Open Geosci. 2019; 11:804–814

Research Article

Wuyang Hong* and Mo Su Influence of Rapid Transit on Accessibility Pattern and Economic Linkage at Urban Agglomeration Scale in China https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2019-0062 tion infrastructures and modes, including that of HSR, and Received May 02, 2018; accepted Mar 19, 2019 as such, it is an index that evaluates transportation net- works and traffic locations. Scholars have conducted nu- Abstract: The development of high-speed railways has merous studies on the effects of HSR since the first one become an important factor influencing regional pattern went into operation in Japan in 1964. One of the dominant changes in China. In this study, an accessibility evalua- issues in those studies is that of the influence/impact of tion model was constructed in combination with regional HSR. Scholars focus their studies on space block, space scale and regional center city to research the effect of high- effect, and chance opportunity accumulation to build ac- speed rails on accessibility in the South , an urban cessibility models [1], as they contend that HSR improves agglomeration in China. Based on accessibility index, ur- accessibility to node cities and produces a space recon- ban economic and social statistics data were used in con- struction effect by connecting cities and regions, having junction with a gravity model to analyze the character- maximum impact on a large-scale [2]. Research on the istics and evolvement of economic relations in this area. Japanese Shinkansen [3], the French TGV [4], and the Ger- The result shows that high-speed rails improve overall re- man ICE HSR [5] demonstrates that HSR significantly im- gional accessibility, significantly benefit regions along rail proves regional traffic conditions and greatly satisfies the lines, and makes middle- and long-distance journeys more demands of current and potential travel. HSR causes a convenient for the general public. High-speed rails play a mass-scale space-time contraction effect that promotes hu- particularly dominant role in the evolution of economic man mobility and gradually increases regional accessibil- linkage and effectively strengthen the ties between cities. ity [6], significantly impacting regional interactions, urban When the bonds between cities along rail lines greatly im- economic development, and the evolution of the regional prove, a basic framework of economic relations is formed. landscape [7]. Finally this paper discusses the imbalance arising from The Chinese HSR is a latecomer relative to other the effect of high-speed rails, proposing such suggestions countries [8]. There have been several studies of HSR in as improving urban traffic and building expressways that China [9], with domestic research dating back to 1994 connect high-speed rail stations in marginal areas to im- when Qi [10], among other studies, presented qualitative prove accessibility. discussions regarding the predictive effects on the econ- Keywords: high-speed rail; accessibility; economic link- omy and the environment with respect to noise when con- age; urban agglomeration; China structing HSR. Jiang et al. [11] conducted a case study of the Shanghai- HSR, while Zhou and Yu [12] studied the Beijing-Guangzhou and Beijing-Shanghai lines. These 1 Introduction studies researched the influence mechanism produced by HSR on the accessibility spatial pattern and analyzed the effect of changes in accessibility on variables of interest The large-scale implementation of High-Speed Rail (HSR) to urban economists. Methodologically, the geometric grid network in China is currently changing accessibility to method and topological method were universally adopted. cities along the HSR line. Accessibility is a classic topic For instance, a timetable-based accessibility evaluation in- and a widely-used concept in studies of various transporta- dex including travel time, travel cost, and distance, was constructed to analyze the impact on railroad network ac- cessibility of HSR [13]. *Corresponding Author: Wuyang Hong: Wuhan University Strengthening traffic accessibility has its most direct Wuhan, China; Email: [email protected] Mo Su: impact on regional development. The European Union,

Open Access. © 2019 W. Hong and M. Su, published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License Influence of Rapid Transit on Accessibility Pattern and Economic Linkage Ë 805

