganda in the community to prevent conflict is important. There are some of the traditional phrases that women are accustomed to use when conflict threatens to erupt: If you sleep in peace, it is your victory and success. If there is no peace, you can’t sleep well.

Although women are not allowed to sit and participate in conflict resolution formally, they have the invisible hands that play their role behind the scene. They condemn conflict with their proverbs, like these: Conflict never ends and there isn’t success and prosperity through it. You can’t achieve your goal through conflict instead of peace. In conflict people perish but do not reproduce/are not perpetuated. Don’t wander here and there and rush to conflict since it destroys you. Besides, women also play an important role in child rearing and instructing peace, (Bamlaku et al, 2007, cited in (Ntahobari and Ndayiziga (2003:18).

The family and especially women are the primary agents of socialization. Women educate their children about the norms, principles sanctions, beliefs and values of their society. Children spend much of their time with their mothers so that they learn a lot from them. Mothers instruct and bless their children in the following ways: I wish you not to be killed by your enemy. I wish you to be free from dangerous diseases, I God give us peace, defend yourself cooperatively, be (am) united, and don’t do anything alone.

If you aren’t united, you will be easily defeated, be united and act together, (Bamlaku et al (2007: 93). B. The Role of Women during Conflict Women are accused of using various ways of instigating men to go to war. They praise men who join the war without hesitation and at the same time they also ridicule, nag and abuse those who are reluctant to join the war. They bless conflicts and prepare food beforehand, and welcome those who return with blessings, songs and dances. During conflicts they have the power to initiate and give moral support to their husbands, fathers, sons and brothers. Songs are sung, particularly by young women, to give courage to the men.

There is a Somali saying about the role of women in times of conflict: ‘An army with women cannot be easily defeated’ (Mohamed 2003:85). For instance; there is the role women played to courage their men to defend their opponent groups trough different proverbs and sayings commonly used by Somali women to instigate conflicts at different stages:

“We don’t have brothers to revenge our enemies who killed our sons. Men, give your guns to us and do our jobs like milking cows and others. Do those who were killed by our enemies have no brothers? You men can’t defend your enemies!” (Bamlaku T. et al (2007: 94).

On the other hand, women play important roles in stabilizing situations and Searching for peace, since they are victims of conflicts, (Conaway and Sen. (2005). A better understanding of the role of women in the search for peace in Somali begins with a clear understanding of their status and role in their society. In a polygamous marriage, the first wife is the chief mediator of conflicts in the family. She is responsible for restoring peace and tranquility in situations of conflict between the husband and one of his wives, or among the latter. She also ensures that perfect harmony exists between the young brothers-in-law and their wives.

Women are also able to persuade their husbands, sons, brothers and fathers to stop fighting and settle their cases through negotiation. Women have special skills and power in settling conflicts. There are common proverbs and sayings of Somali women about this: “Males will die and not be born on the battle field.”

Furthermore, women constitute a symbol of peace and cooperation. First, a woman promotes understanding between herself and her husband. Second, she bonds her family and her husband’s family. And third, she builds a bridge between her clan/community and that of her husband. When building a healthy society, the first unit and building block is the family. In the process of conflict resolution there is the practice of blood money as compensation. When two clans fight and there is death, steps are taken to organize the Women in conflict and indigenous conflict resolution in Eastern Ethiopia collection and payment of blood money. A marriage (or marriages) involving the two parties immediately follows this, (Mohamed, (2003:75–110).

This kind of marriage occurs between a man who lost a brother or close relative and a girl from the opposite side. This means a beautiful girl will be selected and given to their rivals as a gift in the form of marriage. The main objective of the marriage is to heal the wounds and to cement the agreement/settlement reached by the two parties. She will give birth to that family in particular and the clan in general as a compensation for the dead person. ‘In the Somali culture where there is bloodshed, it must be soaked with birth fluids. The point is the married woman will give birth to sons who will fill the void created by the man who perished in the battle’ (Mohamed, (2003:103).

In Somali opinion the fluid that comes out first during her delivery can end and cement the bloodshed between the two rival groups forever. This implies that girls play roles for the sustainability of peace building and conflict resolution systems. That is why the married woman is sometimes called wound-healer. She assumes this role in conflict situations, particularly when someone is killed. In addition, the marriage is not only resolve conflict but also designed to create a high bond between the two groups, and thus to minimize the possibility of the erupting of another conflict, (Bamlaku et al (2007).

C. The Role of Women after Conflict Women also practice the heerin tradition, which means unmarried women visit the enemy clan without the permission of their parents. The enemy clan welcomes and will arrange a marriage with them. This enables the two distant and enemy clans to bring together and build sustainable peace and stability.

The Somali women have always been the centre for integration through marriage that brought together and cemented two different and distant clans, (Bamlaku et al (2007), cited in (Elster (1989). A Somali proverb emphasizes their unique role: ‘Only a woman can bring two separate clans together’. When two clans are connecting through marriage, it is the married woman who forms the backbone of the newly established community. She becomes an ambassador of her clan. Somalis say: ‘A married woman is an ambassador’. They also say: ‘A married woman is a leader’. The bridge she builds between the two communities is one that brings about unity and cooperation, (Mohamed, (2003:101).

Active participation of women in all public spheres helps to be come up to the national leader, even an influential in the international context as the Liberian women in the Africa context, Women can play a great role up to a national leader as a first female president in Africa (Liberian President, Ellen Johnson Sir leaf (24th president in Liberia from 2006-2018), Burundi’s women play a significant role to reconciling the diverse political parties (17 political parties in number) to have integrity through conflict resolution efforts in conflict resolution to reconcile the Hutu and Tutsi societies after a mass killing in Burundi (1972-1994).

Women are disproportionately impacted by war and war effects their experiences are distinct from men; further, although women may carry a heavier burden than men during wartimes, their experiences, views, and skills are often under-valued and under-utilized in the resolution of conflict. As a result, women continue to be underrepresented in leadership positions, peace building and conflict resolution tasks throughout the world, (Cassandra, 2015), These resilient women collectively brought an end to the war and restored peace in the region, leading the country to the peaceful democratic elections of 2005 and the first elected woman president of an African state, (ibid).

Conflict exists to some degree in every community. The form and intensity of conflicts vary widely by place and over time within each community. The ways in which communities and their members respond to conflicts also vary considerably. Significant diversity often exists within communities in terms of knowledge, opinion, material wealth, power and status. Therefore, conflicts and the way they are handled should be examined from a social and historical perspective, with an understanding and appreciation of the range of local viewpoints. www.fao.org/2009.

African Traditional Conflict Mechanisms made use of persuasion as a means to achieving the desired agreements. There was the fostering of mutual respect by the disputing parties, for each other and for the resolution that was arrived at the end. Consultants i.e. specialists in conflict resolution such as elders were engaged to pursue such tasks and see that conflict resolution was achieved, (Mathey (2003), regarding to this, Gadaa system as an institution developed for guiding socio-political, economic and religious life of the Oromo people in Ethiopia and its contribution is to manage resources and conflict resolution through different male age groups (here male elders have high position and dignity) but, Shimgilina is provided for the male elders and religious fathers in the regional state of Amhara by excluding the women, (Pankhurst et al (2004); Daniel (2016), and Desalegn et al, 2007).

It is commonly known that in every parts of the community in one or another cause conflict occurs. The case may loosen the relations among the community. Therefore, most of the time some selected groups have the role to resolve the conflict. Men always have the responsibility to reconcile the conflict occurred. However, women are not participating in reconciling conflicts in the community. The community have not norm to women's participation in conflict resolution. But, relating to this, (Haris S.), argued that, getting women into the negotiation room is just the first step of building foundations for lasting peace. Inclusion of women in peace building and resolve conflict should be everybody’s responsibility as it cuts across different layers of society, (Haris, (1995). There is an enormous need to tackle issues on gender-based violence as this continues to challenge all efforts for peace in society. In humanitarian and conflict situations, there is room for greater focus on UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on women, peace and security that recognized the need for women to participate on equal terms with men at all levels and in all roles to promote peace and security, (UNSC Resolution, 2000 Oct 31). Among the Tubur of Cameroon, women have been used as mediators in conflict management processes to ensure that communities bordering each other have peaceful co-existence. The wog clu or the “old mamas” were responsible for mediator and were consulted on all problems which disturbed peace among the communities bordering each other. Once consulted, a wug clu shared with those directly involved in the conflict in a bid to get a resolution and reconciliation between such communities, (Mwangi (2013).

Impact of such focused actions will be greater if issues of gender equality are taken into account at the outset and if the realization of the human rights of women informs everything done in these situations. This is a challenge but an opportunity to respect humanity for all. Researchers believed the place for women in conflict resolution, peace, security and development work has to take a more central focus and tireless concentration supported by local and international instruments for peace and stability, (Chinese, (2005).

In addition to the above idea, (Haris (Prime Minister of Bosnia from 1993-96) also explained that women have the talent to use their capacity and gift as a bridge to reconcile the divided groups in the sense of mother. According to his statement "Women often use their role as mothers to cut across international borders and internal divides. A few experiences spring up as reflected on the contributions that women have made in conflict resolution and peace processes.

2.4 Women Elders in Conflict Resolution

Beside the above specifically in the Tanzanian community the role of women elders in conflict resolution tasks constitute a positive and significant effect, Elderly women have been respected and they are good sources of ethics to the community. They are always engaging in tiresome and home activities. In most communities, they do not have an opportunity to involve themselves in valuable activities like conflict resolution process. On top of this Lihamba, (2003) stated that women can play a pivotal role and in some communities like the Kalenjin, women are a crucial one in conflict resolutions.

Similarly in most African communities women were regarded as the epitome of peace. In a study on Tanzania, Lihamba, (2003:115) particularly revealed that, Tanzanian women have always played a critical part in maintaining equilibrium in their society. For instance, by bringing up in one of the conflicted parties through reconciliation, by bringing up their children as responsible members of their community, women taught their daughters and sons, proper behavior and the ethos of society and impressed on them the importance of such values as honesty, uprightness and the necessity to compromise.

As such, women have always been active promoters of harmony in the Tanzanian community. This natural role of women is not unique to any particular ethnic group in Tanzania, but rather is generalized throughout the country.

This made them better emissaries of peace as they were regarded to be the most none partisan when it came to wars and extreme distressing situations. That is why, in a war situation, women and children were never killed. They were simply captured and were later fully assimilated into the community which had captured them. This is the total opposite of what is happening in other parts of African women and children today in Somalia, south Sudan, Ethiopia and in Africa as a whole. Thus, it implies that in most African society’s women and children are vulnerable groups of any conflict because of the less participation of women in conflict resolution processes quickly, (Mwangi (2013).

Alula and Getachew, (2008) also argued that resolution of conflict is crucial for day-to-day coexistence as human societies are in constant search of resolution mechanisms of conflicts, but women are adept than men in nature. On top of this, (Catriona, 2012: Cassandra, 2015, Mwangi, 2013), Argued that, although women may carry a heavier burden than men during wartimes, their experiences, views and skills are often under-valued and under-utilized in there solution of conflict so that special consideration is needed to the inclusion of women in conflict resolution. As a result, women continue to be underrepresented in higher positions, like leadership positions throughout the world. In the future, international organizations need to work toward ameliorating this representation imbalance and the organizations need to take gender into account when planning for conflict resolution through legal activism that provides for the needs of women.

As it is commonly known, most African women are invited to execute house hold activities, those activities are not allowed to women to participate in the outside of their homes and to use their performance freely for them as well as for the their community, but within the same continent (in Africa) there are communities who supported women to involve actively in conflict resolution process than let women to do house hold tasks alone.

