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ED 282 547 IR 012 696 AUTHOR Palazzi, Maria TITLE The Use of Computer Graphics in the Design Process. PUB DATE 87 NOTE 81p.; Master's Thesis, The Ohio State University. PUB TYPE Dissertations/Theses - Master Theses (042) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC04 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Animation; *Computer Graphics; *Computer Simulation; Data Collection; Design; Designers; Futures (of Society); Manufacturing Industry; *Systems Approach; Three Dimensional Aids IDENTIFIERS *Computer Assisted Design; *Industrial Design; Information Management ABSTRACT This master's thesis examines applications of computer technology to the field of industrial design andways in which technology can transform the traditionalprocess. Following a statement of the problem, the history and applications of the fields of computer graphics and industrial designare reviewei. The traditional industrial design process is then described, andthe following steps in the process are examined and relatedto possible computer applications: (1) problem acceptance; (2) problem analysis and definition; (3) ideation; (4) selection of solution(s); (5) implementation of solution(s); and (6) evaluation of solutions(s). Data gathering, information management, and simulationare identified as functions that can be performed by computers in the design process. A discussion of the inevitable restructuring of the design process and ways in which this process can be enhanced through the use of a system created specifically to fit the needs of the industrial designer concludes the report. Five figuresare included in the text and a list of 47 references is provided.(MES)

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THE USE OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS INTHE DESIGN PROCESS

A Thesis

Presented in Partial Fulfillmentof the Requirements for for the degree Master of Arts in the Graduate School of the Ohio StateUniversity by

Maria Palazzi, B.S. * * * * *

The Ohio State University 1987

Masters Examination Committee: Approved by Thomas E. Linehan Christian D. Wedge Adviser Department ,f Art Education

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCETHIS MATERIAL HAS BEENGRANTED BY Maria Palazzi BEST COPY AVAILABLE 9 TO THE EDUCATIONALRESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER(ERIC)." THESIS ABSTRACT

THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY

GRADUATE SCHOOL

NAME: Maria Palazzi QUARTER/YEAR: Spring 1987

DEPARTMENT: Art Education DEGREE: Masters of Arts

ADVISER'S NAME: Linehan,Thomas, E.

TITLE OF THESIS: TheUse ofCcmputerGraphics Design Process inthe

In the future, the computerhasthepossibility of becoming anintegrated andnecessary design process. component in the Thispaperexamines how industrial designers can productivelyuse computer graphics to create and design in the field of industrial design. To create, not only with the computeras a new tool to perform tradi- tional tasks, butas a partner intheprocess. aspectsof the design Certain process will necessarily be altered. with the growing use of computers in the fieldof indus- trialdesign. New steps in theprocess will be required while retaining the traditionalmethodology. Thispaper examinestheinevitable restructuring cess and suggests of the design pro- ways inwhichthisprocesscanbe enhancedthrough the use ofa system created specifically for the needs of the industrialdesigner.

G Adviser's Signature

3 To My Father

4ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thankmy advisor Tom Linehan forhis support and insightthroughout my professionaland academic experience. I thankCharles Csuri, the inspira- tion behind Cranston/CsuriProductions, for givingme the opportunity to work for hiscompany. I thank the staff of Cranston/Csuri Productions, pastand present, for their teamwork and creative energies.

A specialthanks toMichelle L. Amato, forher friendship, encouragement andgrammatical assistance. And most especially, thanks tomy father, mother, Richard, Robert, Davidand Julia for being the rootsthat nourish my branches.

5 VITA

March 18, 1959 Born - Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

1982 B.S., The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1983-Present. Technical Director/ Senior Animation Artist Cranston/Csuri Productions, Columbus, Ohio

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Industrial Design Fields of Study:Studies inComputer Graphics and Animation

iv 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements iii Vita iv Table of Contents

List of Figures vi

Chapter 1: Introduction 1

Chapter 2: Computer GraphicsHistory/Applications 5

Chapter 3: Industrial DesignHistory/Applications 10

Chapter 4: The Design Process 14

Chapter 5: Problem Analysis andDefinition 23 Information Banks 26 Visuals Banka 28 Data Gathering 30 Information Hierarchy 31

Chapter 6: Ideation 33 Tools of the Designer 39 Simulation/Previsualization 40 Multiple Direction 44

Chapter 7: Selection 50

Chapter 8: Implementation 52 Three-Dimensional Design 55 Two-Dimensional Design 57

Chapter 9: Evaluation 59

Chapter 10: Sumnary 62

List of References 66

Bibliography 70

7 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Circular System Design Approach 15

Figure 2. Linear System Design Approach 16

Figure 3. Branching System Design Approach 16

Figure 4. Constant Feedback System Design Approach 17

Figure 5. General Algorithm Path 19

vi CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Industrial designencompasses the fields ofproducts and product systems; interior space, thedevelopment of

interior environments forhumanactivity; andgraphics, the translationof±deas and concepts into visualmes- sages. Today's industrial designerrepeatedly has been

. promised, warned, threatened and prophesiedto about the

effects high-tech electronicswill have onthe fieldof industrial design. To date, most are speculationson the

impact of change the designerwill experience. Initial investment in the equipment,changing advancements inthe electronics hardwaremarket and lack of softwarecreated specifically forindustrial designers' needs, haveham- pered a faster acceptanceof the computer as anecessary part of the design industry.

As prices of hardware andsoftware decrease and users

demand more efficientsoftware, the integration ofcom- puter technology and industrialdesign is fastapproach- ing. The effects it will have on the traditionaldesign process are only spemation, but itcertainlywill have an effect. Mostdesigners have felt the introductionof technology in some way in their field.

9 2

Viewing the computeras a tool that only mimics trad- itionalpractices of the designerresults in the computer

and its software being modeledafter existingtools. The limitationsof the traditional tools alsobecomes part of the system. The system is justa faster tool.

Though the computer inherently increases 'speed, it

doesnot assure quality. That is a characteristic ofthe

product thedesigners alonecanbring. Computers in designshouldnotbe looked at as justa way to produce

the same products quickly, butas a way to gainmore insight into.whatare the needs of the individualor group being designed for, howcan they can best beserved ahd does the product reflect theseneeds.

To ease the adjustment to theuse of technology it is important tode-emphasize the technologyand concentrate on developing newtechniquesandstrategies indesign methodology. [1]

Unique features of the technologymake it more than a tool to mimic the traditional tools ofthe designer. Tho- mas Linehan of The Ohio State UniversityComputer Graphics

Research Groupidentifies three of these uniquefeatures as concreteconcepts of computergraphics: The (-.3n- materialnature of the medium, the digital descriptionof the image and tha algorithmic requirements for manipula-

10 3

tionof the image. All ofthese require additional knowledge and new skills for the designer. [2]Thephysi- :al laws of nature donot exist in thisnew technology.

Computer graphics is thefirst field to mergea quan- titative descriptionand a qualitativedescription in

order to create a numericdescription for aestheticquali- ties. Thisjunction is termed a display algorithm, in which each process describes the other andcan be used to

reconstruct the other. [3]Algorithms must be developedto create new forms. The computer becomesmore than atool, it is a resource.

Crucial decisionsthataffectthe successor failure ofan entire product lineare often made during the earlieststages of the designprocess. It is at this fragile, creativestage - when an idea may be nomore than a seriesofimpressions in a designer's mind- where the impact of comput- er graphics andcomputer animationhasyet to reach its full potential. from the earliestmo- ment of conceptualization.[4]

Design professionalsand studentsmust realizethe assets afforded by thisnew technology. Computerscan offer designers more in-depthand complete designs. com- puter graphics have providedthedesigner with anew medium and environment inwhich to create. Designers are offerednewcreative avenuesthrougha technology not bound by the laws of nature.

11 4

This paper will provide a brief history of bothcom- putergraphics andindustrial design. The traditional design process, as practiced by industrialdesigners, will be discussed and each step will be examinedand related to the possible applications of computers andcomputer graph- ics intheprocess. This is not toserve as a survey of equipment but rather a look atapplications of computer technology to the industrial design field and howtechnol- ogy can transform the way the traditionalprocess isper- formed.

As of this time, the availablecomputersystemsdo notprovide the proper tools toaccomplish the specific tasks of an induttrial designer. There are many bits and pieces of softwarethat can be usedas tools in certain parts of the process.

"Computer graphics workstations have been technology-driven: thetool came first and then the manufacturers looked forways it couldbe used." [5]

It is important that the technology matures intoa viable tool and creativeresource for the designer.

12 CHAPTER 2

COMPUTER GRAPHICS HISTORY/APPLICATIONS

"Computer graphics, is theuseof computers to provide pibtorial representationsof information. Computer graphics expands the possibilities of graphiccommunication by combining thepower of computers to rapidly store, retrieve,andprocess vastamounts ofinformation with display output devices." [6]

The science of computer graphics isa two-sided vision - a high-tech science whichcan imitate the laws of physics on

the basis of mathematical models, anda practical tool for the creation of educationalor entertaining images.