Japan, America, and China support HSR services because and roads. The data for the railways include data from of their economic, environmental, and quality-of-life ben- lines that had opened prior to the time of the evaluation efits [14]. By the end of 2014, China’s total HSR operating and data from lines that had already established stops mileage exceeded 16,000 kilometers—approximately 50% in South Jiangsu. HSR data include the Beijing-Shanghai of all HSR operating miles worldwide—elevating China to line and the Shanghai-Nanjing and Nanjing-Hangzhou number one with respect to HSR miles. Such success has Intercity Railways. Traditional railway data include the given rise to increased diplomacy to promote the expan- Nanjing-Wuhu Railway, the Nanjing-Qidong Railway, and sion of China’s HSR to neighboring countries in southeast the Shanghai-Nanjing section of the Beijing-Shanghai Rail- and central Asia. The development of HSR has been one way. Roadway data are obtained from the Earth System Sci- of the central features of China’s transport infrastructure ence Data Sharing Platform. policy, especially in economically developed areas. South China’s administrative system is divided into four lev- Jiangsu, typical urban agglomeration in China, has en- els: provincial, prefectural, county and township. The tered the era of high-speed rail and become the epitome county-level administrative region as the statistical unit of of rapid development of HSR. It is appropriate to conduct the China’s GDP,population, industry and other economic research on the effects of HSR. By establishing road traffic and social statistical data plays a connecting role in the databases for 2007 and 2013 and employing a GIS software entire administrative division system. Therefore, this pa- package as basic support, this study proposes an accessi- per chooses county administrative region as the research bility evaluation model, operated on the mesoscale and unit. All the administrative units are abstracted as spatial macro-scale, and uses a gravity model to determine the nodes, and there are 31 county-level research nodes in to- economic link intensity between cities in South Jiangsu. tal (as shown in Figure 1).

2 Study Area and Data Sources 3 Method

2.1 Overview of the Study Area 3.1 Accessibility Model

South Jiangsu is one of the highest economically devel- Accessibility is a fundamental concept in transportation re- oped areas in China, reporting one of the highest GDP per search and planning [15, 16]. It is defined and explained capita rates in the country. It is located in the southern in several ways; such well-known definitions are: ‘the po- part of Jiangsu Province, in the core area of the econom- tential of opportunities for interaction’ [17] and ‘the ease ically developed Yangtze River delta which is one of six with which activities may be reached from a given location large world-class city clusters. South Jiangsu comprises using a particular transportation system’ [18]. Yet, most Nanjing, , , , and . The calculated accessibility indices are not panaceas that can urbanization level of South Jiangsu has surpassed 70%, measure every aspect of accessibility [19, 20]. As the most which means that more than 70% of the population lives basic method of accessibility evaluation, distance mea- in urban areas. The per capita GDP reached 16,000 dollars sure is generally converted to time cost for direct analy- in 2013, which approaches that of the level of developed sis. In this study, an accessibility model was built from a countries. In the beginning of 2008, the Beijing-Shanghai regional and metropolitan point of view. At the regional HSR and the Shanghai-Nanjing HSR were under construc- level, accessibility refers to the time cost of travel between tion, while construction began in December 2008 on the two urban nodes (with the vector-raster analysis method, Nanjing-Hangzhou and Nanjing- Intercity Railways accessibility is expressed as the average of the spatial dis- (see Figure 1). tance, time distance, and economic distance); at the cen- tral city level, accessibility refers to the time cost of travel from each urban node to a specified metropolis (with the 2.2 Data Sources cost-weighted raster algorithm, accessibility is expressed as the time distance). High-speed and traditional railways as well as the high- way were selected as the essential data sources for the evaluation of accessibility. HSR transportation extends ac- cess to areas previously available by traditional railway 806 Ë W. Hong and M. Su

Figure 1: HSR network in South Jiangsu

Table 1: Relative time cost of different types of grids

Types Design Running Time Types Design Running Time speed speed costs speed speed costs (km/h) (km/h) (min) (km/h) (km/h) (min) HSR 350 200 3 Third-class road 30 25 24 Traditional railway – 150 4 Fourth-class road – 20 30 Expressway 120 100 6 Land without road – 15 40 First-class road 100 75 8 Water area – – 600 Second-class road 60 50 12 No data – – –

3.1.1 Accessibility Model at Regional Scale ity of the urban node may be expressed as the average ob- tained, which is calculated as:

Spatial distance accessibility n  ∑︁ Li = lij (n − 1) (1) To construct a vector-based road network dataset, the clos- j=1 est facility analysis method is used to seek n-1 shortest where, Li refers to the spatial distance-based accessibility paths from the administrative station of a research unit of urban node i, lij refers to the shortest distance between to other administrative stations. By converting the short- two nodes, and n refers to the number of nodes. est path to the required time cost (the set driving speed is listed in Table 1), the spatial distance-based accessibil- Influence of Rapid Transit on Accessibility Pattern and Economic Linkage Ë 807

Table 2: Index of estimated ticket prices for different modes of transport

Types HSR Traditional railway High-speed road Other road Price index 0.4576 0.1594 0.3428 0.3110