From those communities women have been identified mandate to reconcile the disputant parties. For instance, Tanzanian society (Kalenjin), Central African societies (Zande), Ethiopia (Oromo and Somali) society etc are examples of the community that the women can involved in the process of conflict resolution.

The study in Central Africa revealed that if war broke out among the Zande community (an ethnic group of Northern central Africa primarily they live in Northeastern part of Democratic

Republic of Congo, South-central and Southwestern part of South Sudan and South-eastern Central Africa Republic), the oldest women of the clan would go to meet opposing clan and to interpose themselves between the fighters in order to make them see reason, (Manhood and Ogunleye 2018:28), When words proved fruitless, the women would threaten to expose their nakedness or to go down on their knees. In either case, the gesture signified a curse for those who bore the responsibility for such grave acts. Because of the respect that the enemy soldiers had for the women, they would usually put down their weapons before the fateful acts were accomplished, This made them better emissaries of peace as they were regarded to be the most none partisan when it came to wars and extreme distressing situations, (ibid).

Women played a pivotal role and in some communities like the Kalenjin a crucial one in conflict resolutions". In most African communities women were regarded as the epitome of peace. According to the study of Lihamba (2003), Tanzanian women have always played a critical part in maintaining equilibrium by involving in conflict resolution process in their society, by bringing up their children as responsible members of the community, Women taught their daughters and sons for peace and conflict resolution, proper behavior and the ethos of society and impressed on them the importance of such values as honesty, uprightness and the necessity of compromise. As such women have always been active promoters of harmony in the community, (ibid (p: 115)

Additionally Lihamba also explained that there is an underlying principle that underscores all successful conflict resolution. That is both parties must view their conflict as a problem to be solved mutually so that both parties have the feeling of winning or at least finding a solution which is acceptable to both. Each person must participate actively in the resolution and make an effort and commitment to find answers which are as fair as possible to both. This is an easy principle to understand (negotiate), but it is often difficult to put into practice. Similarly mutual trust and respect as well as a positive constructive attitude are fundamental necessities in relationships the matters, (ibid).

African traditional conflict mechanisms made use of persuasion as a means to achieving the desired agreements. There was the fostering of mutual respect by the disputing parties, for each

22 other and for the resolution that was arrived at the end. Consultants i.e. specialists in conflict resolution such as elders, were engaged to pursue such tasks and see that conflict resolution was achieved, (Idea 2003).

CR process should be fruit full or be effective. Because, there is an underlying principle that underscores all successful conflict resolution. That is, both parties must view their conflict as a problem to be solved mutually so that both parties have the feeling of winning or at least finding a solution which is acceptable to both. Each person must participate actively in the resolution and make an effort and commitment to find answers which are as fair as possible to both. This is an easy principle to understand (negotiate), but it is often difficult to put into practice. Similarly mutual trust and respect, as well as a positive, constructive attitude are fundamental necessities in relationships the matters, (ibid).

2.5 Key Considerations for Gender‐Responsive Participation in the National

Reconciliation Processes Conflict can be resolved through various means of conflict resolution mechanisms. Thus, reconciliation is one part of conflict resolution which plays a significant role for the disputant parties to reach an agreement.

As it is known, conflict is inevitable and which may have constructive or distractive effect in different levels (local, national and international levels) and it needs participation of both women and men to take their own part of responsibility in the reconciliation process. Here the researcher took reconciliation as part of conflict resolution. That is obvious reconciliation as one means of conflict resolution effort. Thus, that is best women should be take their part to reconcile in the community. Regarding to this, Idea (2003) outlined that equal gender responsiveness is best in reconciliation; not only in the local level, but also in the national reconciliation process is essential. It stated as follows;

Gender‐responsive in the national reconciliation processes can be one means of acknowledging and initiating women's experience of conflict resolution and contributions to peace.

They can provide a platform from which women can work together to ensure that post‐conflict institutional arrangements for governance, land reform, economic recovery, security sector

23 reform and justice respect women’s rights and allow for their full and equal participation. According to Idea (2003) argument, including women in the reconciliation process helps to make different reforms. Specifically, when women involved in the national reconciliation processes, it leads to constitutional reform, by taking in to consideration four specific issues to be addressed in any consideration of gender‐responsive national reconciliation process:

(a) Women’s equal participation Women have often been excluded from local and national reconciliation processes and unable to have the harms they experienced acknowledged or redressed. Women in traditional societies face steep barriers to entry let alone equal participation in a number of areas, including governance institutions, credit and business support and transitional and justice institutions. These barriers are experienced from the earliest moments of conflict, preventing women from engaging effectively in conflict prevention and conflict resolution let alone national reconciliation.

Good practices to engage women in national reconciliation have included using quotas to ensure parity amongst female and male commissioners in truth‐seeking bodies or other transitional institutions. For instance in Yemen a quota was used, resulting in women representing 29% of participants in the National Dialogues. Equally important are systems to enable women to caucus amongst themselves, and to ensure that women’s civil society groups can engage with leaders to provide inputs to these processes, (Ideal 2003). Sometimes this will require special outreach and communication to build awareness and trust amongst women. Enabling women’s participation may also require specialized legal aid, counseling services and facilities to protect the identities of women survivors of violence who fear re‐stigmatization by communities or backlash from perpetrators if their experiences are publicly shared. (b) Acknowledging and responding women’s to experiences of conflict resolution When women’s experiences of CR are ignored, sidelined or relegated to a matter of secondary concern, their incentives for participating in reconciliation processes diminish. This is particularly the case if there is no strong condemnation of these gender crimes; the risk is that women will be re‐stigmatized for having experienced rape, sex trafficking and other abuses.

It is critical that reconciliation processes respond to the full range of human rights violations experienced by women during conflict and to men and women’s differentiated needs with respect to accessing and benefiting from these processes.

Mainstreaming a gender perspective throughout reconciliation processes in the design and implementation stage is central to ensuring women’s participation, developing a more accurate account of the past and ideally securing justice for women’s experiences of conflict resolution. Gender and conflict resolution analysis must guide the design of any reconciliation process to ensure that from the beginning appropriate steps are taken to recognize the differential impact of the conflict on women and men and to encourage that these matters are addressed in such a way as to both ensure truth, avoid trauma to the victims and enable them to move on.

A positive example of efforts to address substantive and operational obstacles to women’s participation was the Sierra Leone Truth and Reconciliation Commission. A distinguishing feature of the Commission’s work from the outset was its intention to give special focus to the experiences of women during the conflict and conflict resolution.

(c) Reconciliation as Transformation: women who have, during conflict, expanded their economic activities, managed families on their own and taken on public decision‐making positions, there is often a concern that reconciliation could lead to a return to the status quo ante. If that means a return to gender‐based discrimination, this will disadvantage women. For many women, reconciliation and the forward looking focus on social change, trust‐building and cooperation, requires a commitment to transformation in all social relations, including domestic relations between women and men.

Reparations programme have clear relevance to strategies for social transformation from the perspective of women seeking greater gender equality. In addition to being the justice mechanism most consistently prioritized by women post‐conflict, reparations can provide acknowledgement of their rights as equal citizens, a measure of justice, crucial resources for recovery and can thus contribute to transforming underlying gender inequalities in post conflict societies, (Gonzalez et al, (2010).

(d) Engaging women as reconcilers: Women’s social roles in some contexts position them well to lead reconciliation efforts. They may be trusted by local populations more than are discredited political or traditional leaders and therefore can be a valuable resource for reconciliation initiatives, (Joseph, (2008) Reconciliation: as process through which a society moves from a divided past to a shared future, Idea (2003). Reconciliation takes many forms: truth‐telling, prosecutions, national dialogues, individual or collective reparations, peace education, etc. It is considered essential to building the trust between individuals and communities needed to enable societies to rebuild and cooperate towards democratic and non‐violent approaches to resolving their differences.

2.6 Causes of Conflict in Ethiopia 2.6.1 Ethnicity as a Cause of Conflict

Ethnic conflicts were the main forms of political instability in the multi ethnic societies during second half of twenty century and beginning of new century, (Hossein, (2016:1). Ethiopia is a diversified nation with more than 80 ethnic groups. No single ethnic community in Ethiopia constitutes more than 50% of the country’s population. However, the Oromo, Amhara, Somali and Tigre are the major ethnic groups with significant proportions, Central Statistics Agency (CSA (2008). Except in a few urban areas such as the capital city of Addis Ababa, most ethnic communities predominantly live in their respective distinct geographic areas (Tewfik, 2010).

Most of Ethiopia’s communities are divided by crosscutting cleavages such as religion. The major religions, Orthodox Christianity and Islam, certainly had a moderating role by limiting the intensity of ethnic tensions and conflict (Tewfik, 2010). Despite the horrific experience of interethnic conflict and disintegration in the former USSR and Yugoslavia federations, federalism is still popular for reconciling unity and diversity under a single political system. The academic debate and experiment of this system of administration is ongoing. In the USA, Switzerland, Canada and Australia, federalism and political decentralization contribute to regional stability by sharing power with the lower levels of government t. or decide on their own affairs, (Teshome and Záhořík, 2008).

In contrast to these cases some scholars (e.g. Kymlicka, Osaghae and Mamdani, Teshome and Záhořík 2008) argue that ethnic federalism accentuates ethnic conflicts, facilitates secession, and eventually leads to the disintegration of countries. It could overemphasize centrifugal forces at the expense of centripetal ones as shown practically in the Soviet Union (1991), Yugoslavia (1991) and Czechoslovakia (1993) where federalism failed to prevent countries from disintegration. Erk and Anderson (2009) also mention the long-term effects of self- administration in promoting ethnic consciousness that strengthens distinctiveness, feelings of in- group and out-group and providing institutional backup for competing nationalists to eventual secession.

2.6.2 Ethnic Federalism as a Cause of Conflict in Ethiopia When we came to Ethiopia the federal system of governance (ethnic federalism) was established along ethno-linguistic lines by the transitional government of Ethiopia after the defeat of the Derg regime in 1991. The transitional charter of the transitional government recognized Eritrea’s secession and the rights of nations and nationalities to self-administration up to and including succession. The 1994 constitution of FDRE considers ethnic contradiction as the primary problem in the country’s politics and reaffirms ethnic federalism with the right to self administration for all regional states including the right to secession (Adegehe (2009).

The Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) constitution establishes a federal state structure composed of two distinct entities, the federal state and the regional entities. According to the 1994 constitution, both the federal and regional states establish their own institutional organs, legislative, executive and judicial bodies and exercise autonomous power within their sphere of influence.

It recognizes nine regional states and two city administrations. Regional states are divided hierarchically into zones, woredas, special-woredas and kebeles. The 1994 EPRDF constitution as stated in article 39 (2) recognizes the cultural rights of all ethnic groups “the right to speak, to write and to develop its own language; to express, to develop and to promote its culture; and to preserve its history”. Regional entities have given an exclusive power to determine their own working language, (Tewfik, 2010).

Many ethno-linguistic groups become visible and eager to promote their own unique identity either for recovering their values or for political and economic advantage.

Ethnicity is the major cause of conflict in developing nations. The creation of new states immediately after independence was accompanied urgent calls for nation-building by the new leaders. There have been a number of pro-self-rule movements causing attempts to create self determination. For instance like the case of Katanga ethnic group in Zaire, the movement of Biafra ethnic group in Nigeria, the case of Sudan and Somalia ethnic groups, (Adeleye, (2012). Use of foreign troops to avoid such cases tends to exacerbate the cruelties and abuse of human rights inflicted on the civilian population, for these troops feel little likeness with populations they are sent to control.

