The Effects of Job Satisfaction and Ethical

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Journal of Global Strategic Management | V. 10 | N. 1 | 2016-June | isma.info | 55-66 | DOI: 10.20460/JGSM.20161022386 THE EFFECTS OF JOB SATISFACTION AND ETHICAL CLIMATE ON WHISTLEBLOWING: AN EMPIRICAL STUDY ON PUBLIC SECTOR ∗Meral ELÇI ∗∗Melisa ERDILEK KARABAY ∗∗∗Türkmen Taşer AKBAS ∗Gebze Teknik University ∗∗Marmara University ∗∗∗Pamukkale University ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to determine the effects of job satisfaction and ethical climate on whistleblowing in workplaces. With this aim, data was gathered through the implementation of a questionnaire to 1070 employees working in public sector in Kocaeli and Istanbul. In the analysis of data, factor analysis, correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis were made use of. The result of the study indicates that the job satisfaction attitude of employees does not have an effect on whistleblowing (both on internal and external whistle blowing intentions). However, a significant effect of employees' perception of ethical climate was determined on both dimensions of whistleblowing. In the light of these findings, it is concluded that a powerful ethical climate in the workplace is necessary in order to reveal more whistleblowing behaviors in public sector. Keywords: Whistleblowing, Ethical Climate, Job Satisfaction, Public Sector. INTRODUCTION Today, the influence of increased competition and rapidly evolving technologies foster the organizations expect from their employees to work more efficiently and effectively to achieve the goals. While the high performance can depend on various job-related factors, job satisfaction has become an important component of organizational climate which is concerned with the determination of happiness of employees’ in regard to their work (Ealias and George, 2012:37). This requires organizations getting much involved with identifying the positive and negative factors that influence the job satisfaction (Erdil et al., 2011:17). Organizational climate is a mirror of organization's value system including employees’ values, policies and activities that is shaped by an extensive number of environmental factors (Denison, 1996:624). Last decade showed that, corporations are much more employed with corporate ethics like using ethics hotlines, establishing ethical codes and organizing ethics committees for ensuring ethical compliance within the organization. This concern with ethical behavior has required the policy of building a moral climate (Bowie and Schneider, 2011:11). Business ethics is often defined as knowing and doing the right things in business (Ülgen and Mirze, 2013:487). Standards for providing ethical conduct in business is no longer only about ensuring high productivity and profit but also is a process that leads to perfection (Karabay, 2015:109). Latterly, scholars have addressed the issue of ethics related with various behaviors that affect the climate within the organization. Employees usually have ideas, information, and opinions to improve work and the organizations (Zehir and Erdogan, 2011:1390). In some circumstances, they often may choose not to conduct or to report the illegal or immoral practices of their colleagues or managers (Özler et al., 2010:172). This behavior is described as whistleblowing. In the organizational behavior discipline, it is argued that organizations do not support and encourage those that whistle blow because of violation of professional standards can be perceived as indicative of a failure of organizational ethics (Ray, 2006:438). Considering micro and macro point of view, various organizations and countries have established various mechanisms with regard to ethical conduct. Despite increasing interest on organizational climate among scholars, there is a scarcity of evidence presenting the impact of ethical climate among employees’