During the 1950's, computerswere used almost exclusivelyto perform complex arithmetic functions. The use of computers as an interactivegraphic tool canbe tracedtothe 1960's in a thesis published by Ivan E.

Sutherland in completion of his Ph.D. fromMassachusetts Instituteof Technology. [7] Entitled, "Sketchpad:A Man-

Mal hine Graphical Communication System," thispaper a presented programcalled "Sketchpad" which allowed the user to enter data into the computer andsee theresults ontne- -cathoderay- tUbe (CRT). The almost immediate display of the data makes itone ofthe earliesttruly interactive systems. In addition to Sutherland'sresearch, other scientific groups such as GeneralMotors, Lockheed

5 13 6

Aircraftand BellTelephone Laboratories began research projects in interactive computer graphics.

With the evolutionof graphics on computers came interest fromsome fine artists to create art with this new medium. But the artist found itdifficult to obtain access tothe machineswithout a tie to the scientific community. Soon collaborations between artistsand scien- tistsproducedfilms and still art. At the Ohio State University, Professor of Art Charles Csuriand programmer

JamesShaffer collaborated on some of the first piecesof figurative computer graphics having purelyartistic pur- poses. [8] Csuri and Shaffer used the computerto aid in pictorial modification. One of the first computer graphic artshows to incorporate interactive vector displaysvas organized by Charles Csuri at The OhioState University in 1970. [9]

With the '70s came the development ofComputerAided

Design (CAD) andComputer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) developed for industrial applications. CAD/CAM broke into threemajor areas of application: electronics design, the designofprintedcircuitboards; mechanical design, involvingthree-dimensionalmodeling; and architecture, engineering andconstruction (A-E-C), representing the creationof architectural plans, engineering drawings and mapping.

14 For the artist and designercame paintboxes which use softwareprogramsto simulate "paint" on thescreen with differentbrushes, colors and textures. The user interactswith a cursoror "mouse" that takes on the

characteristics of a particularrenderingtechnique. An artist can simulate an airbrush, draw with linesor esta- blished patterns, fill largeareas with color or patterns, andcreate and use pen tips. Software has been developed

for specific applications in designtasks, such as print- ing, layouts, typesetting interface, diagramming,most of which are in pagination software.This software is used by graphicdesignersto cut and paste, retouch and resize photographs and lay out type. Most of thesoftware has beendesignedtoimitatethe same tasks that a graphic designer usually practices.

Package design is anotherarea in which thecomputer hasbeen applied. Designers have simulated the construc- tion and graphics ofa package on the computerwithout ever buildingan actual physical model. Constraints such as volume, shape and graphi:s can be incorporated intothe computer so the designer can design, create and previsual- ize a prospective product that accuratelymeets the prere- quisites of the design.

Computer graphics enable architects an opportunityto "walk" around and into a building. Data for architectural

15 8

drawings is input into thecomputer, allowing the animator to 'manipulateand create a structure according to the desired design, color, material,and location.

"Computers enable us to takea 50-story building and position it against a realisticskyline. Be- fore the ground is even broken,we are able to see thebuilding through the eyes ofa passing pedes- trian, a neighboringtenantor a bird passing overhead." [10]

Production of computer-generatedmedical imageryhas captured internationalattention. Studies have shown the medical arena accounts fora large percentage ofmarkets in th's computer graphics industry.Currently, medical ani- mation exploresthe relationships of and interactions among organs, tissues and cellular componentsnot possible throughcurrentvisual methods. Other data portrays detailed processesofthe body such as the heart cycle, respiration, blood flow, and transmission of nerve impulses. Applications include commercialuse, as well as patient, medical support staff andphysician education and training.

Animation of two- and three-dimensionaldata has pro- videdtheentertainment field with a new medium for advertising and promotion where conceptsare not boundby thelaws of physics and nature. Utilization of computer- generated animation has become a trend forthetelevision

16 9

broadcasting industry in particular.Computerized graphics are visible on international networkcampaigns, sports and news promotions, independentstations worldwide, promo- tions for major corporationsand 30-second televisioncom- mercials. Some of the top production companieshaye capi- talized on their designexpertise to pushthe limits of commercial graphics. They create surrealistic animations by combining state-of-the-artsoftware with design talent.

Computers areprofoundly influencingdesigners of today, all fields ofdesign have been t.mched by their application. As the integration ofthelatestcomputer technologyand the competitive market ofcomputer graphic work stations evolves, designerswill face one of the big- gestchanges to their fields since theIndustrial Revolu- tion. CHAPTER 3

INDUSTRIAL DESIGN HISTORY/APPLICATIONS

Design is the visual language ofcommunication. The essence of gooddesign is to communicatea better, more

efficient solution to aproblem. Themanner inwhich designers applythe elements of design, including form,

line, color, texture and material,makes statements about their culture. In turn, the available methodsof produc- tion effect this design style.

More than one hundred years before thecomputer revo- lution, industrial design experienceda revolution of its*

own. Prior to the 1830's, designwas a handcrafttech- niquepracticedby craftsmen who had the abilityto draw or create with their hands. Thesecraftsmenphysically created the products used by the communitiesin which they existed. With the beginning ofthe industrial revolution, handcrafttechniquesweregradually replaced by automa- tion. This time period became known to designers as the "industrial age of design." [11] The industrialization and mass production caused a decrease in the number of skilledcraftsmen. Machines outtsroduced and out-priced the workers. The factory system changedthe quality of life andthe environment. New manufacturing techniques

18 11

were met with both acceptance andrejection by thedesign community. Machine-produced and machine-inspiredproducts presented a threat to the social, ethicalandaesthetic values of many designers, while itchallenged the imagina-

tion of others. Acceptance and rejection of the thenew processwasexpressed through form, function,color, and materials. Those rejecting automationproduced worksthat expressed ornamentation, biomorphic shapes, nature-

related colors andmaterials. Geometric forms and func- tionaldesigns, machine-based materialsand primary color

applications came from designerswho meshed the nawpro- duction technologies with theirdesign style.

The designer was paid bymanufacturers to specify the standards of an object that was to bemade in large quan-

tities of identicalgroups. The designer no longerknew theuserhe wasdesigning for, and the producerwas an unknown also.

"Designing for a mass audiencerequired a large number of compromises to be made inorder to reach the level of average acceptability."[12]

With the new manufacturingprocess, no longer did one personcontrolproductionfrom the drawing board to the finished product and designbecame dictated bythe effi- cientuse of new technology. [13] From thisnew trend in designemergedstudies inthedesign process that

19 12

incorporated a structurally-definedthoughtprocess. Design would now rncompassa structured thoughtprocess forproblemsolving. Designerswould be relied upon to understand the present manufacturingcapabilitis while designing for future trends.

With the introduction ofcomputers as a designtool, theexpansionofdeSign alternatives wasa result. Time

savings is a prime factor in theacceptance of newtech- nology, butit should not be the onlyfactor. Computers in production allow fora wide varietyof individuality withoutexcessive economic hardship. Changes can be made

to the computer data bases accordingtothe individual.

Inturn, the computer guides the machineryin production. In effect, the new technologycan offer the individualized workthatwas abandoned with the Industrial Revolution.

And even though there is nostalgic joyfor old ways, those

ways would undoubtedly lead to unmitigatedfrustration.

"This design/production process offers the designera chance to design for the user ina way that has not been possible withmassproduction." [14]

In order for the computer to assistthe designer in a user specialized way, the computer must providea way to organ- ize and analyze the information thatwill lead to intelli- gent solutions. Software that is applicableto the design process is on the market now. But, software to assist the

20 13 user in the analytical aspectsof the process is still in development. CHAPTER 4

THE DESIGN PROCESS

The design process frees thedesigner fromconfusion presented bya problem by establishinga plan of travel.

It enables the designertoconcentrateon theseparate areas of development rather thanthe end product.

"The process of creativeproblem solving or DESIGN PROCESSdescribes a series ofevents, stages, phases or states ofenergy which must be experi- enced beforecompleting the entire journey. The design process isa round-trip whichcarries us throughdecisions, solutions, actionsand evalua- tions." [15]

The design process can beexecuted in awidevarietyof ways, eachofwhich maybe determined by the designer and/or the problem. Though the process isstructured, it is not binding.

In its basic form the designprocess involves: 1. PROBLEM ACCEPTANCE

2. PROBLEM ANALYSIS andDEFINITION 3. IDEATION

4. SELECTION OF SOLUTION(S)

5. IMPLEMENTATION OF SOLUTION(S) 6. EVALUATION OF SOLUTION(S) 15

The process structures the attackof a problem for the designer. Some of the numerous "attack"approaches to

the design process can be circular,linear, branchiv and constant feedback systems.

Figure 1.

Circular System DesignApproach(16]

Figure 1 representsa circular system, which is an exampleof a spiralingprocess, meaning there is con- tinuity but without a beginningand end. The designer can proceed through each stepmore than once by completing the pathandrepeatingthe stepswith a more thorough knowledge of the problem anda more focused scope. Just as a carpenter :uts the basic shape foran objectandthen hones the shape by retracing the path withthe tools.