Ethnic fragmentation aggravated the possibilities of conflict as ethnic groups struggled for the nation‘s poor and underdeveloped resources. This situation further exploited by greedy politicians who used the circumstance for their own selfish ends. In the same way the politicians of religious factions expanded the domain of conflict and further undermined the building of a peaceful national consensus.

2.6.3 Conflicts over Water and Land Resources In the Ethiopian context the regional state of Oromia comprises thirteen administrative zones, including the Borana Zone, which is located at the southern edge of Ethiopia bordering Kenya and Somalia here people around there always interred to conflict relating to water and land resources, (Dessalegn et al (2007). Des champ and Roe, (2009) also indicate that land is the main cause of conflict for many people in least developed countries. According to these authors, the main cause of dispute for rural peoples in developing countries is the occupation of land by one party from another or ownership of land. The next most frequent category of disputes is followed by those over inheritance (the generational transfer of land).

One of the basic and long-term causes of conflict has been the shattering of economic achievement trough land. The combination of many things like debt, poor flows of capital towards a given nation from abroad and inefficient aid for different programmes often leads to conflict at the national level, (Adeleye, (2012).

According to Frances R. (2002) four economic suggestions propagated to explain conflict based on factors related to collection or group inspiration, private interest, failure of the theory of social contract and degraded environment. In fact within the study area economic level of the community or the community's income is highly differentiated: in a sense the persons who have standardized life and on the other hand there are persons at or below subsistence level which is resulted by the extent of own lands.

So relating to economic difference land especially farm land conflict also occurs between individuals or families. In these condition women plays irreplaceable role to help each other to pass tentative problem relating to economy. But, women did not participate to resolve the conflict which is occurred through economic difference as they can try to help each other during the tentative economic problems in the community. Thus, to make reconciliation relating to economic cause of conflict the men and religious fathers take the leading role. But, women are excluded in the process of reconciliation with other agents of the community in the study area.

2.6.4 Power as a Cause of Conflict Power: is the ability or capacity to perform something or to control and influence others. It determines who passes judgment and what judgment are prepared. Politicians who hold a lot of power compared with the people they choose or the people who work for them and buy their products would lead to anarchy. Power is not only having military strength. It can also include having capital and wealth, ability to make decisions.

The state of powerlessness occurs when people failed to think they have power, when they failed to use their power or failed to exercise their power effectively, or when others do not accept or recognize their power. Many people unable to develop confidence to influence state of affairs which they believe are out of their control. Supporting people to gain a sense of self-worth and self-confidence is the first vital step in the process of empowerment. Conflict increased when the balance of power between different group‘s changes or power gap increased, (Des champ and Roe, (2009) and Adeleye, (2012).

2.6.5 Political Corruption as a Means of Conflict Arthur (2009) point out that political corruption becomes the root cause of many conflicts in the world today especially for developing countries. The point here is that Politician‘s use the resource of the nation for personal interest and this results the mass worsens its poverty situation. Because of this reason, this corrupt practice leads serious shortage basic needs to provide for the people. Corruption results horrific things for the mass such as: it generates social unrest, restrains economic development and hinders the establishment of government and strong financial institutions that needed for stability and growth, and one means of conflict for the people. Regarding to this the participants both in the interview and focus group discussion ensured that chair men in the kebeles most of the times want to accumulate different incentives for the personal gain or interest. So even the level of such practice is low, it has the contribution to exist bribery, thus, it has the political interpretation in the local level

Thus, the qualitative data confirmed that, even though land and land related problems are the main causes for conflict in the study area, indigenous conflict resolution system (shimglina) plays a pivotal role to minimize these problems. Local elders play an important role to minimize the problem of land inheritance by making the member families to share the land from their family. But the participants in the study area further confirmed that land problem is the greatest problem which results decreasing social relationship of the community.

Indigenous mechanism of conflict resolution consumes lower cost and the process takes greater speed, the reason for this is solving conflicts through this mechanism normally requires the permission and commitment of the parties involved in the process, (Bamlak, (2013). Implementing this approach does not require sophisticated party structures or expensive campaigns; it provides a low-cost, empowering means of resolving conflicts within a relatively short time frame, (Bendeman, (2007).

As the decision is reached by the parties to the dispute instead of being imposed on them, there is a great satisfaction with the dispute resolution process and outcome, and consequently, greater compliance with the result. The process is less challenging than formal conflict resolution system and so reduces the likely hood of win or loss mentality and provides a frame work for the future dispute between the parties.

As opposed to formal conflict resolution system, indigenous conflict resolution process is faster, cheaper and less formalized both in terms of process and in tailoring results, (Eshetu and Getu (2009).

Formal conflict resolution systems are expensive; sometimes the cost may go even the amount of making the victory of a party irrelevant or beyond the amount of decision. Conflict resolution through formal legal services is seen as costly, unreachable, slow and not consistent in delivering law. The most common complaint about formal conflict resolution systems or courts is the prolonged nature of their procedures, and the associated belief that taking a very long period of time as many people put it, is the result of either a defendant‘s bribe or a deliberate tactic by judges to provoke the plaintiff to bribe them just to get the case heard, (Leonardi, (2010).

Using indigenous conflict resolution mechanism has many advantages in relation with saving of money and time. It takes short period of time to solve conflicts and disputants can solve their conflict in their local area. It decreases the cost and time involved in solving conflict like material cost, transportation cost, time and other costs. But using formal or court system takes a very long period of time to solve a single case and leads to economic crises like; court charge, filling cost, and expenditure for lawyers, and other costs. Therefore, indigenous conflict resolution system is more advantageous or merit full in terms of saving money and time.

Participation of women in conflict resolution contributes a positive advantage in the community to have strong social cohesion. Conflict is not only affecting the economic cost of the community but also it affects the social relationship, (Bamlaku et al 2007). The impact of conflict on social relationship of the society depends on the type of conflict resolution.

In fact indigenous conflict resolution system plays great role to consolidate social relationship, (Volker 2007). Regarding to this, reconciliation is a very important means of conflict resolution in the study area. The local elders have been devoted much efforts to advice the local people in general and for the conflicting individuals in particular. But, if the men give an opportunity for the women to participate in conflict resolution process, un doubtable the conflict becomes reduce unless it is unchangeable for ever because of the exclusion of half parts of the community and conflict resolution through men only meaning clapping by one hand, thus the change which is needed by the community may be already absence.

So strong motivation is essential to participate the women in conflict resolution. Because women have the potential to reconcile the disputants parties through their own natural gift as a sense of mother and the special qualities they possessed. This idea directly supported by (Rookie S. (2012), argument that is bringing women to the reconciliation and peace table improves the quality of agreements reached and enhances the likelihood of implementation because the unique skill sets and experiences that women possess.

Similarly Laura and Babcock (2006) stated that conflict resolutions, peace agreements and reconstructions are more sustainable and effective when women are involved in such process and have an advantage to strengthen social relationship of the community.

Conflict resolution is necessary for the re-establishment of social relationship or bringing together member of the society in general and conflicting parties in particular. Indigenous conflict resolution system allows conflicting parties to work cooperatively by minimizing their gap in productive way that does not demolish their relationship, (Volker (2007). Indigenous conflict resolution can provide us procedures that can resolve disagreements successfully harming relationships. The method used for a conflict at hand can make available frame work to deal with predictable conflicts.

Additionally, conflict resolution method through the participation of women could help to take benefit from the resolution for both sides of the community equally (the women and the men or the boy and the girl) in the past and to learn from experience or skill, (Laura and Babcock, (2006) and Cassandra, (2015).

In the study area local elders have taking a great part in providing advice for the community to minimize local conflicts. If people agreed through courts leads to revenge thus, the society always advice the conflicting parties to solve their conflict through local elders. Because the decision passed by court or formal conflict resolution systems is not good for social relationship rather it leads to revenge. This idea is directly related with that of Volker‘s argument in which indigenous conflict resolution system and the local elders particularly the elderly women play prominent role in consolidating the relationship of the society.

Generally this indicates that women have great capacity and ability in conflict resolution processes and consolidating social relationship of the society by increasing social harmony, addressing common problems of the society and increase support each other and tolerance in different areas. But, in the study area there is hidden role of women in conflict resolution thus, their participation should be improve, the hidden role of the women must be get about as men since their role is so essential for the community to the re-establishment of social cohesion, for the re-building of social institutions, to bring back the community's positive previous trend and to loss or to oblivion the grievance and displeasure. Thus, in reality the women are adept and active to do such assignment in their community. So the role of the women always supports to have harmony and stable environment and strong social cohesion.

The term conflict is defined differently in various scholars as follows. For instance, (Mwagiru, et al, (1998) conflict as both violent and non-violent, is as old as humans. According to Kurgan (2000) conflict is an inevitable and sometimes functional or even a favorable condition for inter- state relations. Conflict exists when people have incompatible goals. It is only when the disagreement becomes violent that negative effects become manifest, (Kurgan,(2000).

Conflict is inherent in every aspect o f human life and can be positive as a source of creativity and change. However, conflict becomes destructive when it is allowed to degenerate into violence. Given the current patterns of interpersonal violence, the growing international arms trade, human rights abuses, computerized battlefield and lethal weaponry, violence is simply too dangerous a strategy to pursue or permit in the course of conflict resolution.

Therefore, (Marathi, (2006) argued that there is the need to explore possibilities of resolving conflicts non-violently through voluntary involvement of third parties which can be included women.

Conflict has the potential for either a great deal of destruction or much creativity and positive social change, (Fisher et al (2000), cited in (Kriesberg, (1998). Therefore, it is essential to understand that the basic processes of conflict so that we can work maximize productive out comes and minimize destructive once. For the success of that indigenous conflict resolution mechanisms can takes a great role. Indigenous conflict resolution mechanisms refer to community-based conflict mitigation, traditional mediation and grassroots approaches to peace.

Even conflict could be experienced at different levels: Personal at the psychological level and socially (it was experienced at the inter-personal, intra-institutional, for example; within the family, inter-generational, inter and intra-gender, inter-states, between the rulers and the ruled, and the rich and the poor). In all of these conflict scenarios, different communities had different mechanisms which went in to solving conflict. In connecting with this point (Mkangi, (1993) identified tree major principles. Behind the various mechanisms of conflict resolutions their existing unifying underlies principles.

2.7 Preventive Factor of Women in Conflict Resolution Process Women are half parts of the community and have their own talents or gifts but most probably they ignored in the common responsibilities of the societies, especially in Africa societies still today women are considered as house hold actors.

On top of this, (Porter and Elisabeth (2007) argued that women who lived in conservative communities, especially most African societies who are considered as primitive, back ward and uncivilized were affected through culture. That culture of the communities took long periods which has got acceptance, ignored women to participate actively in conflict resolution process, peace building tasks, election process and decision making activities.

Here Porter and Elisabeth show that 90% women who live in the primitive societies inhibited to involve in conflict resolution process because of their culture. But, the data which obtained from interview and focus group discussion participants there are various preventive factors in conflict resolution process in the study area (Dabat woreda).

2.8 The Impact of Exclusion of Women from the Process of Conflict Resolution Cost of excluding women from the political, economical and public service sphere will come that at a high price not just the women but their communities and countries. Women’s inclusion will not only help achieve justice for past harms but will also help to establish women's participation in conflict resolution and to have a sustainable peace that will help prevent harms in the future for the community, (Porter and Elisabeth 2007). Regarding to this women's effort to reconcile the disputant clans in Eastern Somalia part of Ethiopia is the best model, that giving value for the inclusion of women in conflict resolution is a best option to have harmonious relationship between the two clans for the future. Women play

34 role in the formation of social capital through marriage and kinship relations. Women have always been the centre for integration through marriages that brought together and cemented two different and distant clans. They play vital roles for the sustainability of conflict resolution, (Bamlaku et al (2007:95).

