University of Birmingham Aircraft engine exhaust emissions and other airport- related contributions to ambient air pollution Masiol, Mauro; Harrison, Roy M. DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.05.070 License: None: All rights reserved Document Version Peer reviewed version Citation for published version (Harvard): Masiol, M & Harrison, RM 2014, 'Aircraft engine exhaust emissions and other airport-related contributions to ambient air pollution: A review', Atmospheric Environment, vol. 95, pp. 409-455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.05.070 Link to publication on Research at Birmingham portal Publisher Rights Statement: NOTICE: this is the author’s version of a work that was accepted for publication in the journal cited above. Changes resulting from the publishing process, such as peer review, editing, corrections, structural formatting, and other quality control mechanisms may not be reflected in this document. 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Where a licence is displayed above, please note the terms and conditions of the licence govern your use of this document. When citing, please reference the published version. Take down policy While the University of Birmingham exercises care and attention in making items available there are rare occasions when an item has been uploaded in error or has been deemed to be commercially or otherwise sensitive. If you believe that this is the case for this document, please contact [email protected] providing details and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate. Download date: 28. Sep. 2021 1 2 3 4 5 6 AIRCRAFT ENGINE EXHAUST EMISSIONS 7 AND OTHER AIRPORT-RELATED 8 CONTRIBUTIONS TO AMBIENT AIR 9 POLLUTION: A REVIEW 10 ∗ 11 Mauro Masiol and Roy M. Harrison † 12 13 Division of Environmental Health and Risk Management 14 School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences 15 University of Birmingham 16 Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT 17 United Kingdom 18 19 20 21 22 23 ∗ To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tele: +44 121 414 3494; Fax: +44 121 414 3708; Email: [email protected] † Also at: Department of Environmental Sciences / Center of Excellence in Environmental Studies, King Abdulaziz University, PO Box 80203, Jeddah, 21589, Saudi Arabia 1 24 Highlights 25 Aviation is globally growing (+5% y‒1) mainly driven by developing countries 26 Airport operations cause an increase in ground-level pollution 27 Chemical and physical properties of the emitted gases and particles are reviewed 28 An overview of other additional sources within airports is provided 29 Future research needs on aircraft emissions are highlighted 30 2 31 ABSTRACT 32 Civil aviation is fast-growing (about +5% every year), mainly driven by the developing economies 33 and globalization. Its impact on the environment is heavily debated, particularly in relation to 34 climate forcing attributed to emissions at cruising altitudes and the noise and the deterioration of air 35 quality at ground-level due to airport operations. This latter environmental issue is of particular 36 interest to the scientific community and policymakers, especially in relation to the breach of limit 37 and target values for many air pollutants, mainly nitrogen oxides and particulate matter, near the 38 busiest airports and the resulting consequences for public health. Despite the increased attention 39 given to aircraft emissions at ground-level and air pollution in the vicinity of airports, many 40 research gaps remain. Sources relevant to air quality include not only engine exhaust and non- 41 exhaust emissions from aircraft, but also emissions from the units providing power to the aircraft on 42 the ground, the traffic due to the airport ground service, maintenance work, heating facilities, 43 fugitive vapours from refuelling operations, kitchens and restaurants for passengers and operators, 44 intermodal transportation systems, and road traffic for transporting people and goods in and out to 45 the airport. Many of these sources have received inadequate attention, despite their high potential 46 for impact on air quality. This review aims to summarise the state-of-the-art research on aircraft 47 and airport emissions and attempts to synthesise the results of studies that have addressed this issue. 48 It also aims to describe the key characteristics of pollution, the impacts upon global and local air 49 quality and to address the future potential of research by highlighting research needs. 