Temporal distance accessibility hard seat or second-class seat is considered in the event of travel by rail. By calculating the shortest weighted distance from each Through construction of a vector-based traffic network grid to a destination with the shortest path algorithm dataset, values are assigned to the fares of different means based on raster data, we may obtain the time-based acces- of transport (as shown in Table 2). The GIS-based closest fa- sibility. The ArcGIS ‘Cost Distance’, a spatial analysis tool, cility analysis method is used to seek n-1paths along which is efficient in measuring the least accumulative cost for the minimum cost is incurred from the administrative sta- each cell to the nearest source based on raster datasets [21]. tion of a research unit to other administrative stations. By Using a cost raster graph, along with data from the ad- converting the minimum cost to the required cost time, the ministrative stations of research units, a layer of the short- economic distance-based accessibility of an urban node est time distance from each raster to a destination is ob- may be expressed as the average obtained. tained through the cost distance weighted function, follow- ing which the raster costs of other administrative stations are extracted and averaged to express the time distance- 3.1.2 Accessibility Model of Regional Center City based accessibility of the destination. Building a cost raster graph is important for the model Selecting Nanjing as the research object, this paper further of time distance-based accessibility. The study area was discusses the effect of high-speed rails on the accessibility divided into regular raster grid cells with a spatial resolu- of a metropolis. Nanjing is a central city and an important tion of 50 m × 50 m, and each cell was assigned a related hub of communication in South Jiangsu. Considering that time cost as an attribute. Based on the speed determined multiple high-speed lines stop in Nanjing and that the sta- by previous studies [22, 23], combined with actual trans- tion of origin for both the Beijing-Shanghai HSR and the portation data from South Jiangsu, the velocities of each Shanghai-Nanjing HSR is Nanjing, it is logical that Nanjing cell are shown in the following table. is selected as the regional HSR hub city for this study. Based on the general trip rule, the time cost for differ- ent segments along the trip is calculated, through the sep- Economic distance accessibility arate activities along the trip. HSR travel can be regarded as a three-phase travel chain based on a door-to-door ap- Economic distance-based accessibility refers to the time proach [24]. The trip cost is the sum of the costs of the four cost required for the route along which the minimum cost parts between origin and destination, which can be formu- is incurred. Through inquiry of the railway timetable and lated as below: long-distance bus timetable, the fare for each public trans- T TO TOD TD Tt port line in South Jiangsu and the corresponding road = + + + (3) mileage are obtained. The fare index is defined as the av- where T is the total time of the trip, TO and TD are the erage fee per unit of road mileage and is calculated as fol- time consumed in the internal transportation network of lows: n the starting city and destination city, respectively, TOD ∑︀ (Pi/Si) refers to the time consumed internally in the HSR system I i=1 = n (2) between stations, and Tt refers to the transfer time at both railway stations, which is set to 1 h [25]. where I refers to the fare index, Pi refers to the fare of the ith sample in the event of travel by means of transportation, This study adopts an accessibility evaluation model called the minimum distance partition based on GIS. To Si refers to the corresponding distance, and n refers to the number of samples. To estimate the fare, only public trans- divide the sub-regions, we establish the principle that peo- portation by passenger is considered, excluding travel by ple tend to choose the nearest HSR site. Through sub- private car, freight, bike, and foot. The price difference aris- regional division, the accessibility of each sub-region and ing from vehicle conditions is ignored, and the fare of a internal sub-region is calculated separately. Then, the re- sults are added together to acquire the accessibility evalu- 808 Ë W. Hong and M. Su

Figure 2: Technique routine of the accessibility model of regional center city ation results from any node to the central city. In the model, Step 1. Rasterize the road features to generate cost grid the accessibility of the sub-region is based on HSR sched- charts (as defined in Table 1) with and without HSR, ules where the shortest time between two points is calcu- and use the cumulative cost distance algorithm to lated. The accessibility of internal sub-regions is then cal- generate n subdomains; culated through the creation of a regional mesh, with the Step 2. Use the Cost Distance Toolbox in ArcGIS to calculate running speed set for each grid lattice cell, yielding the re- the cost grid charts of the intra-site’s accessibility, t1, sults for the cost distance algorithms. The main steps can for each separate subdomain; be seen in Figure 2 and is described as follows: Step 3. Calculate cost grid charts of accessibility, t2, for the entire area of Nanjing without HSR and extract the Influence of Rapid Transit on Accessibility Pattern and Economic Linkage Ë 809