The exclusion of women from the process of conflict resolution has an excessive high cost that we cannot afford. The exclusion not only weakens the effectiveness of conflict resolution, but also drastically reduces the opportunities for peace building and development. It is important to remember that in traditional societies in many cases that are where armed conflicts have taken place or are continuing the role of women in the family and in society is absolutely pivotal.

Lasting peace can be built based upon the status quo, which has allowed inequality and the imbalance of power to continue and has in the majority of cases has been one of the deep seated causes of conflict. The processes of peace and conflict resolution must identify the specific needs of women and must appropriate the necessary resources to address them. Such a process would the produce enormous results for society. We must transform prejudice and patterns of social discrimination and the customs that are obstacles to the equal participations of women in conflict resolution, (source; UN league of peace women office.org, March, 11, 2015).

The women who are expelled from decision making processes become the subjects of these decisions passed by these elders. In many developing countries women‘s are victims of indigenous conflict resolution processes because the process of conflict resolution under this method is dominated by males. Exchanging of women between conflict parties or gift of girls as payment or compensation agreed by local leaders to solve the conflict is becomes unsupportable practice by human right principles, (Volker, (2007). But women‘s are not participate in the decision making process and it makes similar with Volker‘s finding that women‘s are expelled from decision making process. But it does not mean that women‘s have nothing contributed for conflict resolution process. The focus group discussion further assures that women are able to influence their husbands, sons, brothers and fathers to stop fighting and settle their cases through indigenous conflict resolution making system and they have special skills and power to stop conflict. Even though, women

35 does not directly participate in the decision making process, they play important roles in a hidden way for the conflict resolution systems in the study area.

2.9 Underlying Principles on Various Mechanisms of Conflict Resolution

According to Mkangi, (1993) conflict may be resolved/handle through various methods and efforts, and agents (men, women, youth, institutions,) it invited. But, Mkangi argued that there are tree common principles were identified, which can help as a criteria to make various mechanisms of conflict resolution in different communities in Africa. Such as listed follows as;

A. The Principle of Common Humanity

This principle stressed the central value that despite cultural and ethnic differences, human beings are basically the same. This principle gave birth to the so-called African communal way of life. The crucible norm of communal living was the acceptance that access to basic needs was a basic human right to every member of a given community. This value formed an important grounding in conflict resolutions whenever conflict over resources such as land or livestock, (Mkangi, (1993).

B. The Principle of Reciprocity

This principle not only emphasized the ethic of sharing, but more importantly, it is the one which to conflicts also vary considerably. Significant diversity often exists within communities in sustained a sense for collective security through a social set-up which supported an egalitarian social living, (Mkangi, (1993).

C. The Principle of Respect

Social conflicts were avoided or resolved based on this principle. Respect for the elders, parents and ancestors were a major value which our communities inculcated in their members. This respect was codified in taboos and the concept of social distance. What one could do whom to talk to and how to relate to one another according to one's sex, age and status? The principle was also environmentally friendly because the first to be respected was the "Mother Earth" and her endowments such as mountains, caves, river springs, forests and big trees, huge rocks, rivers and lakes, animals, etc.

Whenever conflict arose, the three principle were mobilized through the use of many and different mechanisms in search for solutions and resolutions. Some of such mechanisms included the use of kinship ideology, use of women and male elders, the third party approach, the consensus approach amongst others, (Mkangi, (1993).

The fact that while two sides may be in conflict mechanisms for solutions to such a conflict also inherently exists between those conflicts, Thus, the role of individuals, elders, women, age groups and socio-cultural institutions and beliefs are resources with indigenous grounding which can be utilized for conflict resolution. Women are extremely important in the process of peace conflict. When fighting is occurring, they sing "songs of war," taunting their men to continue the conflict. Likewise, their singing "songs o f peace" can shame the men into stopping the fighting, (Dacha and Janice, (996:4).

Traditional conflict resolution mechanisms are indigenous tools which had strong cohesion with a give community and easier to perform without difficulties for the third party who took the mandate to reconcile the disputant groups or conflicted parties. Among those mechanisms which are commonly known in the researcher's study area are mediation, negotiation and arbitration. Relating to this, (Payson (2009) stated that traditional mediation helps the community keep control over the outcome of the dispute. Implementing this approach does not require sophisticated party structures or expensive campaigns; it provides a low-cost, empowering means of resolving conflicts within a relatively short timeframe.

African traditional conflict resolution mechanisms can address some of the proximate factors that help fuel conflict at the local level and can provide appropriate, sustainable and long-term solutions. While local peace processes are not likely to stop a large conflict, they can help prevent small disputes from escalating into larger conflicts. Some of the conflict resolution methods comprise negotiation, mediation, mediation- arbitration, inter-community conferencing and information dissemination.

Mediation-Arbitration is a hybrid process of both mediation and arbitration. The disputing parties agree to mediation, and then give the neutral third party the authority to make a decision if mediation is not successful. Arbitration is where the third party listens to the argument from the warring factions and makes a decision to solve the dispute, but most of these applied by

37 excluding women, (Hartman, (1976). More specifically the study is matched with the following two types of feminism movements. Such as:

Indigenous conflict resolution systems have many socio-economic advantages. The main purpose of practicing indigenous conflict resolution mechanism is to restore peace and social synchronization within the community by make sure that disputants and their respective followers are reconciled, (Elche, 2004) and Birgit, (2001) similarly elaborates that indigenous conflict resolution is important to ensure the full incorporation of parties into their societies again, and to take on the atmosphere of working cooperatively. There are many advantages of indigenous conflict resolution system. Among those advantages:

(A) Restoring social relationship: Indigenous conflict resolution system cultivates the relationship of conflicting parties towards the future. This conflict resolution method is necessary for the re-establishment social relationship or bringing together of the society in general and conflicting parties in particular, (Volker, (2007).

The main objective that many people use indigenous mechanism of conflict resolution is not to punish the wrong doer or crime taker rather it helps to restore good relations ship of the conflicting parties or the ultimate aim of indigenous conflict resolution is the re-establishment of relationships, (Bamlaku, (2013:30). Indigenous conflict resolution system allows conflicting parties to work cooperatively by minimizing their gap in productive way that does not demolish their relationship. But solving conflicts or disagreements through formal process by using courts disputants rarely want to work together and cooperatively. In indigenous conflict resolution process, the conflicting parties could rather help to learn information that will permit them to work more efficiently to their future life. Indigenous conflict resolution can provide us procedures that can resolve disagreements successfully without harm full relationships. The method used for a conflict at hand can make available a frame work to deal with predictable conflicts. Additionally, this conflict resolution method could help to take benefit of the resolution in the past and to learn from experience or skill, (Volker, (2007).

(B) Minimizing cost: The other advantages of indigenous method of conflict resolution are to decrease the cost and time involved in solving conflict. Formal conflict resolution systems are expensive; sometimes the cost may go even the amount of making the victory of a party

38 irrelevant or beyond the amount of decision. There are many expenditures while using the formal conflict resolution mechanism like; court charge, filling cost, expenditure for lawyers and other costs. (C) Indigenous conflict resolution as free from political influence: Indigenous conflict resolution offers independent, unbiased, fair and efficient access to justice, (Helgesen, (2008). Local elders who lead the process of resolving conflict through indigenous mechanism are impartial and free from government control. Indigenous conflict resolution is culture specific and reliable with tried and experienced methods that have restored social relations in the past, (Bamlaku, (2013:31) Volker, (2007) Indigenous as a practice that have developed separately in the context of traditional societal structures in particular place and have been practiced in that context over a substantial period of time. Having this definition indigenous conflict resolution means local communities settle disputes in the absence of state or formal justice system. It depends on a common cultural and ethical code that produces binding rules on its members Barfield et al, (2004).

Communities use this system to resolve disputes, evaluate actions for admire or blame and to impose sanctions against violators of locally accepted norms and values. Addressing the deep rooted structural causes of violent conflict in a comprehensive manner is considered to be the key approach to peace construction, (UN (2010). As long as people live in the form of group or society, there are conflicts arising from differences of interests, prejudice, needs and ambitions. Therefore, indigenous conflict resolution approach adopted to prevent or resolve such difference of interests determines its resolution. In other words, when a conflict happens, the crucial point should be the effective adoption of the necessary principle of the resolution. Indigenous mechanisms are grass root approaches to solve conflicts by the society.

Conflict resolution mechanism is important in re-establishing the social capital that is damaged as a result of the conflict. In addition to the above idea, indigenous conflict resolution is become speedy and cost effective, (Fred, (2005). Providing that (Annette, (2009) elaborates indigenous conflict resolution is important by solving the issue while saving the relationship and minimizes revenge killings. This is very important particularly for poor, women and other marginalized people who have no capacity to cover the cost of justice system through court). The process, method and applicability

39 of indigenous conflict resolution mechanisms are varying considerably from community to community, from region to region, from society to society, (Volker, (2007). This indigenous conflict resolution plays a very significant role in the day-to-day lives of many ethnic groups and tribes particularly for the poor and marginalized societies, (Meron, (2010). Local leaders and elderly people have used traditional laws to ensure conflict does not curve into uncontrolled violence and disrupt civic life.

Locally trusted elderly people enjoy socially eminent status and authority granted by customs. While passing decisions they are based on high level of social consensus and legitimacy. Because the process is soft and based on the willingness of conflicting parties, the relationship between individuals, among families and kinship become strong. Indigenous conflict resolution system allows conflicting parties to work cooperatively by minimizing their gap in productive way that does not demolish their relationship. But solving conflicts or disagreements through formal process by using courts disputants rarely want to work together and cooperatively, (Volker, (2007). Comparing with that of formal conflict resolution process, indigenous conflict resolution mechanism takes less time to dispose a single case, (Haftom, (2011). Conflict becomes the day to day challenge for many residents in the study area. The source of conflict may vary from individual to individual and from local to local, but there are common causes of conflict that continuously visible in the study area. Residents of the study area are using different types of indigenous conflict resolution methods. But, Shimglina is commonly practiced method of indigenous conflict resolution which many people used to settle their conflict. Indigenous conflict resolution system is very important means of conflict resolution by increasing social harmony, addressing common problems of the society and increase support of each other and tolerance but, here women did not participating in the conflict resolution effort (shimglina) task rather the men elders and the religious fathers are always appointed to resolve a conflict, even though women carried a heavy burden after conflict in the study area.

CHAPTER THREE 3. Research Methodology Research methodology refers to a coherent set of rules and procedures that are used to investigate a problem within the framework of philosophical approaches, (Kitchen and Tate (2000). In the same vein, a research methodology includes the tools and techniques of data gathering and analysis, (Michelson (2005).

3.1 Research Paradigm Paradigm is made up of the general theoretical assumptions and laws, and techniques for their application that the members of a particular scientific community adopt, (Shah and Al-Bargi (2013:2 (volume: 4, No: 4), (cited in Chalmers (1982), p. 90). A paradigm is essentially a worldview, a whole framework of beliefs, values and methods within which research takes place. It is this world views with in which researchers work, (Morgan, (2007). Research paradigms are four in number. Such as; (a) Social constructivism, (b) Pragmatism (David, (2014) (helps to know what the challenges and opportunities and it inclined towards mixed research), (c) Advocacy /Participatory); The research process is viewed as a potential source of change and empowerment for the research participants as well as a process for influencing professional policy and practice by reflecting the views and opinions of service users, (Swain and French (2004), used as a councilor for instance the mother tells to the doctor what the pain of her child). (d) And Post-positivism ((Fox, (2008) positivism has been widely applied in the natural sciences, this approach rejects non-observable (and hence un-testable) sources of knowledge as unscientific, (Fox, (2008: 3) which used to quantitative research, to analyzing and interpreting the numerical data statistically.