23 16

silt=114CE!'22!.jton IdeateINA seLissimamvlemersiosevaluate

Figure 2.

Linear System DesignApproach[17]

Figure 2 representsa linear system which follows straight path from beginningto end.

ricieate eevaluatel >LseiectjzoOmplement) 4:1efine) itre-analysi

'tlefinej ideate))"4(ideate))

Figure 3.

Branching System DesignApproach[18]

Figure 3 representsa branching system whichallows decisions to determinemore than one direct_TAI anda solu- tion is achieved througha many-branched excursion.

24 17 rIcalt.1

Figure 4.

Constant Feedback System DesignApproach[19]

Figure 4 representsa constant feedback system which achieves forward progress by constantbackward looping to re-evaluate decisions. [20]After completion ofthepro- cess, the chosen solution(s)may be re-evaluated, refined and assessed as to the solutions' fulfillment of the problem's criteria. Additional stagesofrefinement, implementation and re-evaluationmay be used in completing the process. This outcome determines ifthe designer will return to previous eventsor acceptthe final solution. Even a returnto previous events is not thesame as the first trip through theprocess, as events arenowviewed differentlybecauseof insight gained along theprocess.

It is a spiraling process of ingredients formulating a product.

25 18

Although manydesignproblemshave idiosyncratic

features, thereare common methods of problem Jolvingto all. Common pathways or events provide a structure for the designer in solvinga problem.

Just as in the designprocess, theessence of good problemsolving with a computerregui:es a systematic

approach. The computer, as does the designer, follows a pathtoproducea solution. A computer operates using

algcaolthms as theprocess for specific problemsolving. Analgorithm is a procedure for solvinga specific prob-

lem, expressed as a finitenumber of rules, which is com- plete, unambiguous and guaranteedto terminate in a finite number of applications of these ru/es.[21] The algorithm is a set of conditionalstatements which are determined to be true or false accordingto established criteria. With a "TRUE," the computer continuesalong the specified path.

When the switch isa "FALSE," the computer eithercan take an alternatepathorreturn to the point from which it came.

26 19

Figure 5 General Algorithm Path[22]

Figure 5 representsa general algorithm path usedby thecomputertoanalyze steps and returnan ahswer to a problem. The diagram indicates thatthe process is one of forwardprogress andre-evaluation, whichcan either return to a loop or progress. The diagramresemblesthe qualitiesof the constant feedback system inFigure 4. A computer program progresses byanalyzingthe solution according toestablishedcriteria, just as a designer analyzes a solution in the designprocess. Along with the commonstructural techniques in theprocess, for both the computer and the designer. are twomajor&ifferences in problem solving.

The computer is not limited to linear operations, it can implement several operations at once which mayor may not be dependentupononeanother. Thistechnique called

27 20

"parallelprocessing"breaks aproblem into pieces and works on several pieces at'once, much like the human brain works. Thecomputercan help to go wider and deeper in

the exploration of a problem and become not justa problem solver but a problem finder. Through analysis, itcan even help to determine if we are indeed solving the right prob-

lem. Computergraphicsbecomes a mixture of concept (numeric description) and precept (iconicdescription).

[23]

The numerIc description nolonger just accounts for the location of an object in space or position on a relative color scale. Thereareprecedents for these. The descriptionaccounts for myriad qualitative aspects of theobjector scene. It consists of amode of display (vector-raster), surface description (polygonal, patches, parti- cles), light-space (world, screen, object, ob- server), surface properties (degree of transparen- cy, shininess, reflection, refraction), and dynam- ics of motion (path, direction, speed, interval, or duration). [24]

Computer programs can be apredictable systematicworld but theycanalso assist the designer in the freedom to

exercise, merge and assimilate. Thisunpredictable, non- linear form of creativity used by the designer isone that is uniquely human.

Computers have the ability to sift through confusing cri- teria, organize goals, recall and handle more information than the human mind can register.

28 21

The method in which a computer is programmed tosolve a problem and that which the designer solvesa problem are analogous. The designer's nearly innateprocess of problem solvingserves as a higher understanding of programming theories. Designers will still find itnecessary to study basicprogrammingto increase their understanding of the technology and to make themmore effective users. The structuraltraining in design education and the implemen- tation of the process in the work place givesa designer a unique insight intothebasic logic of the process in which the computer is programmed to respond.

"A computer does not directly assistyou in organ- izing yourthoughts or inventing a solution pro- cedure. You must have your procedure inhandand thecomputer merely manipulates numbersor infor- mation according to your prescription. Ifyour solution procedure is wrong; thecomputer's output will be wrong. This is whyyou must master the art of problem solving if you hope touse the computer effectively." [25]

It is this structural aspect of theprocess that makes the computer an adaptable addition for the design field.

The quality of interaction between the design andthe technology is based on the structure and implementationof the the software. Asoftwareprogram's limitations and idiosyncracieswil be reflected in the work produced on each particular system. Much akin tothe factthat the execution of a product will reflect the abilities of its

29 22 manufacturer, "tools and materialwe use in the execution of work effect the emerging formto a significant degree." (26]

"If designers wish to interfacewithcomputers, thqty must firstunderstandthe basic logic and formulas. Only then will they be freed fromthe limitations of packaged programs and be ableto create within the parameters of thesystem." [27]

30 PROBLEM ANALYSIS and DEFINITION

Acceptance of a design problem isan acknowledgement that aproblem exists and a recognitionthat the problem

is created by a human need. A problemmust be acceptedto begintheprocess of design. In ihis step, the designer

says yes or no to the study of a problem and th formula- tion of a solution.

Upon acceptance, thenext step is analyzing and definingtheproblem. Defining a problem calls for the designer to establish the main issues andgoals concerning the problem. Pertinent questions about these main issues and goals are answered through analysis,such as Whydoes theproblem exist? What are the effects of theprob'Lem on its environment? Whom does iteffect? The industrial designer must meetthe manufacturer's goals, production capabilities, material properties, andthe consumer's needs and understand the relationships between all ofthe factors.

The definition and analysis stepsworktogetherto direct thedesignerto the essence of the problem. The designer, through research, interfaceswiththeneeds, criteriaand limits a problem presents. Researching helps

23 31 24

the designer gather or disregarddata according toper- tinentinformation as specified bythe problem and allows the designer to predict andcontrol the consequences of a design decision.

A graphic designer who accepts theproblem of design- ing signage foranairport terminal, for example, must analyze the needs of the public it willeffect. Thepre- establisheddesignof theenvironment in which it will exist, the information content of thesignage and the monetary budget the client wants to investare all factors which will influence the outcameof thedesign solution. This information, examined and studiedat this early step of the process, enables the designerto make more intelli- gentandefficientdecisions in the later stages ofthe process. These articles of informationare the "facts" on which design decisionsare based. Although the "facts" are never absolute certainties, they are statements ofproba- bilities given certain situations.

Charles Owen at theInstitute of Design, Illinois Instituteof Technology, has designed computer programs that break a complicated problem intoseparate elements. This breakdown helps the designer focuson the basic ele- ments such as costs, style, environment,and usage. These informational factors, examined separately, helpdesigners to not be overwhelmed by the scope of the wholeproblem.

32 25

Afterexaminingthese separate elements, the information

gathered can be applied and structuredto the design solu- tion. For example, when describing the lookof a automo- bile, one describes partsor aspects of the product rather

thanthewhole. Descriptions of the body shape,surface

treatment and mechanical conceptareallparts ofthe whole. Even these parts may be toobroad and may be better

described, visualized and understoodas yet smallerparts ofthe whole. All of theseaspectscome together to describe a whole, complex product.

AlfredKemper, wrotean article called "Smart Software intheA-E-C Industry", for the Journalof the Assoc iation for Computers in Design.[28] Thedesigner's job, he says, "is to gather information(c4ents, needs),

assemble the proper information (technical, codes) and communicate a solution (the design)." He feels Computer

Aided Design (CAD) should"simulatethisprocess". He stresses the need for "smart software",software that does not complicate the designprocess and does provide useful information to the user.

"The purpose of usingCAD is to make vital infor- mationavailable atan earlier stage in design, enabling the designerto make betterdecisions, i.e., to analyze a design or simulate various solutions." [29]

33 26

Many designers have suggestedthe use of computersas "smartapprentices," as machinesprogrammed to assist the

designer by addingnew insightinto a designproblem. These "smart apprentices" wouldprovide a means of organi-

zation of information, randommanipulationof forms or rule-basedevaluations. The role the computer isto form

in the designprocess is what determines the directionthe

programs or algorithms follow. Thisdirection is largelya

result of the programmers'and designers' personal atti- tude and values. [30]Whether or not theprogrammer is the

designer, designers willfind themselves ina positionto specifythe goals of software andtherefore influence the tool. In this respect, itmaybecomedifficult for a designer toutilize tools generatedaccording to another designer's values. Therefore it is necessarythat a designeridentifyand communicate personalattitudes and values through theprogram.

Information Banks

The computer can be used inthe gathering and reor- ganizingofuseful information fora design problem. It has the capability of organizing,categorizing and summar- izing information faster thanany-'hadan:-CdEputers process information in microseconds.The computer must be fedthe set of rules (algorithm) for itto organize data.