55 Journal of Global Strategic Management | V. 10 | N. 1 | 2016-June | isma.info | 55-66 | DOI: 10.20460/JGSM.20161022386 behavior. This is mostly true for the public sector employees. Although previous researches have provided evidence among the employees from the private companies, few studies have examined the perception or importance of ethical climate to public corporations. In this respect, the study aims to examine the effects of job satisfaction and ethical climate on whistleblowing among employees in public sector. This research aims to provide a theoretical infrastructure as well as to discuss the findings for the public institutions. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction is “Contentedness or “Discontentedness” with which the employees view their work (Davis, 1984:96). The notion of job satisfaction consists of basically two dimensions as intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction. The elements comprising the intrinsic satisfaction are a number of rewards maintaining the intrinsic satisfaction which employees get from their job (such as the satisfaction born out of the job itself, opportunities providing personal development and the sense of success). On the other hand, the components of extrinsic satisfaction include various rewards sustaining the extrinsic motivation of the employee that s/he gets from the work (such as wage level, firm policies and support, colleagues, opportunities to be promoted and customer relations) (Walker et al., 1977:159). In other words, the concept of job satisfaction is associated with the satisfaction felt from several factors constituting job satisfaction itself. These can be listed as the requirements of skills/abilities, employment integrity, the importance level of the task, the autonomy level in conducting the job, the feedback level related to the job performance, feedback level obtained from the manager or other employees, the quality of the relationships with others, the level to serve the needs related to the requirements of the job, responsibility level provided by the job, information about results, intrinsic motivation, overall satisfaction, wage, job security, social environment, the satisfaction about the manager and also satisfaction on development need) (Hackman and Oldham, 1980:317). Job satisfaction, as an attitude is connected with the degree to which employees satisfy their needs and desires (Türk, 2007:67) (2013), job satisfaction can be dealt with two aspects;(Tınaz, i. The 2013:25)compatibility of what the organization requires and what is desired by individuals, ii: The compatibility of what. Accordingindividual desires to Tınaz and what they have found. These two kinds of compatibility point to the presence of contract areas in five different fields between the individual and organization. These are; a. Knowledge/skills/abilities contract, b. Psychological contract, c. The adequacy and equality in rewards contract, d. The contract related to job structure, e. Ethics Contract (While individuals prefer organizations compatible with their own values, the organizations desire to employ those who accept their ethical values) .

Ethical Climate (Tınaz, 2013:26) Organizational climate is a sum of the perceptions of employees' work environment and the cognitive-emotional consequences of these perceptions . Ethical climate of an organization is a set of ideas concerning moral philosophy that indicates whether the organization has an ethical awareness to cope with the problems(İşcan and (Savran, Karabey, 2007:16) 2007:182). Therefore, it appears as some kind of psychological view that reflects the collective personality of an organization. It is of great importance for the management of an organization to be aware of the organization’s ethical climate. Ethical quality of the organization has to be well understood by management so that executives can ensure whether it is in control or at risk and whether current oversight activities are effective (Kaptein et al., 2005:300). Scholars (Victor and Cullen, 1988:101- 125; Wimbush et al., 1997:1705-1716) have asserted that organizations can have more than one ethical climate depending on factors (sub-unit, position, employee tenure, work- group and management status). Whistleblowing Whistleblowing, aiming to prevent possible harmful behavior towards a third party (Mansbach and Bachner, 2010:483), is a disclosure instead of staying silent, by a staff member of an organization of illegal and unethical practices and situations related to the organization itself and its members . Literature (Kaptein, 2011:515, Sims and Keenan, 1998:416; Donkin et al., 2008; Mendelsohn, 2009:723-745) presents many studies which state that whistleblowing (Sayğan and Bedük, 2013:5) 56 Journal of Global Strategic Management | V. 10 | N. 1 | 2016-June | isma.info | 55-66 | DOI: 10.20460/JGSM.20161022386 behavior can exist both internally and externally in an organization. The concept of whistleblowing has two dimensions like internal and external reporting (Kaptein, 2011:515, Mansbach and Bachner, 2010). “Internal whistleblowing” is defined as the action of disclosing a misconduct related to ethics or laws or illegal activity occurring in an organization by an employee to the members of the institution (such as supervisor), while it is “external whistleblowing” in the case of disclosure to people outside the institution (such as media) . For example, when an organization has no explicit standards to distinguish right from wrong, external reporting is less likely because it is more difficult to hold the organization(Sayğan and accountable Bedük, 2013:5) for conduct that has not been defined as wrong than when the organization violates its own standards (Kaptein, 2011). Park and Blenkinsopp (2009:550-552) explained whistleblowing intentions based on Ajzen's "Theory of Planned Behavior" (Ajzen, 1991:182). Therefore, in their study, they explained the effects of "attitude", "subjective norms", and "perceived behavioral control" on internal and external whistleblowing intentions. Employees often refrain from reporting misconduct despite their awareness of it because employees believe that their supervisors do not welcome these kinds of reports (Miceli et al., 2009:379). One of the major reasons is that it challenges the organization’s authority structure (Mesmer-Magnus and Viswesvaran, 2005:278). Employees who detect wrongdoing, therefore, should be encouraged by their supervisors to respond in a manner that supports corrective action (Kaptein, 2011:513). Management’s policy of reporting misconduct and to view officers more impersonally should enhance the likelihood of employees blowing the whistle (Rothwell and Baldwin, 2007:346). Employees with greater tenure may also choose to blow the whistle rather than quitting because they are closer to retirement (Mesmer-Magnus and Viswesvaran, 2005:280). There are some opposite views against this assumption which state that, with longer tenure employees also have more time to develop strong relations and friendships that might reduce the intention to report colleagues (Rothwell and Baldwin, 2007:355). Individuals that blow the whistle can be either be a former or a current employee working in privately held or public institutions (Gökçe, 2014:262). Importance of Whistleblowing In Public Sector We know that the understanding and approach of governance (Tricker, 2005:12) is a frequently used concept nowadays, especially in the field of public administration as a discipline. Administrations also have to take into consideration the interests of all the shareholders affected by the institution’s activities, along with the ones of the institutions they manage. Public comes at the first place among these shareholders. Public administrations’ becoming transparent (Eken, 2005:1- 15) will enable the bureaucratic structures of public sector to be more sensitive to the public interests and the interests of internal and external customers. Breaking the spiral of desensitization process which feeds from mystery will contribute the public bureaucracies to be healthier and more effective structures. By partly preventing the mismanagement practices at least, providing transparency will enable the positive perceptions, attitudes and behaviours to improve in terms of the people who form the sample of this research and who work in the public sector. In terms of the improvement and the placement of the understanding of governance and corporate governance, one of the behavioural tools to be utilised in providing transparency, one of the important values, and accountability could be whistle-blowing as well (Peters, 2014; Near and Miceli, 2008:264). For instance, the channels which might be used in Turkey for whistle-blowing (such as mobbing) can be listed as follows: Ministry of Labour and Social Security, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Constitutional Court, ALO 170, Council of Ethics for Public Officials, the Ombudsman Institution, and the National Human Rights Institution of Turkey. The most commonly preferred channel among these may be and its presentation to the public service relieved, in a way, the ones who work in the public sector and took workplaces toPrime certain Ministry standards, Communications and it led an Centreimportant (BİMER). role in Theimproving foundation and extending of BİMER the ethical climates with the role of a medium of exchange in the changing of culture of ethics in the complaints in order to have a transparent, objective, and accountable management” (bimer.gov.tr/Forms/pgMain.aspx).organizations of public bureaucracy. ForIt is stated/announcedinstance, in a workplace on BİMER’s where website public that services“Justify yourare conducted, employees’ displaying the behavior of informing the media or higher authorities about