Social constructivism emphasizes the importance of culture and context in understanding what occurs in society and constructing knowledge based on this understanding, (Kim 2001, (cite in Derry, 1999; McMahon, 1997). Social constructivism theory assumes that understanding, significance and meaning are developed in coordination with other human beings.

The most important elements in this theory are the assumption that human beings rationalize their experience by creating a model of the social world and the way that it functions and the belief in language as the most essential system through which humans construct reality, (Roya and Hanieh (2015), cite in Leeds-Hurwitz, 2009).

Social constructivist view of teaching; According to Shank (2000), social constructivist teaching approaches emphasize reciprocal teaching, peer collaboration, cognitive apprenticeships, problem-based instruction, web quests, anchored instruction and other methods that involve learning with others. Instructional models based on the social constructivist perspective highlight the need for collaboration among learners and with practitioners in the society, (Roya and Hanieh (2015), cited in Lave and Wenger, 1991; McMahon, 1997). Lave and Wenger (1991) assert that the relations among practitioners, their practice and the social organization and political economy of communities of practice are all important and effective in a society’s practical knowledge. For this reason, learning should involve such knowledge and practice, (Roya and Hanieh (2015), cite in (Lave and Wenger, 1991; Gridley, 1997). Merriam and Caffarella (1999) point out that constructivist learning is a process of constructing meaning and people themselves make sense of their experience. According to Roya J. A. and Hanieh (2015) (cite in Piaget (1977), the role of learners from passive in the past has changed to active in the constructivist theory. Thus according to social constructivist view of thinking women can actively involved in conflict resolution efforts and processes/activities to make their contribution in the community and their environment might be democratic and interaction of the disputant parties (persons/groups) becomes harmonious and women’s participation in conflict resolution processes becomes crucial in the study area.

Social constructivists’ belief in the social nature of knowledge and the belief that knowledge is the result of social interaction and, thus, is a shared, rather than an individual experience, (Lorraine Ann Isaacs, 2013 :3) cited in (Prawat and Floden, (1994).

Thus the researcher selected social constructivism paradigm which can be fit with the title of the researcher that is “The Role and Participation of the Women in Conflict Resolution Processes in the Community.” Because the reason here is social constructivism paradigm in general advocates that the realty and result/issue is created by the people living together. So such outcome can be

42 resolved through the interaction of them in the process of constructing different solutions. Women can start learning cooperatively with men or with each other for the issue of resolving conflict because conflict is one of the result/realty which is created by the persons/parties living together.

Thus women are part of the community who involve significantly in the basic practices which helps to construct social life positively. For instance, during the time of enjoyment or/and grief women are key actors in the community for a good social cohesion/ interaction. In this way, the researcher suggests women can become social constructivist agents in the issue of conflict resolution for their community in the study area.

3.2 Research Approach and Design 3.2.1 Research Approach: Qualitative Research Approach A qualitative study is defined as an inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem, based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of informants and conducted in a natural setting, (Creswell (1994).

Qualitative research is multi-method in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials case study, personal experience, introspective, life story interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts-that describe routine and problematic moments and meaning in individuals' lives, (Denizen and Lincoln (1994).

It is an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem. The researcher builds a complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, reports detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting, (Creswell (1994). Qualitative research divides into five main qualitative research types, (ibid). 1. The Biography 2. Phenomenology 3. Grounded Theory

4. Ethnography 5. Case Study

However qualitative research has five types, the researcher used the case study one.

3.2.2 Research Design: A Case Study Design

The design of a research study begins with the selection of a topic and a paradigm. Research design as a plan that describes how, when and where data are collected and analyzed, Paratoo (1997). As listed from the above this research would employ qualitative research approach and the case study design is used. In this research, the strategy used is determined based on the formulation of the research questions. The most common forms of qualitative research questions are formulated on 'what', 'how’ or ’why’, hence this research benefited by using qualitative type of research approach specifically case study design was employed.

Qualitative-case study method is essential to study and describe people's opinion, attitudes and behavior over time and it also significant to concerned not only with the characteristics of individuals but with the characteristics of the whole selected samples. It provides information useful to the solutions of local issues (problems). And case study method in qualitative research approach is also used to describe people's feeling and opinion in verbal form of expression; such studies are factual and hence supply practical information. Since, this study was undertaken to study the role and participation of women in conflict resolution processes, the qualitative- case study method was employed.

Case study as researcher explores in-depth a program, an event, an activity, a process, or one or more individuals, (Creswell (2009). The structure of a case study should be the problem, the context, the issues and the lessons learned, (Creswell (2014). A case study is usually a study of a single case or a small number of cases (Saga din, (1991), Case studies are considered as quantitative or qualitative research depending on the purpose of the study and the design are chosen by the researcher. These are in-depth examinations of people or groups of people, (Mohajan, 2018). Additionally a case study approach is particularly appropriate for individual researchers, because it gives an opportunity for once aspect of a problem to be studied in some depth with in a limited scale, (Bell, (1999).

Ever though case study design seen as in two dimensions (single and multiple), but the researcher selected a single case study design. As listed the above the researcher selected qualitative-case study research design to assess women’s participation in conflict resolution processes at Dabat woreda, North Gondar, in Amhara Regional state, Ethiopia.

3.3 Description of the Study Area 3.3.1 Location of Dabat Woreda

Geographical extent of Dabat woreda ranges from 120 - 13 N Latitude and

370 E- E Longitude, the land coverage of Dabat woreda is 1223.28 hectare.

Dabat is located 75km from Gondar, 255 km North of Bahir Dar city and 983km from Addis Ababa. Dabat also one of district in Amhara region of Ethiopia, parts of semen Gondar zone located on the south by Wegera on the west by Tacharmachiho on the North West by Debark town.

Figure 1 Location Map of the study area (Central Statistics Agency, 2007)

3.3.2 Topography and Soil Dabat woreda is located in north Gondar, the General elevation of the study area ranges between 961m-2848m, it has the three physiographic settings such as Kola from 961m-11500 it cover 23.o5 % of the total land, Weyna dega from1500-2300 cover 54.05 % of total land and Dega from 2301-2848m cover 22.90 % of total land.

Figure 2 representing Physiographic settings and slope of Dab at district (2017)

Rainfall data should be obtained from weather stations located at representative sites. The measurement can either be conducted manually (usually daily rainfall that may be summed up to monthly and annual rainfall). Rainfall in the study area varies from 600mm-1400mm and the mean Annual rainfall is 1002.16mm during July and August month record highest rainfall, it characterized by warm wet summer and during winter season dry and cold. The study area has four seasons such as summer, autumn, winter and spring.

3.3.3 Socio-Economic Setting Based on the 2007 national census by the central statistical agency of Ethiopia (CSA) Dabat district has the total population of 145,509 an increase of 22.72% over the 1994 census, of whom 73,852 are men and 71,657 women from these 15,821or 10.8% are urban inhabitants with an area of 1,187.93km squire. Dab at has population density of 122.49 populations per km squire which is greater than the zone average of 63.76 populations per km.

Crop production: The crops produced in the study area are cereals (teff, wheat and barley), pulses (chickpea, fava bean,) vegetation (onion and potato). Cereals are produced mainly for Subsistence and commercial agriculture

3.4 Sampling Procedure Selection of appropriate sample was depending on the sampling procedures followed. The researcher would employed purposive sampling technique on the four (4) purposely selected kebeles and which are highly affected through common conflicts from the twenty nine (29) kebeles in Dab at Woreda (Benker, Bentero, Charbita and Ginger). The aim of purposive sampling in this study is to select the particular areas which need special consideration There were 89, 86, 82 and 79 residence women from the age of 30-65 respectively (Source; Dabat woreda land administrator employees, 2008). By using purposive sampling technique the researcher firstly selected eight (8) women participants for each selected kebeles, (in some way the researcher used available technique here). The participant women in FGD and interview were selected trough their background (in some extent level of education (if it is possible but not an obligation); starting from adult education and above, activity/participation weather naturally or trough experience, communicative skill, age and residence in selected kebeles (five and above years). In terms of sample size the researcher conducted twelve (12) participants for interview and twenty (20) for FGD, totally with 32 women participants. The reason in selecting eight (8) women for each sample kebeles is, the average of the four kebele’s women is eighty four (89+86+82+79=336 ÷4=84) and even though the difference between the highest and the lowest number of the women is 10 (89-79=10), but there is a small difference between the highest number of the women in BENKER and their total average of 84. Thus, in this reason the researcher gives equal chance for each sample kebele.

Here the FGD was coordinated by Ayelign Bazezew; his back ground is an English teacher.

3.5 Targeted Population Population as the entire aggregation of cases that meet designated set of criteria, (Polit and Beck (2004:289). The target population is the aggregate of cases about which the researcher would like to make generalizations, (Polit and Beck 2004:290). The target population for this study were the women who are the age of from 30-65 at Dabat woreda.

The study area consists of twenty nine (29) Kebeles with its total population of 145,509, (CSA 2007). The researcher selected four (4) out of twenty nine (29) Kebeles through purposive sampling method. Thus, taking these Kebeles through such method is used to select particularly the targeted kebeles by the researcher. Therefore, the target populations of the study are resident women of BENKER, BENTERO, CHARBITA and GINGIR kebeles.

Back Ground of the Participants: in these study thirty two (32) women participants were involved until the necessary data was saturated. Thirteen (13) women are from the age of 46-65 (here from 13; four participants were involved in interview and eleven were participated in FGD) and nineteen (19) are from the age of 30-45 (here from 19; eight of them were participants of interview and the rest of eleven were participants of FGD). Regarding to educational status 17 (seventeen) are illiterates, three (3) of them are adult education, ten (10) of them are elementary students and two (2) of them are 10th completed. All are females and their occupation is farming and house wife which is their major identification. In terms of place of residence eight (8) of them are living in Benker, eight (8) again Bentero, eight (8) also are Charbita and eight (8) are Ginger kebele residences.

3.6 Sources of Data and Instruments of data Collection To obtain the necessary data from concerned parties the researcher was employed primary source. The primary sources for this study were the women.

3.6.1 Data Collection Instruments From the beginning this study is qualitative research, thus, it was employed and used the qualitative methods of data collection tools. Because, qualitative method of data collection helps to gather information from the concerned body in the form of words, phrases, sentences or sign

48 and gesture and to interpret qualitatively. People’s words and actions represent the data of qualitative inquiry and this requires methods that allow the researcher to capture language and behavior. The key ways of capturing these are:

 Observation – both participant and direct  In-depth interviews  Group Interviews (FGD)  The collection of relevant documents  Photographs and Video Tapes

Even though qualitative research has different methods of data collection, but to get the required data for successful completion of this study the researcher used the semi-structured questions in interview and group interview (focus group discussion) as a means of data collection. A. Interview: The interview is one of the major sources of data collection and it is also one of the most difficult ones to get right. In qualitative research the interview is a form of discourse. According to Mischler (1986) its particular features reflect the distinctive structure and aims of interviewing, namely, that it is discourse shaped and organized by asking and answering questions. An interview is a joint product of what interviewees and interviewers talk about together and how they talk with each other. The record of an interview that we researchers make and then use in our work of analysis and interpretation is a representation of that talk, (Siyum M (2017) (cited in Mischler (1986).