34 27

Computer-assisted searches areoneway in which a computercan gather and organize information. At present,

many academic and public libraries offer this serviceto theirpatrons. These institutions usually maka available

bibliographicalsearches whichusekeywordssuch as titles, subjects and authors in locatingsources of infor- mation on various subjects.

Similarly, a computer informationnetwork dedicated to design information could bedeveloped. The vital infor-

mation needed by designers includes references topast design problems and solutions. For example, when design-

ing the package foraketchupbottle a designermight reference companies that alsomanufacture ketchup.-Market-

ing studies may be availableon what agegroups arethe

target audiencefor the product and the type ofgraphics that appeal to that audience.The designer would find use- ful references as being any historicalreferences to pack- aging types traditionally used bythe client, the client's competitors, and the companies the clientmay wish to com- pete with. Production techniques, suchas printing, point of sale information, and other criteriawould be most use- ful.

A source of data or information banksmade available to the designer on a system would providea more efficient andextensiveresearch phase. Vendors and industrial

35 28

designers couldcompilereferencematerials helpful in

researching the backgroundof related projects and stored as a common data bank to be accessedby all system users.

This pool of informationcan be storedand addedto as projectsare undertaken. This gathering mightrange from in-house to nationwidereference spots into which all this information is collected and made availableto users who can connect through phone lines.

University design departmentscould compile theirown informationbankswhichcould contain past andproposed lesson plans for annual designprojects. Records of the lesson workedin terms of studentproductions could also be recorded.

Visual Banks

Visuals of the paststudent work could be recorded in order forbothinstructors and students toanalyze past solutions. That same designer of theketchup bottle might be interested in seeing pictorialrepresentations of the competitors' bottlesor of bottles used by the client for past production. Examples of labels, typography,and bot- tle shapes explored for theproductprovide a valuable insight into the creativeprocess of a particular designer. Being able to view how thecompetition labels its productand seeing what other containersthe product

36 29

will share the shelf withinagrocerystorewouldbe helpful. This information couldbe available, not only in the written form but inthe visual form.

Visual images couldprovideadditional information and in many cases better illustratean abstract concept. The images could illustratecolor and shape studies previ-

ously recorded by anotherdesigner when tacklinga related problem. The ability to callup a black-and-white label and addcolorsaccordingto the user's own aesthetics, then to compare that colorapplicationto the original color would providean experimental environment forthe designer.

Although high-resolution graphics, (600 line), are available, they wouldprobablybe impractical in the research phase and, at thistime, too expensive formost users' systems. A lower-resolution image (300 lines or less) of past, related solutionswould be adequate in most cases. Resolutionreferstothe number of perceivable black lines over a white field. Images could be available on slides, pen-plotted drawings,print, film laserdiscor videodisc dependingon the capabilities of the usersys- tem.

Networking software would benecessary whenconnect- ingmulti-system banks. Software allowsone system's code

37 3 0

and data to be readable byother systems. In that respect,.

it cansupport more than one operatingsystem. Although

much refining isnecessary in the existingnetwork sys- tems, transmittingdatato other sites and to the field

can greatly facilitate the designand production cycles. Theproblemofsoftware/machinecompatibilitybecomes especially crucial forfree-lancers who use many different

systems. Other types of useful informationcould provide

standards, costs, processesand availability ofmaterials to thedesigner. This information might bearranged in

much the same way a libraryorganizes its collectionsuch as DeweyDecimal, Library of Congress (LC) , or by sub- ject, style, author, date.

Data Gathering

While research is usedto study data and establish new facts, data gathering serves to gatherand organized known facts. Computers can be used to monitorandgather data aboutan environment and its users and in compiling

information on human factors. The abilities toperform repetitious and objective tasksmake the computer theper- fect device togatherthis data. Monitoringdevices, installed at a study site can gather environmentaldata like temperature range, naturallighting over time, humi- dityandaircurrents. Theuserdatagathered could include tallies such as the numberof users, average

38 3 1

height of theusers and noise levels withinthe studied environment. Through analysis, all ofthis databecomes informationthat is useful to designers establishinga working knowledge of theirusers. This informationmay be applied in design according tothe specifications ofthe problem. The designr ofa beer bottle might bedeciding on whetherto use a clearor dark glass for the bottle.

Temperature absorption propertiesof theglass andthe recordedrangeof variance in temperaturethat a bottle experiences from its inceptiontothe store shelf are types of data that will be useful to the designerin deci- sion making. This isinformation that thedesigner would use in making a more intelligent decision of selectingthe materials for themanufacturing of the bottle.

Information Hierarchy

For the designer, there isstill the need to organize the data into ameaningfulhierarchy according to the problem. Based on stated and inputcriteria, thesystem would have the abilityto organize data accordingto which

information would be mostuseful to each specificproblem.

A designer may decide,from answering the analysisques- tions, that in thisparticularprojecthuman factors

informationtakes a 'higher priority than informationon production materials. Through a program, the designer wouldspecifythehierarchy and the program wouldorder 32 the information according tothe highest priority.

The designer may have sub-headingsunderhuman fac- torsthathave a hierarchical valuealso. The human fac- tors heading could include studiesin typeface legibility, averagereading height studies andbackground/foreground treatment of type, all of whichwould be ordered according tothedesigner'sspecified preference. In educational settings, the instructormay pre-programa lessonwhich calls for students to order informationa=ording to their perceived priority and theprogram will cross checkwith the instructor'sspecified hierarchy. The program could then provide the student witha comparison and explanation ofthe wayeachstep is ordered and thereason for the ordering. All of this information willbeapplicable as thedesigner begins to formalizeconcepts with the idea- tion stage. CHAPTER 6

IDEATION

Ideation searches for all theways of getting to the majorgoalsandalternatives stated in the analysis and

definition stage. Ideas begin to flow toward an expres-

b5.on of design to fulfill the criteria establishedin the preoeding stage. In the traditionalprocess, thedesigner begins with quick sketchesor "thumbnails" to record the

ideas of form. The drawings flow in varieddirections as offshoots of previous sketches or ideas. Scale models, rearranging of typeandpictorial representationsare other forms thatbegin totake shape. The cycles of modification and remodification areones thatwill be workedon before the form becomes a whole which satisfies its criteria.

The introduction of computers andcomputergraohics intothe ideation stage allows designers to change their minds and compare alternatives with greater freedom than everbefore. Designers question and experiment in larger degrees, because change and feedback (input and output) are more spontaneous. Building fhysical models and rebuilding them as modifications and changes in concepts occurredwas thedesigner's task. The computer has the

33 41 3 4

ability to store the originaldata in thememoryof the machine, to becalledup and modified at any time.The results of the modificationscanbe instantaneous or slower, but donotcompare with time spent rebuilding

models. Computey:s can be handedthe burden of the "tradi- tional skills," like model building,drafting, and typog- raphy speccing, allowingthe designer to focuson the pro- cess rather than the skill. The designer concentrateson the process of variationand alternate comparison.

The possible implementationof "artificial intelli- gence," would providethecomputer with a bankof knowledge about a designapproach. The bank ofknowledge would belikea set of instructions. These instructions could even be personalized to a particularuser's.process. The instructions would berun to investigate alternatives to solutions for the designer.

you can give it (the computer) instructions abouthowto do things, about investigatingcer- tain ideas, whileyou're gettingon withother thingsand then the computercomes back later and says, thin is what I'mthinking about, this is what you asked me to do."[31]

A study conductedat CarnegieMellonUniversity's (CMU) IndustrialDesignDepartmentestimated that most designers spend thirty-fivepercent of theirdesigntime inthe ideation phase. [32] Thisstage of the design pro-

42 35

cess can be most drastically effectedby the use of com- puters in the industry.

Data Generation

Karen Graham's conclusions inthe CMU study, supports what many designers haveexperienced: that the most time- consuming aspect of usinga computer in the ideation stage

is the initial data generation.Generation of data refers

to the way in which theuser inputs drawingsorobjects

ontothe screen. The computer data input is not yetas

quick or fluid inresponse as a pencil is to paperfor Somedesigners. TheGraham Study dataindicated that "manual subjectsengaged .inmoreinteractiveproblem- solvingstrategies, and their work productswere of much higher quality andmore complete". Major complairits were thetime and difficulty at inputtingdata and visualizing three-dimensionality.

Data is the informational structurewhich is input into the computer. Datacan be manipulated by the tools a

system and its programmer provide.The tools aresoftware andhardware. Software drives hardriare, meaning software

is the programming that thehardwareneeds to function. Software ta a set of instructions thatinterpret functions such as color, input and display of objects, perspective, lighting, and surface attributes. The display of thedata

43 3 6

can ba represented as two- orthree-dimensionaldrawings invectororraster. Vectoris a composition of lines

representingthe connectivitybetweenpointsandthe representation ofpolygon structure of the data.Raster

refers to the solid.shadingof thepolygonal surfaces. Thistechniquethough more complex and expensive ismore realistic than others.