57 Journal of Global Strategic Management | V. 10 | N. 1 | 2016-June | isma.info | 55-66 | DOI: 10.20460/JGSM.20161022386 the fact that public resources, equipment, and staff are used to support terrorist activities is not only associated with the fact that they love their jobs (the motivation to serve public and respect for the society) and they have job satisfaction attitudes, but also with their ethical climate perceptions at workplace (Brewer and Selden, 1998:414). The special norms that individuals have predict their attitudes towards behavior, these attitudes predict behavioral intentions and their intentions predict the behaviors (Hogg and Vaughan, 2006:185). LITERATURE REVIEW AND DEVELOPMENT OF HYPOTHESIS Job Satisfaction and Whistleblowing There are limited number of studies in national and international literature examining the relationship between job satisfaction and whistleblowing [For instance; Mazerolle and Brown (2008); Gökçe (2014)]. Mazerolle and Brown (2008) found that there are positive effects of the job satisfaction level of public officials, whether an administrative staff or not, on the level of favorable personal attitude towards whistleblowing and the knowledge level of the procedures related to the situation of whistleblower. Also, it is stated that whistleblowing seems to be greater in organizations that value whistleblowing and in those in which the whistleblower perceives a high congruence between personal and organizational values (Berry, 2004:4; Mesmer-Magnus and Viswesvaran, 2005:280). Miceli and Near (1988:273-277) state that whistleblowing is more commonly observed in those public officials who have positive perception, feeling and attitude towards their job (in terms of job satisfaction, fair and equal distribution of rewards, evaluating performance effectively and fairly). In addition, they suggested that studies examining the effect of positive attitudes towards job on whistleblowing by including cause-effect analysis should be conducted. Moreover, Sims and Keenan (1998:416) discovered that job satisfaction of employees working full time in various sectors and currently enrolled in an undergraduate or graduate business program in a private university is not significantly related to external whistleblowing. In a similar study by Gökçe (2014:277), it is found that there is no difference in the job satisfaction level of teachers who blowed the whistle and who did not. Also, in parallel with the last mentioned study, it is observed that there is no difference in the job satisfaction level of whistleblowers and non- reporting observers (Cassematis and Wortley, 2013:626). In their study, Mesmer-Magnus and Viswesvaran (2005:286), by using meta-analytic examination, dealt with whistleblowing intentions and actions as separate categories and found that job satisfaction and job performance were positively related to whistleblowing action but not to whistleblowing intent. In their study, Bjorkelo et al. (2011:217-222), including the employees from different sectors, having different individual and organizational qualities, several characteristics and the experiences of those whistleblowing are investigated. They found that the increase in the satisfaction level of whistleblowers will decrease the likelihood of whistleblowing. While explaining the findings, the authors stated that low level of job satisfaction may be a prerequisite for whistleblowing and whistleblowing also may have an effect on job satisfaction. Ethical Climate and Whistleblowing The relationship between ethical climate and employee behavior is critical because unethical behavior has proven to be extremely costly to organizations and society (Barsky, 2008:262). Therefore, it is critical to analyze employees’ job-related behaviors related to the ethical climate of an organization. One of the reasons is that, ethical climate may avoid unexpected results of ethical or illegal misconduct of employees. Recent scandals of unethical conduct are the most important examples that draw attention to employees blowing the whistle. Furthermore, past experience showed that misconduct can cause the organizations lose their reputation and other negative consequences for the employees (Gökçe, 2014:262) as well. In a society, where the ethical perceptions are weak, the choices for employees and organizations to act ethically while pursuing goals can be more limited (Luthar and Karri, 2005:354). According to Berry (2004), the ethical culture of organizations plays a crucial role in stimulating employees to report misconduct. Rothwell and Baldwin (2007:341-361) investigated the relationship between ethical climates and whistle-blowing in the State of Georgia among security employees. The results indicated that a friendship or team climate generally explains willingness to blow the whistle. Rothschild and Miethe (1999:107-111) asserted that whistle-blowers are no