Interview also used in order to get data on past events and on the current reality, in this study it is better to conduct interview with few women individuals. Hence, this study would employed interview method to supplement the findings obtained through other means. The interview conducted by taking into consideration criteria such as age (from 30-65), sex (women) and residence (within selected sample kebeles). By using purposive sampling method the researcher would collect the interview data from 12 resident women (3 women from each selected kebeles).

B. Focus Group Discussion (FGD): It is also called group interview, in order to get full information from the participants of the study about the overall past and present practice of conflict and conflict resolution processes in the study area FGD was utilized. Focus Group Discussion could provide information about a wide range of ideas and feelings that participants

49 have about certain issues, There by illuminating the differences in perspectives among participants as well as groups. Besides, since it is a face to face conversation, it makes possible to follow up interesting responses and investigate underling motives in a way that questionnaires cannot, (Creswell (2007). On some specific issues different people may have different concerns. Thus, to look at concerns of different individuals and even to assess their level of understanding on some issue the researcher would use FGD. The purpose of this study was to gather diverse information on the level of participation of the women in CR processes, to identify preventive factors of the women in CR processes and what roles the community has to empower women and to have women negotiators in CR processes in the study area. FGD would conduct within four purposely selected kebeles women by forming group and each group has five (5) members in each kebeles.

3.6.2 Method of Data Analysis and Procedures The necessary information from the concerned source would be collected primary, and then the collected data was organized, and the qualitative data obtained through interview and focus group discussions (FGD) would be described qualitatively in sentence form. Thus, the method of data analysis was a qualitative analysis by describing the raw facts of information in a statement form. Because, this study by nature is qualitative research, and finally, the results would summarize so that the analysis and meaningful interpretation of results made to draw conclusion and recommendation.

CHAPTER FOUR 4 . Data Analysis and Presentation

For the sake of analyzing and interpreting the information gained from interview and focus group discussion, qualitative analysis technique is used. The main reason for selecting this method was to collect detail information on the issue of conflict resolution processes regarding to the women. All Participants were the women who selected from different groups of the community in the woreda where four sample kebeles are used.

The sample kebeles are selected by using purposive sampling technique. The participants in the interview and focus group discussion were women representatives of the community. The data from interview and focus group discussion is thematically and qualitatively analyzed as follows: Before analyzing and interpreting the detail information of the paper about the role and participation of the women in conflict resolution processes in the study area the researcher tried to show the common causes of conflict in the community (study area) shortly.

According to Robin, (1996) conflict is the process that starts when one party perceives that the other party harmfully affected something the first party cares about. When confrontation begins, it can be understood as engagement in a fight or confrontation between two or more parties aspiring towards incompatible or competitive means or ends, University for Peace, (2005). It is also a Situation in which two or more parties try hard to acquire the same scarce resources, (Mikael and Swanstrom, (2005).

Regarding to causes of conflict different communities may have various cases. For instance: in Africa majorly the cause of conflict is related to ethnic difference, boundary or relating to borders of the counties and resource specially rivers. Yet, in this study area that means at Dabat woreda the data which obtained from interview and focus group discussion ensured that there are other causes of conflict in the community. (A) Family's properties during death

(B) Common pastoral and farm land

(D) Economic Problem and

(E) Problems related With Blood

4.1 The Level of Women's Participation in Conflict Resolution Processes In this part of the study the researcher wanted to explore to what extent women participated in conflict resolution process in the study area. Regarding with the level of women's participation in conflict resolution process, both in the interview and focus group discussion participants gave their response about women's participation in conflict resolution process and efforts in the study area as follows: Interviewees from selected kebeles and participants in the focus group discussion confirmed that women are not formally participating in conflict resolution process in the community. Even tough, women do many advices and consult specifically in the homes and neighbors', women’s role is in a hidden way. Actually, the community's norm does not allow women to sit in resolution activities (efforts); thus, women do conflict resolution in a hidden way around home. In addition to the above points, two of the interviewees and participants in the focus group discussion replied that women do not have the power to make resolution when conflict occurs in the community. Women are degraded and do not have the right to be seen at the stage of conflict resolution settings not for all but particularly on serious kinds of conflict like related to blood issues, farm land boundaries and the like in the study area. Regarding to this, the 193 member states of the UNs have agreed that women play an essential role in solving armed conflicts and that better conflict resolution requires greater participation from women. Without recognizing how women are affected by armed violence, conflicts cannot be resolved in a lasting way. And the only way to ensure women are heard is ensuring women participate in conflict resolution and peacemaking processes, (Brenda, (2017: 1).

Beside of this, (Catriona, (2012:11) argued that sustainable peace will not be achieved without the full and equal participation of women and men. Women’s conflict resolution effort must be supported, not only because it is the right thing to do, but also because any nation experiencing conflict needs the strength of its women. Women are the ones who hold their families and communities together during the worst of the conflict, (ibid).

On the other hand (Tsjeard and Frerks 2002:8) stated that only a small number of women actually participate in formal peace negotiations. Usually their contribution to conflict resolution is regarded as positive. Women bring diverse conflict experiences; they represent different interest groups and set other priorities than men. On the basis of women’s interests, they are able to form coalitions bringing deep political, ethnic and religious divides. Their participation in the actual peace talks often fosters a wide popular mandate for lasting peace, making it more sustainable. It is of the essence that women participate in (re)writing the constitution and other legislation in a post conflict phase in order to guarantee their long term interest and right, (ibid). Similarly (Kassa (2015:2) suggested that equal participation of women helps to represent the whole people with equivalently,” The possibility for all citizens to participate in the management of public affairs is at the very heart of democracy. Women are important in conflict resolution process, Agbajobi (2010) informed that women constitute half of every community and the difficult tasks of peace building and/or conflict resolution must be done by men and women in partnership. This is where the Umuada, among the Igbo of Nigeria are responsible for reconciling the individuals involved in a conflict echoing the argument of Haris S. (1995), that is ‘’If we'd had women around the table, there would have been no war; women think long and hard before they send their children out to kill other people's children’’, (Alcid (2012), (cite in Haris, (1995), thus, women’s participation is so essential in conflict resolution effort.

The primary role of women's and what is culturally accepted by the community is preparing food and local beer. In fact, making food while men and spiritual fathers are in resolving conflict (negotiation or reconciliation) processes is considered as big contribution to the reconciling activity.

In addition, while religious fathers and men in the community are in the process of conflict resolution, women do properly home tasks and they take care of families. Of course, these enable the women to be appreciated by the community. When husbands are away from home to the process of conflict resolution, women take the responsibility to make the home and families safe so that women contribute a lot in CR process indirectly, but women do not involving directly as a reconciler as that of the men elders and religious fathers in the study area. Women simply see

53 and follow what the men elders and religious fathers decide or done regarding to a given conflict/dispute even though the women believes or not about the decision made by the men, said both of the participants in FGD and interview. Regarding to this, marginalization and exclusion of women in community decision making has prevented contribution and participation of women, (Ngozi and Udeze (2015: 434).

However, the effort that women do in resolving conflict at home is not valued by the community; the community does not get women in the negotiation and reconciliation efforts officially and formally. But, there are some areas of Africa and in the world that the women actively and formally participated in conflict resolution process for the purpose of ensuring equality of women in socio-political stability in their community.

For instance, in the African context women of Somalia, Tanzania and Central African societies; and in the global context Yemen: in Yemen there is gendered experiences of conflict resolution both informally and formally motivation of women’s interventions in dispute resolution. Female community mediators in Yemen, are effective in conflict resolution process through negotiation,

(Hanan & Rubin, UN women, (June, 2018:10), the study of Hanan & Rubin, stated that women’s experiences with conflict differ from men in ways that make female negotiators more effective in resolving disputes. The disproportionately negative impact of armed conflict and/or community disputes on women, who often shoulder the greatest burden during times of strife. As such, women are more willing ever to negotiate and, better able to reach sustainable solutions with opposing parties, (ibid).

In Yemen, women were identified as critical and active participants in aspects of the tribal dispute resolution process, Women active in are often relegated to dealing with disputes that are seen as gender-appropriate, including in education, humanitarian aid and issues of violence against women. Women generate skills and credibility through their work in traditionally-female issue areas as a way of gaining community acceptance for intervening in resolving disputes generally reserved for male mediators. This includes women who went on to mediate conflicts over property rights, natural resources, employment contracts and political disputes, (ibid).

For instance: According to the study of Lihamba, (2003) Tanzanian women have always played a critical part in maintaining equilibrium by involving in conflict resolution process in their society, by bringing up their children as responsible members of the community, Women taught their daughters and sons for peace & conflict resolution, proper behavior and the ethos of society and impressed on them the importance of such values as honesty, uprightness and the necessity of compromise.

As such women have always been active promoters of harmony in the community formally. But, in Dabat woreda such official participation of women is denied and almost said to be null, even they sacrifice themselves by shouldering different burdens of their families as well as the whole community responsibilities as a member and as a householder, thus, as the participants in the interview and focus group discussion statement the women are not considered as sizable parts of the community through the view of men. Because, in other areas women involved actively to resolve conflict formally in a valuable manner, in those community's consideration women are not only the half parts of the community but also they considers a pivotal one of human resource in conflict resolution process.

There is other real evidence which shows that the role women played to resolve conflict in a leading place especially in Central Africa the elderly women are the primary actors in such task in Central African societies that was the sacred character of the respect given to the elderly in general and to elderly women in particular. According to the study "The elderly woman was respected by all and played a key role in conflict resolution."

Contrarily to the central African women the women in Dabat woreda are not active participants in conflict resolution process rather their role is in the hidden way by giving advice and consult the disputant parties to reach an agreement yet, the men who are the known agents in conflict resolution alone. So the role of the women in the study area is hidden. Women do not only shouldering the burdens which created by conflict but also they always unrest when conflict occurs in the community, Thus, participation of the women is essential to resolve conflict in the study area.

4.2. Factors that Prevent Women's Participation in Conflict Resolution Process

4.2.1 Cultural Perspectives As both interviewees and participants in the focus group discussion mentioned, culturally women have no the right to go beyond home round. The community and husbands highly criticized, if women go beyond home for any case. The community has strong belief that men are to the court and women are inside the home. What is called the Amharic version "ሴ ት ወደ ማጀ ት ወን ድ ወደ ች ሎት ". This cultural belief inhibits women not to be participating in conflict resolution process efforts? Similarly, on the cultural perspective of the community, no one supposes women to participate in conflict resolution process.

It is always to men the assignment of negotiation is given. This habit has been developed across the community for longer period of time. Culturally, aged persons and spiritual fathers (religious leaders) are appointed to be negotiator and give service to the community to resolve the conflict than women negotiators. Regarding to this (Kassa (2015:6) suggested that cultural ideas about women can affect women’s levels of representation and it limits women’s political participation in decision making; Culturally, there is a belief that women are supposed to be led but not to lead. In fact stereotyped notions about women constitute major barriers, (ibid).

Here the data which obtained from the participants in the interview and focus group discussion in the study area implies that culture of the community affected women to participate in conflict resolution process. Regarding to this, (Kusimba (1992) point out that how culture of the community has the power to influence its followers, according to his argument "culture is a weapon of class division and oppression, It attempts to ignore the individual ability and instead glorifies social structures."

Additionally Porter and Elisabeth (2007) show that 90% women who live in the primitive societies inhibited to involve in conflict resolution process because of their culture.

When a negotiator is chosen among the community, the people prefer to nominate men and religious fathers, but not the women. However, sometimes there is the community tendency to involve women in the negotiation process although it is not formally. This is particularly when the disadvantaged group in the conflict is women's relative. The disadvantaged group provides

56 claims to the women. He/she clearly tells to the women what is already happened on him/her. He/she also begs the women to negotiate him. Although this fact is seen in the community, the extent to which women engage in the process of negotiation or/and all the conflict resolution efforts; however, is not too much as men. The condition that women negotiate the conflicted persons is not formally recognized but it is done in a hidden way.