Data input requires the positioning of X,Ycoordi- nates that define the horizontal and verticallocation of

a point in space, and the Z coordinate whichprovidesthe third dimension.

Somesystemsprovidetheuser with pre-defined geometricshapesthatcan be modified. The ability to sketch in two and three dimensions whileproviding rela- tivelyeasyinteractionforthe designer is necessary.

. The system must have the ability torespond to the altera- tionswithspeed thatdoesnot inhibit the designer's

ideation flow. Tdeationon the computer ismet withthe

difficulty and time expense of inputtingdata.

Just as a designer learns to use the traditionaltriangle andt-square, thedesigner must learn to use a computer system. There is always a learning curve naw user must experiencebeforethe tool and designer become effective

partners. This practical experience will help toease the

44 3 7 flow of creativity. Unforttlnately,there are many systems and software packageson the market now, making itvirtu- ally impossibleto know each set of proceduresfor every different system. However, mostconcepts in makingdata remainthe same. For instance, before constructinga 3- dimensional object, the designermust decide which isthe best methodto use. It is not simply "drawn" in3 dimen- sions as one would witha pencil and paper, but instead, constructed. The user must think out theprocess software uses to make data before users try to makedata. Inthis sense, it becomes necessary for the designerto understand the basic structure ofthesoftwareandtool in use.

There aremanydatagenerationtechniquesthatwere developedfromengineering applications of computer assisteddesign (CAD): straight projections, in whicha two-dimensional outline is projectedto a specified depth; solids of revolution, in which a profile or profiles is input and r 'olved around a two-dimensional pathto create a 3-d str vure; spacepaths interpolations, two- or three-dimersional sets of connected pointsjoined together at specifiedpoints andplaces in space; and a 3- diaensional digitizer in whicha pen is usedto locate pc*ntson a model aAd record them as a data base in the computer,

45 38

Most CAD systems are designed foruse by engineers in the automotive andaerospace industries. most of these

systems have been tailored to performengineering tasks. Thesetasks include system queries for specific engineer-

ing details during the conceptualdesignprocess, which tendtodisruptthe creativeflowof the industrial

designer. [33] The designer needs to havea specifically- designedpackage that borrows the relevant tools of these

CAD systems combined with the specialized softwarefor the design process of the designer.

"The system and especially its mathematicalbasis should beusableby people such as designers, stylists, production engineers, machine-tool operators. Theyshould 'notneed a knowledge of mathematics beyond that typical oftheirprofes- sion, which is mainly geometric. Thesystem should rely on instinct rather thanpure science." [34]

A more systematic and visionary track must be esta- blishedsincethesequence of decisions in the problem- solving affect in what way the solution is "constructed" in the computer.

Data generation techniques are beingdevelopedwith the implementation ofscanners and digitizers that make data generatJvm a less time-consuming activity. Graphic designhaswitnessed the implementation of scanners that can take the video input of an image and allow the user to

4 6 39

paint on it, cut and paste withit and change its size and

orientation. Some systems providea databaseof point, line formsof typefaces whichcan also be manipulated in much the same manner. Allof the images can besaved and recalledfor further manipulation or output. Thestoring of this data for furtherreference or application to other problems provides users witha base for a data library.

Tools of the Designer

In this stage, thedesignerneedstheability to transform, translate, and modify in perspective,ortho- graphic and isometric views. Systemscan provide these views and perspectivesas specified by the user. Once the data has been input, the oppc:tumitiestomodify, repli- cateandscale with ease gives the designermore options and exploration with-lilt suk--zantial increase indesign time. The increase in ceg.oL.aktionwill hopefully lead toa more efficiently-executed solution. Many toolsalready developed for other applicationscan be easily adapted to the designer's needs.

A designer's needs include optionsthat may be unique to this particular field butnecessary in order to provide the designer withproper tools In theworl1 ofthree- dimensionalgraphics spatial cues such as perspective, foreshorteningand convergenceproperties, and depth

47 40

queueingareanintegral part of a design system.Algo-

rithms that determine hidden lines in a structure also becomenecessary visualcues that must be included in a

graphics system. All of these propertiescan be invisible "givens" for the user, yet the user shouldhave the abil- ity to exercise controlover all of the properties.

User interaction with a systemcomes from the ability to distort, translate and warp points in real time. This means that the designer can interact directlywith a draw- ingonthe screen by pulling pointsor stretching select parts of an object. Visualizing withthesetools, and eliminating the need to physicallyredraw ideas or rebuild models, frees the designerto concentrateon ideation.

Creativity becomes less inhibited and more extensiveas the computer offers the-designertheabilityto create without restrictions. The computer providesdesign flexi- bility and encourages exploration.'

Simulation/Previsualization

Simulation in two and three dimensions givesthe com- puter useran advantage over the traditional methods of previsualization at this early stage ofthe process. The abilityto seeproducts, formulatesandnecessitates evaluationintegrated withideation. The traditional design processbegins to merge with the technology asa

48 43. tool.

Solid modeling is aprocessusedto simulate sur- faces, materials and colors in three dimensions.A raster graphics system can producemathematically-exact render- ings of a specified object. The object, havingthe pro- posed characteristics of its design,canbe renderedto simulatematerials such as metal, plasticand glass. The product can be tested for wear, stress andtemperature resistance, accordingto the known or researchedproper- tiesof aparticular material. Programscangather results of tests and analyze materialbased on pre-defined rules specified by the user. The package designer ofthe beer bottle is interestedin volume, shape and surface properties of the product. Thecomputer can beprogrammed tocreate variations on the bottle by progressivelyvary- ing the height and width whilekeepingthevolumecon- stant. Tests areconductedby enteringtemperature absorption properties oftheglass andsimulating the variance in temperature a bottle mightexperience from its inception to the store shelf. All of thisinformationwas gathered in the analysis stage. The designer, knowing the beer's properties, could determine whetherthe darkglass willserve to en...it out some of the heat created by light and how this heat might effect the product. Shownboth graphicallyandnumerically, theseanswers serve as a

4 9 42

basis for intelligentdecision making inthe implementa- tion stage.

A fundamental tool of the graphicdesigner is type. Digitaltypography includets thedesign and creation of type and typesetting. Just like a traditional typesetter, thecomputerconsiders leading, justification, letter spacing and kerning. It alsooffers datastorage, porta- bility and anti-aliasing. Each letteror symbol is stored as an outline of points or asa bitmap. Typography, as a 2-dimensionaldesignelement, can be designed, arranged and re-arranged to simulateproductgraphics. Computer technology gives theuser the ability to manipulate, dis- tort and interpolate between typefaCes,unlike traditional typesetting. The toolsoffertheuser the ability to create mock-ups of printed materials,to add color, size, texture, lighting andothereffects to simulate the environment in which the productgraphic will exist.

Despite overwhelming acceptance oftechnologically- advanced typographical systems, manydesigners still prefer hot metal or other techniquesto phototypography.

They feel thenew technologydoes not capturethe "sculpted quality" or gracefulnessof the metal character topaper. Yet for those whose jobs requiremass amounts of typography on short doadlines,'likedaily newspapers and weekly magazines, thetechnologyhas answered and

50 43

solved many deadline problems. For smaller graphic design

firms speccingtypeand having it printed in thetradi-

tional ways retains the aestheticqualities to the type. [35]

Indusirial designers' requirements for three- dimensionaldesigncapabilities can sometime basufficed with the tools of engineers.CADsystems canplay that role. But industrial designersencompass graphic designers also. Systems must produce renderingsof product concepts thatlook atreal as photographs. Systems specifically for graphic designers often providecomputer primitives suchas the arc, polygon, rectangle, circle,dot and the

line for manipulation. Shadesand patterns arealsopro- vided so theuser may "paint" with these on thescreen.

Conventional computer paintingsystems allow theuserto paintlines andshapes, fill shapes with colorand pat- terns and use a variety of brush nibs.Pixels, which are a quantum unit of an image, are assigned a color as the

"brush" passes over thatarea ofthe screenortablet. This techniquehas beenuseful in color correction and retouching of photographs scanned inon the system. The paint brush itself hasa look thatis_governed_by_thesys- tem.

Steve Strassmann, of Massacussetts Instituteof Tech- nology, recently presentedhisresearchin a two-

51 44

dimensional paint system. The brush stroke that he con- centrateson is the water color techniquesof traditional

Japanesepainters, called sumi-e,. This technique emphasizesthequalityof the painter's stroke anduses

shades of gray. The objects of the systemare thebrush, thestroke, thq dip and thepaper. The brush is an object composed of bristles. Each bristle has itsown ink supply

and position relative tothe brush handle. The stroke isa

two-dimensional path of pointsthat measures position and pressure of the brush to thepaper. The dip classifies the brush, one brush can achievea wide variety of strokes and

effects just by adjustingthe dip function. Thepaper is a

texture map laid over the compositionto simulatepaper's texture. Mr. Strassmann acknowledges theexisting systems but qualifieshisadvancesby theuser's ability to specify a more realistic model for painting andpainting surfacesby modeling thephysicalproperties of the materials. [36]

Multiple Direction

The traditional ideation stage ofdesignhas always been a choiceoflongand deep ideation vs. short and shallow ideation. The choice isusually based on time and money. Multiple directionin the ideation stage allows the designer to explore all seemingly validapproaches to a problem. These approaches may be divergent form ideas

52 45

or subtle formchanges. Whichever, all of theseare changes that take time to create andformalize. The time

constraints in the completionof a projectdictatethe timelineforall stages of theprocess for both students

and professionals. Deep,extensive ideation challengesthe designerto delve into varied, deep andcomplete solution

possibilities. Thetimeline ofcompletion would be extendedtoencompass the work involved and the monetary value of the project would increase. Performing onlythe amountof ideation that time andmoney dictate can result

in the loss of explorationinto all solutions. There will alwaysbe a time constrainton the design process, but it is most importantfor studentsand professionals to attempt to exhaust all validapproaches. With the addition of the computer to thetraditionaldesignprocess, the proportion of creativetimeto execution time changes.