cost value, T1, from the Nanjing station to the Nan- formula is given below: jing south railway station; (︂ )︂ ∑︁m ∑︁n (︀ ′ )︀ Step 4. Pi = Ak × Ckj × X ij (5) Query the train schedules to obtain the shortest time, k=1 j=1 T2, for each site to the Nanjing station or the Nan- Pi i m jing south railway station and add it to T1, with the where is the economics strength index of node ; is the results being assigned to the subdomain to generate number of principal components with eigenvalue greater A cost grid charts t3; than 1; k is the contribution rate of a principal component k C k Step 5. Add cost grid charts, t1 and t3, to the space congru- of rank ; kj is the load of the principal component on ′ ence function of the GIS, which yields the cost grid an index of rank j; n is the number of variables; and X ij is j i charts of accessibility, t4, for the entire area of Nan- a new value obtained to make index of node dimension- jing due to HSR; less. Step 6. Use the Cell Statistic function in ArcGIS and the min- In this study, eight economic indicators are employed, imum algorithm between t2 and t4 to obtain the final including GDP, the added value of secondary/tertiary in- cost grid chart, t5. dustry, GDP per capita, total sales of social consumer goods, total investment in fixed assets, general financial revenue, and permanent resident population. The original 3.2 Gravity Model data must be first normalized (formula 6) to guarantee a unified scale, and then we can use SPSS software toper- The gravity model is used to figure out the economic link form principal component analysis. intensity between cities. The essence of this model is to ′ Xij − min (Xj) X ij = (6) simulate “distance-decay regularity” that characterizes in- max (Xj) − min (Xj) teractions between cities. The distance-decay regularity wherein, Xij is the score of common factor j of node i., is a phenomenon reflecting that interactions gradually max(Xj) and min(Xj) are respectively the maximal and min- weaken with increase in geographical distance. It is one ′ imal values of the common factor j, and X ij is the standard of the classic and important fundamental rules of geog- value of the normalized common factor j of node i. raphy. Converse [26] proposed the Breaking Point Theory and deemed that the appeal of a city to its surrounding regions is in direct proportion to the urban size, while in- versely proportional to the square of the distances between 4 Results and Analysis them. Such a theory is derived from large quantities of case studies and has been verified in corresponding investiga- 4.1 Variation of Accessibility Pattern tions [27]. At present, this is considered to be a widely ap- plied theory about urban space relations [28]. Therefore, 4.1.1 Accessibility Pattern at Regional Scale the gravity equation presented below [26] is employed: PiPj Spatial distance, time distance, and economic distance are Fij = K × (4) Dijb fully considered in the region-oriented accessibility eval- uation model. Through averaging the three distances of where Fij refers to the mutual attraction between City i and each urban node on a weighted basis, the accessibility of City j; Pi and Pj are the sizes of the starting points, City i each of the 31 research units in South Jiangsu is obtained. and City j; Dij refers to time distance between City i and Spatial interpolation is carried out with the tension spline City j (in minutes); K refers to a gravitational constant and function interpolation method, and it is divided into sev- it is usually taken to be 1; b refers to distance friction coef- eral grades at the same interval (10 min). The result is ficient, and its magnitude signifies the deviation inscale shown in Figure 3. of sphere of gravitational interaction which is set to 2. There are significant spatial differences in the effect To comprehensively analyze the influence of HSR of high-speed rail on the accessibility of South Jiangsu. on economic linkage, the “economics strength index” is The accessibility is high in the northern and central ar- adopted here to modify the gravity model proposed by Con- eas and low in the southern and marginal areas. Overall, verse [26]. The “economics strength index” of a city de- from least-accessible Suzhou, Wuxi, and Changzhou to ar- scribes the comprehensive economic strength of a city and eas outside these three cities, the accessibility gradually in- its capacity for radiation and promotion. Its computational creases, presenting an irregular annular distribution. With the launch of high-speed rail, accessibility in the northern 810 Ë W. Hong and M. Su