The women advice, consult and treat the conflicted persons around home. It is to men that the community gives a respect/high status during negotiation. This is the reason that men are well known outside the home and women are limited to tiresome and home tasks and other related activities in the home. This is in general a habit that the community grew through time and that need to be changed. On top of this idea, Kassa (2015:6) point out that, in the context of Ethiopia, there is a traditional belief that, women are made to take care of children and do kitchen works than participating outside home activity. Hence, there is division of works between men and women, which means home activities are belongs to women and outside home activities are belongs to men.

Women are overburdened with different household activities like cooking, take caring kids, washing and so on. These all activities make women busy in the household and impede their involvement in the politics of the country. In line with this a study conducted by Gidudu et al on Socio-cultural Factors that Hinder Women’s Access to Management Positions, revealed that women has to do house duties, gardening, and washing up while men go out for duty and also go for further studies outside the family as women stay back to take charge of the family, (Gidudu et al (2014).

In addition, there is the community perception that women did not have the skill to negotiate the conflicted people which mean negotiation is a role appointed to men alone. Women in the sample kebeles of the study area are considered to participate in non-productive tasks like: giving birth, taking care of children etc. The women cannot go remote areas particularly when the season is winter. The heavy rains, the difficult roads full of mud and big rivers inhibit women not to participate in negotiation process. However, on the point view of the community men are supposed to fit those challenges mentioned above. It seems that the above reasons are not the practical challenges that inhibit women to participate in conflict resolution process.

But it is the community perception that grows through time inhibits women not to involve in conflict resolution. In addition to the data which obtained from interview and focus group discussion participants in the study area Bamlaku, (2013) presents there are other related factors which are affecting women to abstain from participating in the process of conflict resolution. According to Bamlaku's study women are generally less educated than men and have limited access to education. There are also a lot of social and cultural barriers that prevent women from participating fully in conflict resolution process and peace building activities.

Despite women being the major victims of gender based violence such as indecent assault, domestic violence and rape, they rarely get involved to negotiating these conflicts. Sometimes rape is used as a weapon of war, thus making it difficult for women to face men at the negotiation table. Social, cultural and religious structures still create barriers against women holding positions of leadership at all levels making it difficult for them to be recognized at the negotiation table, (ibid).

Here the researcher understand that education help the women to develop self-awareness for about any information regarding to conflict resolution efforts and ready to participant in those similar activities in the community. Relating to the above factors that are affecting women’s participation in conflict resolution processes/efforts some of the participants in the interview explained that withdrawing of the girl child from school either to take care of younger children or to get married for wealth, thus missing an opportunity to improve their status.

(Chege, (1994) stated that there is also regrettable young girls are being forced by poverty into the sex trade. The vulnerability of girls and young women to rape, HIV infection and lack of information are other factors which are affecting women’s participation to decision making and conflict resolutions efforts.

Cultural feminism; It is also a feminist movement of difference that praises the positive aspect of women. It is believed that encouraging feminine behavior rather than masculine behavior, for example, the belief that "women are kinder and gentler than men.”Prompts cultural feminists call an invasion of culture in to the male dominated world, which would presumably result in less violence and fewer wars.

As the realities implied that culture of the society permitted the male that are dominant and chauvinist parts of the population. So according to cultural feminists theory there is the need to change the male dominant world through initiating the women to develop the behaviors of self esteem, self confidence, self respect and such kinds of positive character of the women is constructive to the concept of equal participation of women in conflict resolution, development, election, decision making and delegation matters. In addition advocate the women that male dominant world denied their much freedoms and interests in their life.

4.2.2 Economic Dependency As the data revealed, most often women are dependent of men in different circumstances. Most of the time women are physically engaging in non-productive and tiresome activities like; getting pregnancy, bearing a child and feeding breast. In addition, women are considered as weak so that they are not allowed to go remote areas for work. It is men that move to remote areas for working and doing productive activities like plough, harvesting and giving service to women so that women are dependent on men. Besides, women are influential in either way.

Men are the ones that allocate money and other property for the daily consumption and other needs of the family. Men also show their power to women at home. If men think that 'wat' is not well prepared, they anger at women. Simply men let women spent time at home and preparing daily consumption and bearing children. In those reasons women do not go outside home and participate in productive activities and conflict resolution process. Beside of this, participants of the interview confirmed that women have not any power and right regarding to the common resources in the home, rather their husband sells and buys as he wants still today especially their cows and goats/sheep.

In addition to this, participants in the focus group discussion and interview explained that in the study area there is other surprised feature that is women cannot go far from their home without the help of the man who have the gun, specially to go the center (Dab at Woreda) for the sake of selling or buying items for their daily needs as well as charging the criminal one women cannot move away to the woreda and the market as they want. because, there are persons who want to obligated other persons to take different materials illegally, they also rape the women for abduction how much it is nasty for the women as well as the rest of the community by making

59 over frustrations and lack of confidence to move somewhere for trading, especially in Bentero, Gingir and some parts of Charbita kebeles.

Here it shows something which is an obstacle for the women not to have own business and self reliant. Thus, women become economic dependent of their husband mostly and it has negative influence over them to participate actively in conflict resolution.

But, contrarily to this WB (2012) advocated that " Eve ling the playing field where women and men have equal chances to become socially, economically and politically active, make decision to lead over time to more representative and more inclusive institutions and policy choices and thus to go with a better peace and development path.” Relating to this, Kusimba's study (1992) stated clearly that the impact of economic dependency on women's life, due to cultural and historical injustices, most women are not financially independent and are economically disempowered in comparison to their male counterparts. Regarding to this idea, (Kassa (2015: 11) stated that women’s historical experience of discrimination puts them at a disadvantage position economically.

Social and economical status of the women have to a greater extent play a significant role in enhancing their participation and representation in political decision making bodies. In this regard, (Shvedova, (2002) argues that social and economic status of women in society has a direct influence on their participation, in political institutions and elected bodies, (Kassa, (2015) (cite in Shvedova, (2002).

In other words, Lack of economic resources is one of the biggest obstacles that prevent women from participating in politics in greater numbers. Making it easier for women to access economic resources, therefore, is a key in expanding women’s presence in the political realm, (Tovar (2007).

The study done by Seyedeh et al also revealed that most of women are financially dependent on their husbands or relatives, (Seyedeh, et al (2010). So they may not be possible to them to enter in socio-political campaign.

According to Kassa (2015) study “Razia Faiz” who was, the former member of parliament of Bangladesh also argues that lack of financial resources is the overwhelming obstacles to women

60 political participation. Women move from their father’s home to their husband’s home, they are like refugees. They have no base from which to develop contacts with the people or to build knowledge and experience about the issues. Furthermore, they have no money of their own; the money belongs to their fathers, their husbands or their in-laws. Given the rising cost of running an effective campaign, this poses another serious hurdle for women in the developing world, Kassa, (2015) (cited in Shvedova, (2002).

Thus, this situation prevents how women need economic capability to make meaningful contribution or participation in decision making and conflict resolution processes and/efforts in their community. And economic capacity plays an irreplaceable role or contribution for the women to become dominant in conflict resolution task unless it creates an economic dependency of women with their men (husband) always through women’s life.

Additionally, (Bamlaku, (2013) also presents poverty is another major hindrance to empowerment. Women are usually disempowered, in comparison to their male counterparts. Payment of dowry by men creates the tendency to see women as property, (Ousman, (1974). Though the current attitude should be abolished such cultural practices because, members of the communities continue to practice this dehumanizing economic culture.

Socialist feminism; asserts that women are unable to be free due to their financial dependence on males in the society. Women are subjects to the rulers in capitalism due to uneven balance in wealth. They argue that liberation can only be achieved by working to end the economic sources of women's oppression.

This theoretical part of feminism movement implies that women are an economic dependence of men and this economic dependency denies freedom of the women till they become subjective as well as subordinate to the male always.

This economic dependency also has the negative impact on women in the means of not to become equal participants in an essential aspects of women's life and their community. But, an economic strength by itself plays a pivotal role in the participation of women equally.

Thus, women should be built themselves in economic capacity is better to the owner of freedom. Because economic dependency is an obstacle of women which limits the freedom of

61 participation that can be invited clearly the women to involving. For instance conflict resolution efforts, decision making and leadership positions and so on as the women want.

4.2.3 The Perception Women Developed Through Time

Regarding women participation in conflict resolution processes, some interviewees and participants in the focus group discussion explained that some women themselves have their own problem that is to say women are not volunteers to participate in conflict resolution process if they are asked to do so. Women feel inferiority when they live in the community because of their low participation in CR and they think that the situation continues forever. They also feel that being female in nature brings an impact on them and they symbolize themselves as subordinator of their men and they assume a woman knows nothing at all.

Additionally, when women are not asked for negotiations and reconciliations they are damaged morally, because they are marginalized not to participate in social issues like involving in conflict resolution process. Women themselves have a problem of feeling inferiority. Regarding to this, (Ayferam, (2015:1) argument implies that inferiority assumption of women is not only the main factor which declines their participation in the life of their family, but also hinders their role in economic development. Dianne, (2006) also argued that for women’s participation on the understanding of biologically- determined gender differences, the distinction needs to be embraced rather than ignored. Increasing women’s participation in the public sphere is not only just, but also the pluralities of women’s perspectives strengthen national security, (Rangita, (2013). Women naturally are non aggressive than men and have the quality to reconcile in the non aggressive manner. Women always think that their role is to manage the home and to care of children since men have not rest. Men are always run to conflict resolution process. And this satisfies women although they are always appointed to home tasks alone. Women believe that home tasks are given to them and they are not men's role. This is a belief women developed. The other perception women developed through time in the study area is relating to religious belief. In the interview and focus group discussion participants stated that there is a strong belief as "men are head of the house." Thus, women are subject of their husband and act in the way that husbands direct them. Relating to this, (Kassa, (2015: 8) stated that religion is another important source of cultural beliefs in most countries.

Arguments about women’s inferiority to men are present across all dominant religions and religion has long been used to exclude women from aspects of social, political or religious life around the world, (ibid) (cite in Kunovich, et al (2007). But the major religions of the world are differentially conservative or patriarchal in their views about the place of women, both in the church hierarchy and in society. For example, Protestantism promotes nonhierarchical religious practices and more readily accepts women as religious leaders compared with Catholicism and Orthodox Christianity. And Islamic law is typically interpreted in a manner that constrains the activities of women, (Kassa, (2015) (cite in Ahmed, (1992) and Meyer, et al (1998).

Hence, exclusion of women from religious institutions and religious leadership may have a negative impact on women’s status in society and limit their opportunities in politics and public life. Hence, religious is one of the anachronistic cultural beliefs in many communities in the country that excludes women from the mainstream of leadership. In most religions, power and authority is believed to divinely belong to men hence subjugating women. Thus women are encouraged to play subsidiary roles since their place is in the kitchen and men are the decision makers, (Kassa, (2015:9).

4.3 The Role of the Community to Improve the Contribution of Women in Conflict Resolution Processes A question was posed both to interviewees and focus group discussion participants to check the role of the community in improving the contribution of women in conflict resolution processes. More specifically participants in the focus group discussion ensured that bad image is pictured to women in general in the community. As a result women are called in Amharic language or version 'Yemidija Dagna.' Women spend most of their times being in this condition. Contrarily to this, Luchsinger, (2010) explained that women should be inspired rather than ignored in any matter of their community, because they are crucial parts of the society. In his study" Promoting and ensuring women's participation is not only a matter of women and girls’ rights rather the whole people, because women are crucial partners in shoring up: social cohesion, economic recovery and political legitimacy". Husbands did not like their wives to be away from home. As a result, women have no the opportunity to move away from home for the purpose of negotiation or/and conflict resolution tasks. Possibly special women may be found in the community who are known in making

63 negotiation, like “ Azenegash Ale”, she has a naked name of “Azeneg the Tiger”, the naked name is given to her regarding to her action.