The computer becomesan assistant intheexploration of ideas. Withtheuse of a computer, the combination ofa shorter and deeper ideation phaseexists.

Often design choicesare random, personal choices by thedesigner. Computers can mimicthese ways of choosing. Designers can use computers togenerate a series of random events which alter graphic output inunforeseen ways. %tan- domness within a program is controllable.The designer can control which aspects will be determinedby random events.

53 46

Controlling the range withthe random action is alsopos- sible. Computerscan make selections based onsome cri- teriaandcanselectwhiledeveloping, and develop selected options. For example, a designer mayenter several different elements intothe computer's memory and allowthecomputer to compose a compositionby randomly selecting, placing, layering andsizingthe elements.

This type of composition providesblind variations ofcom- positions. After viewing the "computercreations," the designer may determine thatone of the elements should be the foreground image with theothers inthebackground. Otherdecisions such as compositionformat, selective color ranges and size limitscan alsobe input. With selective retention, the computer performs the task of constructing more compositions. This process can beused in averyselective format or as a very loose yetcon- trolled form of experimentation. Computers, however, are only "simulating" the creative process. Like traditional ideation, the computercanmake stochasticchoicesby beginning with randomoccurrences, then continuing with the selection of useful occurrencesthrough a testing mechanism. Adesignerstarts with lots of random ideas then narrows down according to criteria. [37] Architects have usedsuchprograms in interior space applications.

The user has a certain set of furniture and specifiedroom space. The computer randomly makes different arrangements.

5 4 47

Not aesthetic arrangements, but solutionsthat eludedthe user.

Having usedthe traditionaldesignprocess, the designer findsthatthe traditional way of dealing with

complexity is to break it down into singleparts. This single, tentativesolutionallows the designer to focus

and evaluate the relationship of theparts tothewhole. The use of the computeras a helpful apprentice allows the

designer to deal with more complex problemsin a more ord-

erlyand visualfashion. The traditional ideationstage becomes a new stage in which theproportion of creative time canbecome a shortened yet more varied and highly explorative stage.

Repetition

In the educational setting, theuse of computers to instruct takesadvantage of themachine's ability to repeat a task over andoveragainwithout losingthe effectiveness and consistency with which it began. Apro- gram designed to instruct a student in the theory of con- trast is able to repeat the information and visuals. The program is also there to teach when a teacher is not available. Programsalso allow each student twork at a personally satisfyingrate of speed. One studentmay comprehenda lesson and advance to the next while another

55 48

student feels tne need to concentratelonger on the lesson hdfore advancing.

Brown Universityhas initiated a computer-based experimental classroom. Students sit at their own works-

tationswhich haveinteractive capabilities. Animated demonstrationsof what instructors aredoing on their

workstations are visibleon the students' screens. Moni- toredinstruction allowsthe instructor to observe stu-

dents as they perform. Interactive graphicsusedynamic motion to communicate abstractconcepts or generalize and explore problems. The computer- basedclassrooms have been appliedto several subjects, including colortheory which eliminates the manual and time-consumingtask of painting the colors andallows the student to concentrateon and experiment deeper into the theory ofthe lesson.

RayNicholsofTheUniversity of Delaware has developeda program which consists of lessons in avt fun- damentals. Nichols' programs encourage experimentationby users since visual presentations are not hindered by their level If basic technical skills. The computer isused to perform the bas:i.c drawing skills, leaving theuser free to conccntrata on the visual solution. Thisalso encourages the formation ofmore solutions, since it now becomes easier to eaangeand manipulate elementsratherthan starting the drawing process over.

56 49

The loss of "drawing skills"due to the influx of technologyis often a majorconcern to designers and edu- cators, some of whom feel theability to draw is themost basic trainingnecessaryfor a "good designer." Charles

Bigelow stated at the 1983 BroadcastDesigner's Confer- ence:

"Whetherornot we seethe loss of hand skills is irrelevant. It took great skill to make cuneiform tablets. This was thedominant writing system for almost3,000 years. And yet no- body makes cuneiform today. Artdirectorsand designerstodaydonot develop the same scribal skills that were inuse in the Middle Ages. We don't have the controlledhand to produce finely detailed texts for thepage of abook. Instead, wespec type. We allow Claude Garamondcr Matthew Carter or Hermann Zapf to puta tremendousamount of labor -- more labor thanwe could aver amass in out lives -- into the designof typefaces. Part ofthe skill of being a designer isbeing able to choose creatively. The same is true ofcomputer- format programs... aprogrammer and a designer can work together to produce typedesigns for comput- ers. Asthedesigner using typeon a computer, you are calling forth a tremendousamount of accu- mulatedexperienceand knowledge. Your job is to choose wisely." [38] CHAPTER 7

SELECTION

"Choosing wisely" is theessence of selection. As culturesbecome more and more complex, solutions become

more complex structures. Many goals and criteriamakeup

theneedsof a design problem. In the traditionalsense,

selection is the step at whicha designer must stop idea- tion and select one of theproposed solutions by-determin-

ing which best solves theproblem. Up to this stage, the designer may have spent as much as fifty percent of the

total design time in theresearchand ideationstages. Essentially, the selection is basedon the results of the definition, analysis and ideationstages.

In the traditional process, designersoftenpractice pre-selection, which involves various selectionsof solu-

tions for parts of the problem. Since the design process is structuredtobreak complex pzoblems into manageable components, the designer may work to solveeachcomponent and adapt this direction in solving theother components.

In most processes, designers beginto adapt ordiscard componentsthroughout the pr-=ess. From those attributes adapted, the designer will continue toelaborateon the solution. Pre-selection changes the focus fromone final,

50 58 51

formal selection and allows forvariationanda wider variety of choice testing.

Computer technology, introduced intc thetraditional process, allows pre-selection and selection tooccur more often throughout theprocess. Computers assistpre- selectionandselectionbycomputingknowns about the solution and comparing these withstandardsestablished throughtheanalysis stage. An algorithm may be used by the computer to select, based on numericalstandards such asvolume, weight or format. An algorithm, withthe help of artificial intelligence, may become partof an "expert system" in which the algorithm serves to gatherdata which will serve as an information bankon which to base selec- tion. This information could be the basison which a par- ticular designer chooses and evaluatesand this could be applied to the choice at hand, by thecomputer.

As standards and criteria are applied to thesolu- tions, these evaluations point the designer andthe "smart apprentice" toward the final selection. These choices will continue to be refined and selected for the finalform. CHAPTER 8

IMPLEMENTATION

In the traditional process, the implementationstage means thatthedesignerhas selected the "best solution," and will implement itas a final form. Implementationmeans givingphysical formto selected "best solutions." The designer in the traditional designprocess, usually makes detailed technical drawingsor layouts from which to build a mock-up of the solution for visualreference. A physical formforevaluationof the solution is usually builtat this stage. Implementation involvesmodel building, mock- ups, proofs and scale drawings for productionpurposes.

The implemented product isone that will be judged by superiors, teachers and clients andpeers, as to its ful- fillment of the needs of theuser. Criteria established in the initial stages of theprocess will be used to evaluate this implementation of a concept. Atthis stage, the designer mustbe very confident as to the outcome of the final product even though it hasnever been seen as a fin- ished piece.

Ideally, the design process is one that wouldallow formorethan one implementation and evaluation of solu- tion. In the traditional process, re-evaluationsmaycome

52 60 53 too late in the design timeline. The implementation stage experiences procedural changes withthe introduction of computers. The time efficiency afforded through theuse of the computer allows for the designertointeract and simultaneously visualize concepts or modifications to a concept. Implementation does not come as late in thepro- cess and occurs more often.

Prior to 1970, all ofProcterand Gamblers (P&G) packagedesign work was done through sketching,ren-ering model and engineering drawings andclayandhardshell models. Roland E. Johnson, in conjunction with ,e Univer- sity of Cincinnati Computer Centir, becameinvolved in a "parallelbottle design project" for P&G in which heused his traditional package design practicesand his interest in computer graphics.