58 Journal of Global Strategic Management | V. 10 | N. 1 | 2016-June | isma.info | 55-66 | DOI: 10.20460/JGSM.20161022386 different from silent individuals and that contextual variables are the strongest predictors of whistle-blowing. Near and Miceli (1996) indicated similar evidence concerning the whistleblowing. Kaptein (2011) in his article examined the influence of the ethical culture of organizations on employee responses to observed wrongdoing. According to his study, different dimensions of ethical culture are related to different types of intended responses. The findings showed that several dimensions of ethical culture were negatively related to intended inaction and external whistleblowing and positively related to intended confrontation, reporting to management and calling an ethics hotline. According to Dion (2008), the development of the ethical climate that encourages ideal behavior entails to overcome disciplinary legal compliance strategies and in order for this ethical climate to function appropriately, it is necessary to support whistleblowing (Özgener et al., 2009:279; Dion, 2008:701). As Near and Miceli mentioned, the efficacy of whistleblowing is associated with the fact that the climate of organizations is in a nature preventive of reprisal or retaliation feelings towards whistleblowers, supporting whistleblowing (Near and Miceli, 1995:701). This study describes how employees in public sector perceives the ethical climate of their workplace, including the intention to demonstrate the behavior of blowing the whistle internally or externally in their organization. METHODOLOGY Research Goal and The Sample In this study, it was intended to examine how job satisfaction and ethical climate influences whistleblowing intention of employees. In this sense, a self-administered survey was mailed to a random sample of 1500 employees working in publicly held corporations located in Istanbul. In order to test the hypotheses, data was collected from 7 public institutions that have activities in different sectors (telecommunication, public security and public banks) in Kocaeli-Istanbul region. After deleting records with missing cases 1070 completed questionnaires were remained, which constituted the sample for this study. Measures The constructs in this study are developed by using measurement scales adopted from prior studies. All constructs are measured using five-point Likert scales with strongly disagree (=1) and strongly agree (=5). Items for measuring “ethical climate” (7 items) were adopted from Schwepker (2001). The scale of “Whistleblowing” was adopted from Park and Blenkinsopp’s (2009) 8-item scale. Similarly, the notion of “Job Satisfaction” was measured using 3 items (only for job satisfaction) of scale developed by Churchill et al. (1974), and used by Schwepker. To measure the “Ethical Climate” employees’ perceptions, seven items were adapted from the scale developed by Schwepker et al. (1997) on the basis of Quails and Puto's (1989) study. Data Analysis and Findings Data were analyzed using SPSS program. To examine the demographical characteristics of respondents, frequency analysis is primarily conducted. Factor analysis and reliability analyses are also conducted. Furthermore, to present concrete evidence among the relationship between the variables, Pearson correlation technique was used. The multivariate model of the study was tested using multiple regressions. When demographic characteristics of respondents are considered, 67,4 % of the respondents were men and 50,5 % of the respondents were single. The mean age of the sample was 29,2 years. The mean of tenure is 4,1 years. 51 % of the participants are university graduates and 28,8 % of them have an undergraduate degree. 95 % of the participants had worked for at least ten years for their organizations. 89,5 % of the sample are staff and whereas 6,3 % of them are middle level managers. Factor Analysis The best fit of the data was obtained with a principal component analysis through varimax rotation. Exploratory factor analysis of all scale items displayed a four-factor structure including ethical climate, internal whistleblowing, external whistleblowing and general job satisfaction. The factor loadings are included in Table 1.

