Reunion or Rebut: Reintegration of International Female Return Migrants in

Abstract: About three quarters of international labour migrants from Indonesia are women. The migration is usually temporary ranging from as short as 1 year to as long as 20 years. Using interviews of 71 returned female migrants and family members from two villages in we investigated challenges that return migrants face in reintegrating into the family, the wider community, and labour force. The study revealed significant barriers in reintegrating with husbands and children. Women reported lack of emotional bonds with husbands; children treat them as outsiders. Women reported unwelcoming neighbourhood, with society discouraging their permanent return. In the labour market, they were often the least desirable candidates as they might demand higher wages or potential employers fear they may not work efficiently. Lack of re-integration encouraged women to migrate again, a journey they will continue throughout their life.

Long Abstract: Context: International female labour migration in south-east Asia leads to the temporary separation of married couples. One of the countries in the region which has witnessed the feminisation of migration is Indonesia, the world’s fourth largest nation. Eighty percent of Indonesia’s official international labour migrants are female, originating mainly from Java. The aim of this paper is to examine the challenges that international female migrants face when they return permanently. Data and methods: Data were collected using a sequential mixed method; household census followed by interviews of return migrants from two villages in East Java. Data were collected during November 2015 to January 2016 in and Ponorogo Regencies, two economically contrasting settings. In total, 178 structured interviews were undertaken with household heads. From the household census, households with a current international female labour migrant or a returnee female migrant were identified. These households were selected for the qualitative component of the study. A total of 71 in-depth interviews were conducted with left-behind family members including children, husbands, parents, as well as returnees and key informants after obtaining informed consent. The interviews were conducted in the preferred language of the participant and were recorded using a dictaphone. The recorded interviews were transcribed and translated from local languages to English by field researchers from the University of Brawijaya. In-depth interview transcripts were analysed jointly by University of Portsmouth and University of Brawijaya researchers. In the first stage, the transcripts were anonymised, read, and summarised so that key themes could be identified. A coding framework was developed from the literature review and themes identified in the interview summaries. NVivo was used to aid the organisation of the qualitative data research analysis, support the thematic coding and also enable data retrieval in a systematic manner. Table 1: Profile of Polorejo village, Ponorogo and Sukowilangun village, Polorejo village, Babadan Sukowilangun village, District, Ponorogo Regency Kalipare District, Malang Regency Total population, 2015 6,340 5,929 Males 3,100 2,856 Females 3,240 3,073 Socio-economic context Rice farming and animal Mainly agriculture husbandry Migration • Started in 1970s • Started in 1973-1974 • 1980: chain migration after dam construction • 1990s: surge in migration • Mid 1970s: migration with destination country driven by recruiters diversified Sex ratio of migrants, 2010 55% females; 45% males 70% females; 30% males

Destination countries, 2015 Hong Kong, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Saudi Singapore, Taiwan Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan

Results and discussion: The study examined reintegration with family; the community and labour market. Some of the key findings of the study are the following: (1) Reintegration with family: Women reported multiple challenges in reintegrating with family when they return home on a permanent basis. In general, there was an inverse relationship between the duration of migration and the level of reintegration with family: reintegration was easier if the duration of stay abroad was shorter. The family level reintegration involved three domains of relationship: with husband, children, and other members such as parents or parents-in-law. Reintegration with the husband was reported as most difficult where the separation was longer and communication between them was weak, in some cases divorce happened after return. Reintegration with children, particularly with daughters, was reported as the most difficult part of integration at family level; in the majority of cases children were reported to have a closer relationship with the father and women felt isolated within the family. Reintegration with grown up children was much harder than with very young children. For some women, lack of reintegration with family prompted them to consider migrating or engaging in relationships outside of marriage. Reintegration with parents or in-laws was not a problem among the sample of women we interviewed for this project.

About children: Yes, they become shyer to me, I have to adjust with them. If they want to tell about something they just smile… (Return migrant)

About husband: he always open his Facebook and keep in touch with friends, a habit that he cultivated when I was away. (Return migrant)

(2) Reintegration with the community: The longer the duration of migration the harder it was for women to reintegrate with the community. Women reported several areas of concern: for some lack of friendship in the neighbourhood was a main concern; others felt their community did not want them to return to the village permanently. Women reported that some community members viewed them as good sources of revenue to the village and their return might reduce such income, or they will take up jobs that could have been taken by non-migrants. The economic situation of the return migrant was yet another important factor influencing integration. More prosperous migrants had better acceptance among villagers than women who did not become prosperous. Women who did not have a good relationship with their husbands or those who had alleged relationships outside marriage had difficulties in reintegrating with the villagers, particularly neighbours. The majority of the women in the study did not have any significant savings when they returned home making their situation highly vulnerable and insecure. Women reported people asking them: “when are you returning ….”. A sentiment that reflects the attitude of villagers about migrants and is widely prevalent in the community, discouraging reintegration of return migrants.

About community: Better to stay there (in Hong Kong), I get more freedom when I was there, I can meet friends there, hangout, or mingling without any disturbances. I can’t do it here. (Return migrant)

(3) Reintegration with the labour market: The majority of the women in this study reported that they found it very hard to get a job when they returned. Some women, who had savings, were able to set up small shops in the village. The majority of the women we interviewed were unemployed upon their return and were looking for jobs in the nearby areas. These women reported lack of employment or a source of income a barrier for their overall reintegration. As return migrants have had the opportunity to work and earn while abroad they find it hard to face a situation that forces them to sit idle at the same time as not having enough money to meet their daily needs.

I think it (migration) gives negative impact because we were separated far away from our family. But somehow I want to abroad again for working. I am just sitting at home. I need a lot of things to fulfil my daily needs and the savings are not enough. (Return migrant)

In summary, this study revealed that women who spend most of their productive life abroad for work find it harder to reintegrate with the family and community when they return with the idea of not going to abroad for work. They lost emotional bonds with their husbands and children, and are often unemployed. They often have very little savings as most of their wages, while working aboard, were sent to husbands or were used to construct a house. Many women we interviewed in this study were considering returning to work abroad. This reinforces the much prevalent phrase in the study villages: once a migrant always a migrant. The destiny of return migrant women in the Javanese villages reflects the general pattern which exists in Indonesia as a whole, and perhaps in other female migrant sending countries in the region.