His first step was to input 3-dimensionaldata for a bottle. Using two orthographic views, he approximatedthe form. With specially written algorithms from theUniver- sity of Cincinnati, he developed plottable outlinesof the x and y coordinates and used curvingprograms to smooth the outlines. From these he established front, top, side and perspective views of theprinciple outlines of ::.he bottle. Cross sectionsrepresented the volume and sur- face, thus the computer model could represent the bottle's linearareaand volumemeasurements. The surface area

61 54

could be used to determinea material's weight, using wall thickness 'anddensity. The bottle's internal capacity could be calculated by subtractingthe surface volume from the exterior volume.

The ability to generate theseanalytical properties represented a diversion from traditionalmethods.

"Conventional design procedures dependedon the designer'sexperience to target the bottle to the correct size. The first clay modelwas a rough guess, and may have been as muchas 50 percent off the targeted volume. The model wasmeasured by dunkingit into a tank of water andmeasuring the water's rise." [39]

Although the first computer bottlewasnot exact in volume, the majorimprovement wasthat the dimensions could be easily manipulated. The updateddimensions could be enteredand viewed as quickly as ten minutes.Manual methods took up to one month for drawing orredrawing a fully-detailed mechanical from which the new clay bottle would be built. This time savingsreduceddeliverytime for a design. In addition, the repetitivemanual manipula- tion required in the traditionalbottledevelopment was takenover by the Machine. P&G adopted the system and after modifications to programming, equipment technology and user friendliness, developeda resource that reflects its design philosophies and techniques.

62 55

Most of this development tookplace inthemid-70's and, withcurrent advances, P&Gsends computer models directly to millingdevices tomaintain continuity in design. They have also introduceda vector display device which allows for the designer to add, deleteor modify features and the screen is updated toshow the change.

"The computer has providedus with a focalpoint for designactivity. Itgivesusan infinite number of views that wecan represent andanalyze withaminimum effort. Changes are easy, and change is the name of thegame. We can putout variations and alterations andtest them. In short our computer model allows all the designersusing it new freedom for design exploration.Contrary to the fears of our early skeptics, designaesthetics have not been compromised. In fact,they have balan enhanced" [403

Three-Dimensional Design

Three-dimensional solutionsencompass many more types of simulation. The user may view a productor space from many angles, under different lighting conditionsand from different eyepoints. With these options, a designercan simulate an atmosphere in whichthegraphics are to be applied, or maybesubject to, and then evaluate the effects. The package designermay construct the container, place it at the different shelf heights that itwill be in the store and check the legibility ofthe type. The inte- riorspacedesigner may "design" the lobby ofan office building by constructing the data on thecomputer, and

63 56

thensimulatethe designed traffic patterns ofthe users within that environment. This animation allows theuser to travel around anarea. This effect is useful in testing

human factors in relation to the designsolution.

Debugging through previsualizationhelps human factor problemscometo light if the solutioncan be simulated

and "used" for the functions for which it is designed. Such previsualizationallows both designer and client to

anticipate problems thatmay arise withthe actualpro- duct. In this early stage, alterationscan be made before production begins.

The changemostdesired whenusingcomputers in industrialdesign is theability to work a high speeds

which encourages experimentationin the work. With this

capability, thedesigner would not have to settlefor a

solution basedontimeandhaveto compromise the aesthetic quality levels that couldhave been achieved.

In traditionalmodelbuilding and manufacturing, specifications for production were drawn by hand and then

transferred to the machine. The transfer of information _romdrawingr to models to final productcan result in a

loss of accuracy in the translations.',Itth the implementa- tion of computers intothe process, the information is

entered in digital form, from its firstconceptionwhere

64 57 it remains as anaccurate format that can be stored in memory, or on disk, and recalled forre-useor modifica- tion. [41] This process is also enhancedby the connection of the databases to the productionmachinery, asmilling machinescan be guided by the computer to replicatewhat was designed on the machine. Withtheuse of computer graphic capabilities, simulationof a solution comes as close to reality as 'visually possible.

Two-Dimensional Design

Many firms using computers in the industrialdesign fieldare applying them to word processing andtypography as links. The New York Times usesan IBM Standard Graphics

Syste.:, toprepare charts and graphs for theirnewspaper.

They estimate the computersaves sixtypercent ofthe drawingtimedue to the manipulation capabilities. Simi- larly, the computer would rieduce the timespent in creat- ing a final layout and increase theamount of time left to do re-evaluations and re-adjustmentsto the final.

Images from two-dimensional solutionscaneither be scanned inorcreated with the computer. Theease with which one can change scale, color, andthe arrangement of elements instantaneouslyallows the designer to test the solution decision and makethenecessary changes. The real-time saving factor is that the designer does nothave

65 58

to "redraw" any of the elementsas in the traditional pro-

cess. Thedesigner now uses thesame data from prelim-

inaries through implementationand calculatesat a high

resolution for printing or presentation. The final

rendering, or layout,can carry color, size, typography,

andprinting specifications. Thiscompleted artwork, still in digital form,can betransmitted via wire and satellite to printing plants equippedto accept the data.

Use of computers as design toolsforprintgraphics is still limited. They have beenconsidered successful in word processing and typesetting, formattingandpagina- tion, charts, graphsandmapping. Computer pixelation (jaggies) is an element whichtransfers toprint materi- als. High-resolution results are often too expensive to competewithconventional methods. Most affordable palettesars too crude to use. Typesetting with thecom- puter has been a successful implementationof the computer in the field of design.

66 CHAPTER 9

EVALUATION

Evaluation determines meaning,progress orvalue as it hasbeen derived from the entireprocess. Evaluation is a form of research thatserves as a feedback mechanism to factsestablishedthroughanalysis. Evaluation isa loop that occurs throughouteverystep intheprocess.

Similar to the research phase,the evaluation stageorgan- izes the data intoa meaningful hierarchy of knowledge to be usedas indicators in evaluation of designsolutions.

Good methodology usesa resource which will do thejob lessexpensivelyand more efficiently. Thecomputer can effect the process with both oftheseproperties asthe cost ofhardwareand software continues to dropand the specialization of design softwaregrows. Computerswould helptoprovide evaluation during thewhole process, not just upon completion of theprocess.

Computers in design, for themostpart, havebeen appliedto synthesizing imagery. But thecomputer, by its structure, possesses the abilityto rapidly gatherand analyze information. Though machinesal ne do not make quality design decisions,.those usingthem can more easily understand what should be designed to fitthe new context

59 67 60

of the information environment.

During this research phase,criteria formulation can dictatenotonly what research materialsare appropriate but in which direction thedesigner should focus the solu-

tidn. Thomas Linehanhas suggested the possibilitiesof

computer-assisted analysisofvisual preferences. This theory uses the computer tocollect and compare data based

on numerical descriptionti, [42] Fromthis theorymight branch thepossibility of establishingcriteria relative to the project and having itused in the feedbackprocess thatthedesigner follows. Judgementscouldbe made throughout the designprocess that would check back with the listofcriteria that determines ifthe path to the solution is going to fulfillthe needs of the problem.

Artificial intelligencemayonedayprovideusers withthe ability to have thecomputer program the aspects

of the project suchas needs, criteria, limits, and even aestheticjudgements based on design fundamentals. This

program would allow the computer to determine if any of theseaspectsarebeing violated or disregardedas the

process occurs. Thedesigner willmakedecisionsto disregard--ttreevatuarttentrfe=edffpater- provides,to change the computer's criteriaor to acceptthejudgementand proceed appropriately. The criteria that was established at the start of the processcan beusedthroughoutthis

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process tocheck back or receivefeedback from the com-

puter. The final decisioncan be made based onthe feed- backthecomputer provides or on the amountof cnAticism

the designer chooses to acceptfl..om the computer. With the computer, there-evaluation phasebecomes easy to

apply in every stageas the criteria base for theproject

may be used to generate responses to designdecisions.

This ability to have thecomputer handle the complex- ity of visual evaluation is farfrom being perfected. The most exciting aspectofmandesigning without machine interface, is evaluation by interactionbetween designers.

This exchange of ideas willprobably never be simulatedor thecomputer and it is one that designersshould continue to use to the fullest extent.

9 CHAPTER 1,7

SUMMARY

Before they commit themselves toany investment, many firms and independents have adapted wait-and-seepositions in order to observe the effect computers willhave onthe design field.

A recent nationT,Ide survey, conducted for the National Art Materials Trade Association(NAMTA) by Edward

W. Haggertyand Associatesof Lake Forest, Illinois, polled commercial art industry personnelon their thoughts arvfl feelings about computer graphics and its applications to their futures. Twenty-fve percentof the 1,200 polled, responded. The respondentsincludedcommercial artists, art dtrectors, illustrators, and ather job titles in the commercial art field. When asked to ran1:. ten issues according to their importance, t%I's top three choiceswerE::

"Finding new products to shorten oreliminateproductior steps," chosen by sixty-four percent;

Spending more time on "pure creative" vs. "mechanicIlly putting together," chosen by sixty-threepercent; and,

"Satisfying clients' expectations for 'improved quality' look and toi, chosen by forty-four percent.

62 70 63

Yet in this same survey, the top choices in the "unimpot- tant" column were:

"Finding better computer graphics hardware," rankedunim- portant by twenty-nine percent.