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Table-1. Factor Analysis for Ethical Climate, Whistleblowing and Job Satisfaction Items Factor Loadings EC IW EW GJS ec2: My company strictly enforces a code of ethics. ,838 ec3: My company has policies with regards to ethical behavior. ,828 ec4: My company strictly enforces policies regarding ethical ,814 behavior. ec1: My company has a formal, written code of ethics ,798 ec5: Top management in my company has let it be known in no ,791 uncertain terms that unethical behaviors will not be tolerated. ec6: If a salesperson in my company is discovered to have engaged in unethical behavior that results primarily in personal gain (rather ,769 than corporate gain), she or he will be promptly reprimanded. ec7: If a salesperson in my company is discovered to have engaged in unethical behavior that results in primarily corporate gain (rather ,744 than personal gain), she or he will be promptly reprimanded. wb7: Let upper level of management know about it ,844 wb6: Use the reporting channels inside of the organization ,827 wb8: Tell my supervisor about it ,760 wb5: Report it to the appropriate persons within the organization ,749 wb3: Provide information to outside agencies ,765 wb4: Inform the public of it ,757 wb2: Use the reporting channels outside of the organization ,756 wb1: Report it to the appropriate authorities outside of the ,682 organization js2: My work is satisfying ,874 js1: My work gives me a sense of accomplishment ,842

js3: I am really doing something worthwhile in my job ,790

Cronbach Alpha (α) α=0,918 α=0,853 α=0,781 α=0,857

Total Variance Explained: 68.074; Ethical climate (EC); Internal whistleblowing (IW); External whistleblowing (EW); General job satisfaction (GJS) The Alpha reliabilities of the factor were 0.92, 0.86, 0.85 and 0.78 respectively (Table 1). As it can be viewed from this table, the internal consistency reliabilities of all variables measured in this study were quite reliable. Development of Hyphotheses and The Model Based on the literature summarized above, the hypotheses of the research are proposed as below: Hypothesis 1a: Job satisfaction positively influences external whistleblowing. Hypothesis 1b: Job satisfaction positively influences internal whistleblowing. Hypothesis 2a: Ethical climate positively influences external whistleblowing. Hypothesis 2b: Ethical climate positively influences internal whistleblowing. Theoretical model of the research is demonstrated in Figure 1.

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Job Satisfaction Whistleblowing -External Whistleblowing -Internal Whistleblowing

Ethical Climate

Figure-1: Research Model Correlation Results We tried to test if job satisfaction, ethical climate and whistleblowing are related to each other. In order to examine, Pearson correlation technique was used. In the analysis, it was found that each variable was correlated for all the participants. Means and standard deviations of each variable and correlation matrix of all variables are illustrated in Table 2. Table-2. Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Analysis Mean SD 1 2 3 Ethical Climate 3,3609 1,07064 1 Job Satisfaction 3,1511 1,12383 ,496** 1 External Whistleblowing 2,5362 ,92329 ,126** ,082** 1 Internal Whistleblowing 2,9224 1,04268 ,215** ,114** ,540** **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Regression Results In this research we examined whether job satisfaction and ethical climate influence whistleblowing. Therefore, we conducted multiple regression models Table-3. Regression Analysis Dependent Variables Model 1: External Whistleblowing Model 2: Internal Whistleblowing Independents β T β T Job Satisfaction ,022 ,760 0,010 0,298 Ethical Climate ,097 3,213** 0,204 6,096** F 8,831** 25,885** R2 0,016 0,046 Adjusted R2 0,014 0,044 **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level. As illustrated in Table 3, Model 1 (F=8,831**; R2 =0,016) and Model 2 (F=25,885**; R2 =0,046) are both significant.When the effect of job satisfaction is considered, it has found to have no significant