However, the community criticized those women though it is not face to face. Even in the community those women husbands are less valued since husbands could not let wives not to move outside home. Men in special community occasions and ceremonies degraded morally husbands who let wives to participate in conflict resolution process and other societal activities. Ironically, people say husbands who cannot properly shape their wives should be condemned in the society. Those husbands’ wives shouldn't be a model to our wives. In brief there is joking in husbands who let their wives move outside home. If women spend times outside home for some social tasks, they are called husbands and the reverse is true.

Most people in the community never try empowering women to participate in conflict resolution process in the study area. The study done by Kassa, (2015) informed that regarding to traditional attitudes towards gender equality influence women’s advancement in socio-political participation. Theories of socialization have long emphasized the enduring division of sex roles within a society especially the existence of egalitarian or traditional attitudes towards women in the private and public spheres. Socialization theories emphasize that these attitudes are acquired early in life through formative agencies, including the existence of traditional sex role learnt in the home and family, local community, and in schools and the workplace. (Norris P and Inglehart, (2008) also argued that in cultures with traditional values concerning the role of women in the home and family, many women may be reluctant to run and, if they seek the office, they may fail to attract sufficient party and electoral support to win in political competition. Beside of this, most importantly in the country women are considered as subordinate to men and second class members/ citizens both in the family and in the society especially in most parts of rural areas.

In most communities there is a cultural belief that women are supposed to be led but not to lead, (Kassa, (2015). Regarding to this, the study done by (Jeanne IZABILIZA and John Mutamba 2005:2), stated that women played irreplaceable role in reconciliation efforts in Rwanda after genocide, the contribution of women in reconciliation and peace building efforts can become most effective by increasing their participation in decision making organs and in the

64 implementation of policies at institutional and community levels. It is important to note that the critical role played by women, particularly at the community level; in this motive women have been equally engaged in helping to address various problem of the community.

Participants in the interview and FGD also explained that, women who have an interest in participating in some societal issues know the joking that is played on the wives so that to make safe their husbands’ moral women abstain from participating in conflict resolution process. Women strongly believe that "GOD" is away from the community when conflict occurs. Hence, they like very much a negotiation to be held in that women are interested to give constructive feedback to the formal negotiators how the conflict becomes smooth. However, women again think of the name that the community fix to them and husbands. Due to this fact although they have the potential to reconcile the conflict, they prefer to keep silent. Interviewees and participants in the focus group discussion also confirmed that the community's norm does not allow having women negotiators in the community. However, there is a known women negotiators across kebeles. Being known very well, these women negotiators always participate in meetings prepared by woreda workers and administrator bodies. During meetings, these women generate constructive ideas. Although there are women in the community who are known in this way, the community in general and some people who are formally known in making negotiation in particular do not let women participate in the process of conflict resolution process. To sum up, most community members negatively perceive women's participation in conflict resolution.

Relating to this there was a poem which implies the negative or/and less status towards the women when the female judge and female police was assigned in Dabat woreda for justice, peace and security to the people in the study area.

The participant who named as “Yetomwuha Azanaw” and have the age of 62, during interview tolled the poem for the researcher as follows:

“ባ ሌ ሊ ቀ -መን በ ር እ ኔ ፍ ር ድ ሽ ን ጎ ፤

እ ን ግ ዲ ህ ደ ህ ና ዋ ል ድስ ት እ ና ምጎ ጎ ፤ (ሚስ ት )

ባ ል ሽ ን ጠቅ ጥቀ ሽ የ ት አ ባ ሽ ል ት ሄ ጅ፤

ታዋ ር ጅኝ ና የ ጌ ቶ ች ን ል ጅ፤

ይ ል ቁ ን ጠብቂ የ ቤ ታች ን ደ ጅ፤

ቅ ስ ሜን እ ን ዳ ት ሰ ብሪ ው በ ጠላ ት ወዳ ጅ፡ ፡ ” (ባ ል )

The poem here implies that attitude of the community was almost negative and needs change, because the women had not and have not an opportunity to be a policeman, a judge and other related positions in the community before some years. As the participant’s response even though there is some changes to participate the women in community issues but still there are also issues which protests the women just like tasks of conflict resolution processes.

However, parts of the community who are few in number do not deny the role of women in conflict resolution and other important activities in the community. These people believed that women are wiser than men in making negotiation, more patients to listening the people's idea and to give convincing idea accordingly.

According to Dabat woreda rural land administration employee document (2008) within four selected kebeles, the women who are from the age of 30-65 in each sample kebele are 89, 86, 82 and 79 (Benker, Bentero, Charbita and Ginger respectively), the average is 84. Here their average implies there is a little difference among the number of each sample kebele’s women. Thus, regarding to this the researcher gave equal chance for each selected kebele. So the data gathered from interview and FGD confirmed that the women have low participation in conflict resolution processes or/and efforts in the study area.

CHAPTER FIVE 5. Conclusion and Recommendation This chapter presents conclusion and recommendations based on the findings of the previous chapter. Accordingly the overall analysis is summarized and conclusions drawn from the study based on the finding of the research and lastly recommendations are also forwarded by the researcher.

5.1 Conclusion In this thesis there is a detailed investigation of a cause of lack of participation of the women in conflict resolution processes as the main problem in Dabat woreda. So the objective of this research was to assess the role and participation of the women in conflict resolution processes at Dabat woreda, to explore the level of women's participation in conflict resolution processes, to identify the factors that prevent women to participate in conflict resolution processes and to examine the role of the community to improve the participation of women in conflict resolution processes in the study area. Therefore, to achieve the objective, the researcher used social constructivism paradigm, qualitative research approach and case study design. Four sample kebeles in the woreda were purposely selected. Focus group discussions and interview were used as a means of data gathering and the women were participating during data gathering process.

The result obtained from the analysis has revealed the following results. As it is known, women are half parts of the population in the community endowed with different experiences, knowledge and attitude. However, women are not seen to make use of contribution their experiences to the community in resolving conflict in the study area. Due to many reasons a conflict occurs in the study area and the community has good trend of resolving those conflicts. Even though women have different experiences, they did not involving actively in resolving conflict rather men always appointed to seat in resolving those conflicts by excluding the women in the study area. Women have their own qualities and interests in stabilizing and serve as a bridge for the divided groups as a sense of mother. Therefore, unable to get women in conflict resolution process denies the fact explained above.

In addition to that, the habit in which the community develops through time inhibit women not to be participate in conflict resolution processes, females are economically dependent of men which means women are mostly participating in non-productive activities.

Thus, the case makes them not to participate in conflict resolution process actively. As it is understood from the analysis of the four sample kebeles, the back ward thinking of the community in general makes woman to be ignored in the conflict resolution processes. Not only these, religious perception in the community also affects women in conflict resolution process.

In the perception of religious followers more specifically Orthodox Tewahido church and Islamic followers, men are considered as head of home in that women have not place to seat for conflict resolution process. Because of the above reasons women do not get chance in participating conflict resolution process in the study area. However, interviewees and participants in the focus group discussion ensured that men do not oppose the women to participate in conflict resolution process if the existed trend is changed in some way. If women's hidden potential is activated, it is better and women can contribute widely to the community in conflict resolution process.

Regarding the communities role most community members negatively perceive women’s participation in conflict resolution process. However, some members of the community who are few in number do not deny the role of women in conflict resolution processes and other important activities in the community. These people believe that even women are wiser than men in making negotiation; women are more patient to listening people's idea and to give convincing idea accordingly.

5.2 Recommendations Generally, the researcher recommends that all stakeholders and all the community should be recognize the contribution and potential of women to the community as mentioned in different programs of the government. More specifically, the following recommendations are given to each of the concerned parties.

 Awareness should be created to women about conflict resolution process trough different coincides;

 Spiritual fathers in the community should be accepting that women are as important bodies as men to the community in resolving conflict.

 Highly respected persons and the men who are the major actors of conflict resolution in the community should give place to women in participating conflict resolution process.

 In addition, the community as a whole should encourage women through strong moral support in order to enhance women’s participation in conflict resolution process for the mutual benefits.

Finally, it should be clear that the findings of this study are not final. The researcher likes to recommend that further study should be conducted on various issues of participation of the women in the study area.

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Appendix-One

Interview and Focus Group Questions

The purpose of this interview and focus group is to collect data related with the purpose of research in titled on “An assessment of the role and participation of women in conflict resolution process by taking Dabat Woreda as a center of attention for the participation of the women in conflict resolution processes. The study focuses on assessing the level of women’s participation in CR processes, preventive factors of the women in CR processes and the role of the community to improve women’s participation in conflict resolution processes.

PART 1 Interview Questions (Personal Information)

Place of residence___ (BENKER, BENTERO, CHARBITA and GINGIR KEBELE)

Age: (30-65) ______

Gender: Female______

Educational status: illiterate ___ primary___ secondary____ High school ____university__

Occupation: housewife _____farming _____government worker or private worker

1. In your view, how do you understand the word conflict? 2. Have you conflicted with other persons before this time? (Individual persons or with family members). 3. If your answer is yes for question 2, what was the cause of your conflict? Did you agreed with your conflicted party? If your answer is yes, who were reconciled you? The men or women or both of them? 4. In your life experience (environment) would you faced conflicted persons, families or groups? What was their cause? Did they agree? If your answer is yes, who reconciled them? The men or the women? Or the men and the women together? 5. In your locality, the religious fathers and community elders are the main agents to resolve conflict. Are they asked you being a member of them to resolve the conflict together? If your answer is yes, when/ if no, why?

6. Have you got any training about conflict resolution processes? Either formally or informally? 7. When the religious fathers and community elders discussing to reconcile the disputant parties, at that time, what is your role? 8. What are the factors that prevented you (as a woman) to participate in conflict resolution (reconciliation) processes in your community as religious fathers and community elders? 9. What is your personal feeling that women couldn't participated to resolve conflicts in your locality as other listed agents? For the future, would you voluntary to reconcile conflicted persons, families or groups in your locality? If your answer is yes, describe relating to a sense of mother to hear the case of conflicted parties. If “No” why? In your view, would you like to have women conflict resolution association in your locality? If your answer is yes, how they can organize first? If “No” why? 10. In your belief (thinking) is the women’s experience the same as that of the men to resolve any conflict (reconcile)? 11. In your locality, what is the role of the community members to improve the contribution of women in conflict resolution processes? 12. In your life experience, is there any person asked you to reconcile him or her with his/her conflicted party?

PART 2 Focus Group Discussion Question

(Personal Information) Place of residence: ______(BENKER, BENTERO, CHARBITA and GINGER KEBELE) Age: (30-65) _____

Gender: Female__

Educational status: illiterate ___ primary___ secondary ___High school ___university___

Occupation: housewife _____farming _____government worker______private worker 1. What is the cause of conflict in your community?

2. Is there any women negotiator in your locality?

3. If your answer is “YES” for Question “2” in what extent the women participating? Otherwise, if your answer is “NO”, what are the factors that inhibited women to participate in conflict resolution (reconciliation) processes in your community?

4. In your locality, what looks like the role of the community members to improve the contribution of women in conflict resolution processes?

Appendix -Two

Sample videos of participants in interview and focus group discussion