Figure 3: The contour of the accessibility value at regional scale and central areas have greatly improved, where over half . In other words, the operation of HSR clearly ex- of the low-accessibility research nodes are located (less pands the ranges of the 90- and 120-minute isochronous than 120 min). After the implementation of high-speed rings. Along HSR, isotime circles clearly move outwards rail, those along the rail lines have become more acces- and their spatial scale extends axially. The analysis sug- sible than the geometric centers, and the areas around gests that the effect of the HSR is much more significant the Shanghai-Nanjing railway line and Nanjing-Hangzhou in intermediate and long distance regions. railway line have greatly improved in accessibility. Thanks The higher the variation rate of the accessibility value, to high-speed rails, highly accessible corridors are created, the greater the distance from Nanjing is and the less the yielding the corridor effect. distance to the HSR station is. While the compression ef- ficiency of travel time in each city is remarkably different, the compression rates are higher along the HSR sites (e.g., 4.1.2 Accessibility Pattern of Regional Center City change rate in , , East Wuxi and South Kun- shan station exceed 30%), which are the major beneficia- Isochrone maps display areas of similar travel time from ries of time convergence. Areas with low change rates—less a selected starting location, and it reflects the degree of than 5%—are distributed, for the most part, in the periph- compactness of the spatial association between the cen- eral regions of Nanjing. Due to its proximity, the HSR has tral city and the neighboring regions. The uneven pattern less impact on the compression effect in those regions. In of change in accessibility is measured by the range, inten- addition, the change rates of accessibility are low toward sity, and direction of the isotime circle. In this study, based the outer edges of the study area and in areas away from an on a 30-minute time cost, the entire area was divided into HSR station, such as Wujiang and Changshou. Thus, HSR 7 isochronous rings—30 minutes, 60 minutes, 90 minutes, services are intended to be medium- and long-distance 120 minutes, 150 minutes, 180 minutes, and more than connections. 180 minutes. From Figure 4, we know that with the opera- tion of HSR, isochronous rings lapse outward with the HSR line, as the 90-minute isochronous ring along the Nanjing- 4.2 Variation of Economic Linkage Hangzhou high-speed line extends to Liyang and Yixing, and the 120-minute isochronous ring along the Shanghai- Economic linkage refers to the flow and exchange of eco- Nanjing and Beijing-Shanghai high-speed lines extends to nomic elements in different regions. Despite the fact that Influence of Rapid Transit on Accessibility Pattern and Economic Linkage Ë 811

Figure 4: Isochronous rings and change rate of accessibility value at regional center city scale

Figure 5: Economic link intensity before and after the operation of HSRs it uses the accessibility research as a basis, economic link- gram can be generated (Figure 5). A bolder connecting line age deepens the accessibility research and is an in-depth signifies that the economic linkage between this city and exploration into the degree of regional interaction. Equa- the regional hub city is greater. tion 3 is utilized to determine the economic link intensity In 2007, the relation between Nanjing and Central between each of the 30 nodes and downtown areas of Nan- Suzhou was the closest (the economic link intensity is jing. In this way, a gravity-connecting line distribution dia- 162.92). After the opening of HSR, the greatest relation in- 812 Ë W. Hong and M. Su tensity exists between downtown areas of Nanjing and significance, and intelligibility of indexes are quite differ- Central Zhenjiang (594.76), followed by the link between ent. This study attempted to obtain the routes along which Nanjing and Central Suzhou (487.83). Clearly, the mutual a minimum cost was required regardless of time and dis- relation of urban space conforms to the distance-decay reg- tance, through the estimation of fares, and measured the ularity, and HSR plays a particularly dominant role in the evolvement of the accessibility of South Jiangsu, as a func- development of economic linkage patterns. However, for tion of space, time, and cost. cities without HSR available, economic link intensity is im- According to the result analysis, HSR has significantly proved limitedly, such as Gaochun (34.51), Lishui improved the external accessibility of cities but such im- District (42.97), and City (20.90). As a whole, provement is not evenly distributed among various cities. improvement in traffic accessibility has a significant im- It has demonstrated the existence of an uneven space- pact on the economic linkage pattern, and the interrela- time convergence on the regional and central-city scales. tion between cities along the lines of high-speed rail and On one hand, a low-to-high accessibility pattern is exhib- Nanjing is also evidently enhanced. Among those lines, ited from north to south and from center to edge in South the connections between Nanjing and Central Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, and the cities where high-speed railway stations Central Nanjing and Central Wuxi, and Central Nanjing exist enjoy more benefits from the change in accessibility. and Central Changzhou are the most enhanced. In sum- On the other hand, an inequality in the accessibility dis- mary, the opening of HSR consolidates the core dominant tribution has been found in the regional central city. Sta- positions of municipal districts. tistically, isochronous rings of 90 minutes and 120 min- From the perspective of high-speed railway lines, utes have significantly expanded in scope due to HSR. The the economic linkage between nodes on the Nanjing- 120- to 150-minute rings suffered a substantial reduction in Hangzhou HSR is weaker than that on the Shanghai- area, suggesting that the influence on the medium or dis- Nanjing HSR and Beijing-Shanghai HSR. Except for signif- tant areas were particularly more violent and outstanding. icant improvement between the downtown areas of Nan- It is not difficult to debate the effects of HSR from the jing and (rises from 129.09 to 401.41), the above discussion. Are there siphon effects making neigh- economic link intensity of other cities is rather low. On one boring cities lose profits? Are there diffusion effects mak- hand, the opening of Shanghai-Nanjing HSR and Beijing- ing neighboring cities receive greater profits? The accessi- Shanghai HSR is earlier than Nanjing-Hangzhou HSR, and bility effect could result in regional economic cooperation the former two railways have more trains and larger den- eradicating the traditional geographic boundaries and, sities. Therefore, HSR has a substantial influence on eco- thus, promote greater competition among cities [30, 31]. nomic linkage. On the other hand, economic strength This reminds us that some small cities and less developed of cities along the Nanjing-Hangzhou HSR is lower than areas in this region have not profited significantly since that along the Shanghai-Nanjing HSR and the Beijing- HSR came into service, but rather were left further behind, Shanghai HSR. This leads to a weak economic linkage which requires much attention from local governments. among nodes of districts and counties along the Shanghai- Nanjing HSR. 5.1.2 More time is consumed outside the railway system in the total travel, which calls for policy decisions 5 Discussion and Conclusions After researching the accessibility of railway stations in Holland, Rietveld [32] concluded that the market potential 5.1 Discussion for railway service largely depends on the quality of the entire journey from origin to destination. That is to say, 5.1.1 The unfairness of HSR effect and its potential the quality of neither end of the travel chain has been im- influence proved in nature because of the operation of HSR. Does this summary equally apply to HSR in China? To determine The topic of accessibility is considered in the context of this, we separated the time cost of internal city transport the transformation from qualitative research to orientation (TO and TD) from the accessibility value, and calculated its analysis of geography. Accessibility has been measured ac- proportion (see Figure 6) It is evident that the proportion of cording to a place-based perspective [29]. Despite increas- the internal city’s transport time cost is greater than 0.5 at ingly deepening research on accessibility and other mea- more than half of the research nodes. These cities are usu- suring indexes, characterization of the effects, practical ally nearer to central cities. Furthermore, there are larger Influence of Rapid Transit on Accessibility Pattern and Economic Linkage Ë 813