Therefore, H1a and H1b are not supported. In second regression model, ethical climate both affects effect on both external (β=, 0,022; p= .447) and internal whistleblowing (β=, 010; p=.766).

H2a and H2b are supported. external whistleblowing (β=, 0,022; p=.01) and internal whistleblowing (β=, 0,022; p= .000).Thus, CONCLUSION AND FURTHER DISCUSSION Organizations today are expected to develop policies or structures that encourage employees to regulate their own behavior, enforce standards and be accountable for the wrongdoing of others. Ethical climate is today much more influential on performing organizational goals. A management philosophy that focuses on developing a moral climate within the organization can help developing moral people and moral managers establishing a desired working climate. Despite increasing interest, the given literature needs further research in organizational behavior that reveal relations with regard to the effects of ethical climate and job satisfaction on whistleblowing behavior of employees. This study by and large is an attempt to fulfill the gap in the

61 Journal of Global Strategic Management | V. 10 | N. 1 | 2016-June | isma.info | 55-66 | DOI: 10.20460/JGSM.20161022386 local and international literature. We aim to examine the effect of job satisfaction and ethical climate on whistleblowing behaviors of employees in Turkish public sector. According to findings, job satisfaction has no effect on not only internal but also on external whistleblowing behaviors. These findings are in line with Cassematis and Wortley (2013) and Gökçe (2014), respectively. Additionally, the study of Sims and Keenan (1998) have presented the similar findings which illustrated the insignificant effect of job satisfaction on external whistleblowing. As the findings revaealed, ethical climate is influential on both internal and external whistleblowing behaviors. The results are also consistent with the previous research on this topic. On the contrary to the study of Kaptein (2011), we found the significant effect of ethical climate on employees’ whistleblowing behavior whereas we support the evidence of Near and Miceli (1995) which indicated that whistleblowing is affected by ethical climate. Despite ethical conduct has become critical in various sectors, ethics has become an attractive subject in public sector. Regarding the study, the arguments that form a basis for the theoretical assumptions of the present study and are related to the findings obtained through analysis results can be discussed as in the following: We further support Karasu’s (2001) argument which suggest that; The development and extension of professionalism in Turkish public sector can encourage effective management of public sector employees’ exhibiting whistle-blowing behaviors. Professionalism provides governance and corporate governance values to be embedded and widespread in the bureaucracy organizations of public sector which has to contain transparency, accountability, sense of corporate social responsibility, participatory and democratic management approach, professional ethics with it. This suggestion supports Özen’s (1996) argument which underlines that Turkish social culture has produced bureaucrats with a high “social desirability” and low “authoritarianism” tendencies. As the literature reveals, the more employees operate in an ethical climate, the less they will be likely to engage in misconduct. In the long term, this could encourage employees blowing the whistle for the unethical issues in their organizations. This research has a number of intended contributions. Although there is little empirical support for the underlying mechanism linking job satisfaction to whistleblowing, the study also supports recent evidence for the ethical climate influence on whistleblowing literature. Although this study contributes to the understanding of ethical climate and overall job satisfaction relation with the whistleblowing behaviors of employees in Turkey, it also has some limitations. First of all, future ethical climate research might be enhanced through investigating a wider range of ethical issues. Because publicly held corporations are distributed in a large variety of areas, gathering data were time spending and costly. Besides, whistle-blowing behavior could be examined in other regions, other countries and private organizations. Future research might also include the records of the private companies located in other regions of Turkey to enable comparative evaluations. Another limitation is that since ethical misconduct is often affected by demographic factors of the individual that blows the whistle or keeps silent, other control variables could be included in a further research as to provide more clear evidence. Finally, because we did not measure staffing directly, more research is needed to fully understand if types of ethical climate (egoistic, benevolent, etc. are also stronger predictions of job satisfaction.

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