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Patterning the Xenopus Embryo: the Role of Xom, a Novel Homeobox

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Patterning the Xenopus Embryo: the Role of Xom, a Novel Homeobox Patterning theXenopus embryo: the role of Xom, a novel homeobox gene Rajesh Ladher June 1996 A thesis submitted to the University of London for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Division of Developmental Biology, National Institute of Medical Research, The Ridgeway, Mill Hill, London NW7 lAA ProQuest Number: 10044329 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest. ProQuest 10044329 Published by ProQuest LLC(2016). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 I dedicate this thesis to my parents in gratitude for the love, overwhelming support, encouragement and kindness that they have given me. Thanks 11 Acknowledgements I am grateful to the director of the NIMR, Dr. J. J. Skehel, and the Director of Studies, Dr. R. W. King, for enabling me to carry out my research at the institute. My work has been funded by the Medical Research Council, whose support is greatly appreciated. I thank the members of the Laboratory of Developmental Biology. My three and a half years in the institute have been fun due to the members of this lab, who have always listened, discussed, advised, joked and teased (I hope). These good times will never be forgotten. I am particularly indebted to Dr. Alison Snape and Dr. Mike Jones. I am very grateful to Alison for looking after me when I first arrived and for taking the time and over-riding patience to teach me most of the techniques that I still use. I thank Mike for his valuable discussions, his patience, his great advice and his scepticism. His part in my maturation as a scientist has been great. I am grateful to my friends and colleagues around the institute for their discussions (both scientific and non-scientific), their humour and their advice. I acknowledge the part that the group “Stereolab” have played during the course of my studies at the institute and in particular their seminal album "Mars Audiac Quintet" which made embryological experiments something I always looked forward to. I am grateful to Sonia for her support and together with Rupert and Raoul for maintaining my sanity and providing me with many trips to the cinema to watch films that, with hindsight, can only be described as stupid. I thank my sisters Daisy and Joyti for keeping my feet firmly on the ground, for the many lifts back to the institute and for taping all those episodes of "The Simpsons" (D-oh). I also thank my parents for their support and love. Finally I would like to thank my two supervisors. Dr. Tim Mohun has always presided over my molecular biological expeditions with a calmness and organisational skill, I hope to be able to imitate one day. Dr. Jim Smith has presided over me with the patience of a saint. I take this opportunity to apologise to him for the occasional lapse (the Embryology Blues and sequencing being particularly low points), and to remain forever grateful for his guiding (sometimes pushing) me into thinking and acting like a scientist. I could not have wished for a better teacher. Thanks Boss. iii Abstract The body plan of the Xenopus embryo is established by a series of inductive events. The identity of the signalling molecules that mediate these events are known, however little is known as to the transcriptional response the cell makes to a particular signal. In an attempt to clone transcription factors that were induced as a response to various signals, two approaches were used. The first involved subtraction of cDNA libraries. A cDNA library made from animal caps cultured in media was used to remove commonly occurring sequences from a cDNA library made from animal caps cultured in the presence of FGF. This enabled genes to be identified that were specifically induced by FGF. Unfortunately this procedure was hampered by cross-hybridisation of vector sequences between the two pools of cDNA. The other approach involved the cloning of homeobox-containing genes from the early embryo. By using a degenerate primer recognising sequences in the homeobox, a gene was isolated that is expressed at high levels in the Xenopus gastrula. At the early gastrula stage expression of this gene,Xom, is excluded from the organiser. This expression pattern is very similar to the expression pattern of BMP-4. Activation ofXom transcription is inhibited if embryos are dissociated during blastula stages, but addition of BMP-4 to the medium rescues expression. This rescue occurs even in the absence of protein synthesis. Procedures which disturb BMP signalling block the expression of Xom. Animal caps that have been loaded with Xom and then treated with activin, do not undergo the extensive gastrulation-like movements seen in control animal caps treated with activin. Injection of Xom RNA into the dorsal cells of the four cell embryo results in the loss of anterior structures and the inhibition of notochord formation. Both assays resemble the ventralising effects seen when BMP-4 is injected into the Xenopus embryo. This suggests that Xom is not only an immediate early response of BMP-4, it may also mediate some of the effects of BMP-4. IV Title Page......................................................................................................................i Acknowledgements.......................................................................................................iii Abstract.........................................................................................................................iv Contents ........................................................................................................................v 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1. The Maternal contribution to the development of theXenopus embryo 1 1.2. Fertilisation...........................................................................................................3 1.3. Mesoderm Induction ........................................................................................... 6 1.4. Gastrulation...........................................................................................................8 1.5. Dorsalisation.........................................................................................................11 1.6. The Three Signal M odel..................................................................................... 12 1.7. Inducing and Patterning Factors .........................................................................12 1.7.1. FGF-like molecules..............................................................................14 1.7.2. TGF-6 like molecules...........................................................................18 1.7.2.1. Activin and mesoderm induction.......................................21 1.7.2.2. TGF-B type molecules as dorsalising signals...................24 1.7.2.3. BMP-4 and ventralisation ................................................. 25 1.7.3. Noggin and Chordin............................................................................ 27 1.7.4. Wnt fam ily ............................................................................................30 1.7.5. Summary ...............................................................................................33 1.8. Transcriptional response to induction and patterning..................................... 35 1.8.1. Homeobox genes..................................................................................36 1.8.2. Transcription Factors in early Xenopus development.....................40 1.8.3. Organiser-specific transcription factors............................................40 1.8.3.1. Goosecoid............................................................................. 42 1.8.3.2. X lim -\....................................................................................43 1.8.3.3. Siamois..................................................................................45 1.8.3.4. X not.......................................................................................45 1.8.4. Mesodermally expressed genes ..........................................................46 1.8.5. Ventrally-expressed transcription factors .........................................50 1.9. Aims of this Thesis..............................................................................................52 2. Materials and Methods.............................................................................................53 2.1. Embryos and Embryo manipulations...............................................................53 2.1.1. Obtaining Xenopus embryos ............................................................ 53 2.1.2. Microinjections of Xenopus embryos............................................... 53 2.1.3. Embryo manipulations........................................................................54 2.1.4. Cycloheximide treatment ....................................................................56 2.2. 6-Galactosidase staining of Xenopus embryos................................................ 57 2.3. Whole
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