Figure 6: The proportion taken by internal transportation time in the whole travel time differences between the time cost for HSR (TOD) and the ternalities. This study constructs an accessibility evalua- time cost for internal city transport (TO and TD). We can tion model to operate on the mesoscale and macro-scale. take Lishui and Jurong as examples. It takes 15 minutes on Accessibility is measured with basic factors including spa- the HSR, but more than 45 minutes to reach and leave the tial distance, time distance (time spent in spanning spatial HSR stations. distance), and economic distance (expense for spanning We can further conclude from above discussion that spatial distance). A novel zone partitioning method has the time saved by HSR will be offset by the distance be- been proposed to resolve access problems for closed-type tween downtown and an HSR station that is far from roads, such as the HSR. Gravity model based the accessi- the city center. The accessibility of regions that are bility research is used to take an in-depth exploration into well connected in transportation with HSR stations has the economic linkage pattern. The result shows that HSRs largely improved, while the accessibility of regions that increase regional space-time contraction, reduce the resis- are poorly connected in transportation with HSR stations tance between areas and offer direct impetus for the eco- has improved with reduced effects. Therefore, internal nomic and spatial structure. The mutual relation of urban transportation of neighboring cities must be improved space conforms to the distance-decay regularity, and HSR to achieve seamless connections between HSR stations plays a particularly dominant role in the development of and other transportation stations, reducing transfer time. economic linkage patterns. Marginal regions can improve their accessibility by build- HSR has created a multitude of new and thought- ing other fast transportation channels, connecting with provoking research fields, along with the transformation HSR stations and strengthening the transportation connec- of methods and perspectives. While scholars have already tions with HSR. Deriving a comprehensive post-HSR plan- addressed the impact of HSR, further improvements in ning strategy for a more integrated transportation system terms of methods, scope, and perspectives are still war- would be useful for local authorities [33]. ranted. This study does not address the impact of the in- creasing urban road congestion on accessibility. Also, it only focuses on the research between the internal cities at 5.2 Conclusions urban agglomeration scale, while regional economic sys- tem is an open and complex one. These problems will be Tierney [34] viewed HSR as the next economic growth addressed in subsequent research. wave. HSR is a large-scale form of public infrastructure that delivers significant public benefits and economic ex- 814 Ë W. Hong and M. Su

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