"Locating bettercomputergraphics softwareprograms," ranked lowest in importance at 27 percent. (43]

Results of this survey could be interpreted in many different ways. Overall, the results seem to contradict each other and it may be a result ofa lack of applicable softwarethathasmade it clear to the dnsigner how the computer can assist andapplyto thedesign process. There is no vision that the choices rankedas unimportant could solve the top choices in the important category.For example, the polled designers say they would like to spend more time in the "pure creative" stage vs. the "mechani- cal" stage. Yet, if better computer graphics hardware and software specifically for use in design was available, it could automatemechanical tasks and provide the designer with more productive "creative" time. Computerscan offer a more diverse, more efficiently executed and more ela- borate design. [44]

Toprovidethenecessary tools, foundation and software, the manufacturers in these fields must listen to and understana the needs of designers. Software must speak

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directlyto theproblemsdesigners face, not push the

designer to expound creativeenergy trying tocommunicate with a machine. Designers need to interact withprogram- mers so their needs will be addressed. Only withthehelp of industrial designers willprogrammers be able to simu-

late a design environment ina system that will beuseful to the design industry.

Designers must realize thatevery problemwillhave special needs and, in turn, apply theirinventiveness when using software packages. Therefore, it is necessaryfor the user to become familiar withthe basic logic of a com- puter system. Computer literacy is essential forthose trained in design. PerryJeffe, director of the Pratt

Center for Computer Graphics in Design, said 'computer graphics is changing design from a static toan evolving profession.' Perry Zompa, director ofProduct & Package Design at Avon Products forecasts:

"As computer technology matures,we can all look forward to ...systems becoming more versatile...and their role in thedesignprocess will become even greater." [45]

The theory behind the traditional designprocess was to offerdesignerg a structured way to break downa com- plex problem into smaller pieces in order to fully under- standtheessence of theproblem. The computer, as a

72 65 resource, becomes the "smart apprentice" in theprocess by helpingthedesigner to draw clearer conclusions,create more realistic concepts and in turn facilitatethe needs of the user. Thetraditionaldesignprocess, indeed changes with the influx of computertechnology tothe fieldofdesign. With the complexity of informationflow and communications of modern day, thecomputer can only help to make the essencemore clear.

The process now contains more overlapping and merging of steps. Designers concepts are enhanced by the ability to explore in more deep and meaningfulways the solutions to a design problem.

"A design process supported bya computer graphics system is qualitatively different fromone carried out with a pencil and paper. Ithas an altered pace andsequence, brings information to bear on decisions in new patterns, renders the visual ef- fects ofgeometric, color and lighting decisions with unprecedented speed and precision,and so al- lows thedesign ideas and effects to be explored in ways that were unimaginable beforenow. Comput- er graphics promises designers an aesthetic adven- ture, one that is just beginning." [46] LIST OF REFERENCES

[1] King, Robin G., "A Graduate LevelProgram in Com- puterGraphics for the Visual Arts, Computers in Artand Design", Research and EducationConferenc(J, San Jose State University," (January 1984).

[2] Linehan, Thomas E., "Digital ImageSynthesis: A CriticalNeed for Aesthetic Theory," Monoara hs inEduca- tion xrv, Art Education: Reflections/Directons, uRIVWF: ETIET, of Manitoba, (Full1985).

[3] Ibid.

[4] Schaff, Robert W., "Graphics and Design,"gomputer Graphics World, (February 1987),(p.116)

[5] Marcus, Aaron, "Design WorkstationsGive PowerfulTool," Computer soilsics To3u, 1985), (p.12).

[6] Scott, Joan E., CorputergraphiaNew Vir1=51 Form, Fantasy and Function, Gulf PubailangCompan-i,, Texz%3 (1984).

[7] Newman; William M and Robert F. Sproull,Pzincts _ , . ofInteractiveComputer arsphlcs, McGraw-Hill lew York, (1979).

[8] Franke, Herbert W., Computer Graphi2sComputer 7trt, Phaidon Press Limited, New York,(1971) (p.72).

[9] Dietrich, Frank, "71eual Intelligence: TheFirst Dccade ofComputer Art (1S.65-1975)". Computer Graphics and Applic3tions 5,(7),(July, 1985)

[10] 4Computer Graphics:Designing in the Third Dimen- sion," 21910 Graphics Wo71d, (June1983),(p.12-13).

[11] "Victorian Destyn, The Industrial Revolution Pre- cipitates,"A HistEa pf altim From the Victorian Era to the Present, Suppiemctt to Tho. OhiosEai--Uiliversity InduiTEIE1 Design 2t33.03. (1981).

[12] Whitney, Petrick, "Information, Computers and Design." Comnuter Supported Design, Exhibition Brochure ACM Siggraph 234, Minnesct,a, (1984),(p.7).

6f 74 67

[13] Ibid.

[14] Ibid.

[15] Koberg, Dan and Jim Bagnall, "The Univer.sn Trav- eler, A companionfor those on problem-solvirg'ourneys and a soft-systems guidebook to theProcess of Design," Supplement to The Ohio State University,IndustriAl Design History 253.03, (1981), .16-19).

[16] Ibid.

[17] Ibid.

[18] Ibid.

[19] Ibid.

[20] Ibid.

[21] Kochan, Steven G., Programming inC., HaylenBook Company, New aersey, (1983),(p.4).

[22] Gifgar, C.W., Introduction to SampRIEt science,Sci- ence Research Associates, Inc., CSIcago, (1T3),(p.129). [23] Linehan, Thomas E., "DigitalImageSynthesis: A CriticalNeed for Aesthetic Theory," Monographs inEduca- tion XIV, Art Education: Reflections/Dirations, Univer- irE7 of Manitoba, (Fall1985).

[24] Ibid.

[25] Scott, Joan E., Computergraphia NewVisions of Form, Fantau and Function, Gulf Publishing':ompany, Texas (1984).

[26] Linehan, Thomv.s E., "BeatingSvordEngines into PlowshareEngines,"The Association for Computers in Art and DesignEducation Conference, Presidential Address, (July 20, 1985).

[27] Born, Robert, Designing forTelevision:TheNew Tools, The Broadcast Designers AssZETation,(1983).

[28] Kemper, AllIred, "Smart Software in theA-E-C Industry," JournaloftheAssociation for Computers in Design, Volume III, No. 2, (May-July 1986).

[29] Ibid.

75 68

[30] White, Edward T., Introduction toArchitectural Programming, ArchitecturalMediaLtd., Tuscon, Arizona, (1972)(p.5).

[31] Triplett, John, Interview with JohnLandowne, Com- attgr Graphics, Whatit Means For Graphic Design Educa- tiefc Ausgraph (1985), (p.10).

[32] Graham, Karen, "Is CAD Readyfor Designers?An EvaluativeStudy," Innovation, /ndustrial Design Society st America Newsletter, Vol. 2, No. 3, Induanir Design socIaiB7 XiiiFIETTVA,(1983), (p.27-30). [33] Schaff,Robert W., "Graphics and Design," Computer Graphics World,(February 1987), (p.116) [34] !Wier, Computer Aided "C:m=entagrcis7f(MT:6f7 (p.154-9).

[35] Heller, Steven, "Technophi_ia/Technophobia,"The AmericanInstituteofGraphicArts, Journal of prapETE_ DegTETVolume 2, No. 2 , (1984),(p.1-2).

StIassmr.n, Steve, "HairyBrushes," Computer Ggylhics, ggraph 86 Proceedings, Volume 20, No.4, (1986), (p.226-227).

[371 Helmick, Richard, "Enhancing Creativity inArt and Des ThroughStochasticallyGenerated Computer Graph- ics,' Art Education, Vol. 37 No. 4, (July1984),(p.36-39).

[38] Davis, Wylie, "The New TechnologyThreat or Prom- isa?," 122planing for Television: The New Tools,Broadcast Designer'i AsloCiaETEn, Inc.,(1983),(p.11).

[39] Johnson, Roland E., "Packaging Design on CAD, A Lookat One Company's Experience," Innovation, Industrial Design Society of America Newsletter, IndustrialDesign Society of AmerrEa, VA Vol. 2, No. 3,(1983), (p.24-26). [40] Ibid.

[41] Bezier, Pierre E., "A Personal View of Progress in ComputerAidedDesign," Computer Graphics, (July 1986), (p.154-9).

[42] Linehan, Thomas i., "Numerical Taxonomy: A Method of Stimulus Description in Visual Preference Research"

76 69

[43] "Everybody's NotDoing It," Art Product News, (Septekber 1986).

[44] Kerlow Isaac V. and Judson Rosebush, Computer Graphicsfor Artists and Artists, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc., (1986).

[45] "Are Computers the Key to the Futureof Design?," Art Product News, (September 1986).

[46] Johnson, Roland E., "Packaging Design on CAD, A Lookat One Company's Experience," Innovation, Industrial Destan Society of AmericaNewsletter, Industrial Design Society of Amara-Ea, VA Vol. 2, No. 3,(1983), (p.24-26).

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