50 51 Keywords: Aviation; atmospheric pollution; emissions; LTO cycles; particulate matter; oxides 52 of nitrogen 53 3 54 List of abbreviations 55 AAFEX Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment 56 AEs Airport emissions 57 APEX Aircraft Particle Emissions eXperiment 58 APU Auxliary power unit 59 BC Black carbon 60 C* Effective saturation concentration 61 CIs Chemi-ions 62 CIMS Chemical ionisation mass spectrometry 63 EC Elemental carbon 64 EI Emission index 65 EXCAVATE EXperiment to Characterise Aircraft Volatile Aerosol and Trace-species Emissions 66 F00 Engine thrust expressed as a percentage of maximum rated power 67 FGEP Fixed ground electrical power 68 FSC Fuel sulfur content 69 FT Fischer-Tropsch fuel 70 GMD Geometric number mean diameter 71 GPUs Ground power units 72 GRPs Ground running procedures 73 GSEs Ground service equipments 74 ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization 75 LTO Landing and take-off cycle 76 OC Organic carbon 77 NMHC Non-methane hydrocarbon 78 NOx Nitrogen oxides (NO+NO2) 79 NOy Reactive odd nitrogen (NOx and their oxidation products) 4 80 OA Organic aerosol 81 PAHs Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 82 PM Particulate matter 83 PM1 Particulate matter (aerodynamic diameter less than 1 µm) 84 PM2.5 Particulate matter (aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 µm) 85 PM10 Particulate matter (aerodynamic diameter less than 10 µm) 86 RF Radiative forcing 87 RPK Revenue passenger kilometres 88 RTK Revenue tonne kilometres 89 SARS Severe acute respiratory syndrome 90 SIA Secondary inorganic aerosol 91 SN Smoke number 92 SOA Secondary organic aerosol 93 SVOCs Semi-volatile organic compounds 94 TC Total carbon 95 TF Turbofan engine 96 TIM Time-in-mode 97 TJ Turbojet engine 98 TP Turboprop engine 99 TS Turboshaft engine 100 UFP Ultrafine particles (diameter <100 nm) 101 UHC Unburned hydrocarbons 102 VOCs Volatile organic compounds 103 ε Abundance ratio (( SO3+H2SO4) /total sulfur) 104 ξ Partitioning coefficient 105 5 106 1. INTRODUCTION 107 Among pollution issues, poor air quality attracts a high level of interest within the scientific 108 community and engages public opinion because of the known relationship between exposure to 109 many air pollutants and increased adverse short- and long-term effects on human health (e.g., 110 Schwartz, 1997; Ayres, 1998; Brunekreef and Holgate, 2002; Kampa and Castanas, 2008; Maynard, 111 2009; Yang and Omaye, 2009; Rückerl et al., 2011). In addition, air pollution can seriously impair 112 visibility (Hyslop, 2009), may damage materials in buildings and cultural heritage (Watt et al., 113 2009; Screpanti and De Marco, 2009) and has direct and indirect effects upon climate (Ramanathan 114 and Feng, 2009). While air pollution remains a major concern for developing countries (Fenger, 115 2009; Liaquat et al., 2010) as a result of the rapid growth of population, energy demand and 116 economic growth, developed countries have experienced a significant decline in the concentrations 117 of many air pollutants over the past decade. 118 119 Airport emissions (AEs) have received increasing attention in recent years because of the rapid 120 growth of air transport volumes and the expected expansion to meet capacity needs for future years 121 (Amato et al., 2010; Kurniawan and Khardi, 2011; Kinsey et al., 2011). Most studies highlight 122 knowledge gaps (e.g., Webb et al., 2008; Wood et al., 2008a; Lee et al., 2010) which are a matter of 123 concern as the literature indicates that aircraft emissions can significantly affect air quality near 124 airports (Unal et al., 2005; Carslaw et al., 2006; Herndon et al., 2008; Carslaw et al., 2008; 125 Mazaheri et al., 2009; Dodson et al., 2009) and in their surroundings (Farias and ApSimon, 2006; 126 Peace et al., 2006; Hu et al., 2009; Amato et al., 2010; Jung et al., 2011; Hsu et al., 2012). Emission 127 standards for new types of aircraft engines have been implemented since the late 1970s by the 128 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) through the Committee on Aircraft Engine 129 Emissions (CAEE) and the subsequent Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP). 130 One of the key actions of the ICAO committees was the provision on engine emissions in Volume 131 II of Annex 16 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, the so-called “Chicago 6 132 Convention”, which recommended protocols for the measurement of carbon monoxide (CO), 133 nitrogen oxides (NO+NO2=NOx), unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) and smoke number (SN) for new 134 engines (ICAO, 2008). Standards were listed on a certification databank (EASA, 2013), which 135 represents a benchmark for engine emissions performance and is used in many regulatory 136 evaluations (ICAO, 2011).